10

Velocity and acceleration, speed

10.1 Speed and velocity Area = vt metres

Area Undergraph = Distance Covered
Speed is the rate at which distance is covered and
v
speed can be specified by its size alone. Velocity
is a more specific quantity because it possesses
direction as well as size; velocity is said to be a
Velocity m/s

vector quantity.
Area = v × t
distance covered
velocity =
time taken

10.2 Acceleration O
Time – Seconds t
Constant Velocity
Acceleration occurs whenever the velocity of an
object changes. When the velocity of an object Fig. 10.1 Constant velocity
decreases it is said to have decelerated.
change in velocity
acceleration = This leads to the useful fact that the area
time taken enclosed by a velocity–time graph is equal to the
distance covered.
10.3 Velocity–time graph distance = uniform velocity × time in seconds
Uniform velocity
When an object travels at constant velocity of
v m/s for a given period of time, t seconds, a graph
of velocity against time produces a straight line,
Uniform acceleration
as shown in Figure 10.1. When an object is accelerated uniformly from an
The area enclosed by this graph is v × t. As v initial velocity of u m/s to a final velocity of v m/s
is in metres/second and t is in seconds, the units the graph produced is a straight line of the type
of area cancel down to give metres. shown in Figure 10.2.
114 Automotive science and mathematics

80
Velocity

v 60

km/h
u u+v 40
u+v Distance S = t
Area = t 2
2
20

t
Time
1 2 3 4 5
Time Minutes
Fig. 10.2 Constant acceleration
Distance Covered = Area under Graph

u + v
The area enclosed by this graph is ·t =
3
60
× 50 + (
50 + 80
2
)
× 2
60
2
u+v = 2.5 + 2.17 km
But is the average velocity = 4.67 km
2
The distance covered = average velocity× Fig. 10.3 Example 10.1

time in seconds. of 80 km/h in a period of 2 minutes. Draw a speed

against time graph and determine the distance cov-
These basic principles of velocity and acceleration
ered by the vehicle in the 5-minute period.
are used to develop a set of formulae that are
known as equations of motion.
Solution (Figure 10.3)
Distance covered in first 3 minutes = 3/60 ×
10.4 Equations of motion 50 km = 25 km
50 + 80
Distance covered in next 2 minutes = ·
and their application to 2
2/60 = 217 km
vehicle technology Total distance in 5 minutes = 467 km
v = u + at Example 10.2
u + vt A vehicle travelling at 72 km/h is braked uni-
s= formly to a speed of 28 km/h in a time of 10
2
seconds. Draw a speed–time graph and determine
v = u +2as
2 2
the distance that the vehicle travels while it is
at2 slowing down.
s = ut+
2
In these equations: u = initial velocity in m/s; v = Solution (Figure 10.4)
final velocity in m/s; a = acceleration in m/s2 ; Distance covered while slowing down = area
t = time in seconds; s = distance. under speed–time graph
To convert km/h to m/s: multiply by 1000 and 72 + 28 1000
divide by 3600. Distance covered = · × 10 = 139 m
2 3600
Example 10.1 Example 10.3
A vehicle travels at a constant speed of 50 km/h for A vehicle travelling at 60 km/h is braked to a
3 minutes; it then accelerates uniformly to a speed standstill by a retardation of 24 m/s2 . Use the
 Velocity and acceleration, speed 115

line until it is compelled to change that state by

being acted upon by an external force.
Speed km/ph

The law of change of momentum states that the

rate of change of momentum is equal to the
72 km/ph
applied force.
The law of reaction states that every action has
28 km/ph
an equal and opposite reaction.
The basic unit of force is the newton; 1 newton
2 4 6 8 10 is the magnitude of the force that will produce
Time Seconds an acceleration of 1 m/s2 when applied to a mass
Distance Covered = Area under Graph of 1 kg.
The relationship between force, mass and accel-
= ( 72 +2 28 ) × 1000
3600
× 10 eration is given in the following equation.
= 0.138 km
F = ma
= 138 m

Fig. 10.4 Example 10.2 where F = force in newtons, m = mass in kg,

a = acceleration in m/s2 .

equation v = u + at to determine the time taken

to stop the vehicle. 10.6 Relation between
Solution
mass and weight
u = 60 × 1000/3600 = 167 m/s The weight of an object is the amount of force
a = −24 m/s2 that is exerted on the object by the gravity of the
Final velocity v = 0 earth. If an object falls freely it will accelerate
v = u + at at the gravitational acceleration of 9.81 m/s2 . The
v − u
∴t= gravitational acceleration is known as g.
a The weight of an object = mass in kilograms ×
0 − 167
t= gravitational constant.
−24 This is normally written as weight = m × g,
t = 07 s
or mg.
In simple calculations the approximation of g =
10 m/s2 is sometimes used.
10.5 Force, mass and
acceleration
10.7 Inertia
Newton’s laws of motion
The basic laws used in the study of motion are Inertia is the sluggishness or resistance that a body
those that were first formulated by Sir Isaac New- offers to starting from rest or to a change of
ton in the seventeenth century. These laws are as velocity.
follows.
Example 10.4
The law of inertia states that a body will remain A motorcycle and its rider increase speed from
in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight 30 km/h to 80 km/h in a time of 5 seconds.
116 Automotive science and mathematics
√
Calculate the acceleration in m/s2 . If the rider t= 100/981
weighs 52 kg what force will be felt by the rider’s
t = 32 seconds
body?
Time taken to reach the ground = 32 seconds
Solution
Initial velocity u = 30 × 1000/3600 = 833 m/s
Final velocity v = 80 × 1000/3600 = 2222 m/s 10.9 Angular (circular)
t = 5 seconds motion
v = u + at
v − u 2222 − 833
∴a= = Revolutions per minute is a term that is commonly
t 5 used when quoting speeds of rotation of objects
= 1389/5 = 278 m/s2 such as shafts. In engineering science, revolutions
Force felt by rider = m × a per minute is replaced by radians per second.
= 52 × 278 A radian is 57.3 degrees and there are 2 radi-
= 1446 N ans in one revolution.
To convert rev/min to radians per second, a
speed in rev/min is multiplied by 2 and divided
10.8 Motion under by 60.
For example a shaft rotating at 2400 rev/min
gravity has an angular velocity :

When a body is acted on by the attractive force of 2400 × 2 × 3142

= = 2514 radians per second
the earth and drawn towards the earth’s centre the 60
body is said to be moving under gravity. It can be The symbol  (omega) is used to denote angular
shown that all bodies that are small in comparison velocity.
with the earth, whatever their mass, are influenced
in practically the same manner by this force of
gravity. The acceleration that is caused by the
force of gravity varies slightly across the earth’s 10.10 Equations of
surface. A figure for gravitational acceleration that angular motion
is used as an average is g = 98 m/s2 and this is
known as the gravitational constant. The symbol  (theta) is used to denote total angle
turned through. It is analogous to s in the linear
Example 10.5 motion equations. The symbol  (alpha) is used
A vehicle falls off the edge of a viaduct 50 m high. to denote angular acceleration in rad/s2 ; it is anal-
How long will it take to reach the ground? ogous to a in the linear motion equations. 1 is
analogous to u, and = 2 is analogous to v in the
Solution linear equations of motion.
The initial velocity u = 0 m/s The equations of angular motion are:
The acceleration a = g = 981 m/s2
 1 + 2
The distance s = 50 metres = ·t
at2 2
Using the equation s = ut +
2 2 = 1 + t
981 t2
50 = 0 × t +  = 1 · t + 1/2t2
2
100 = 981 t2 2 2 = 1 2 + 2
 Velocity and acceleration, speed 117

Example 10.6 The arc from P to Q has a length of r metres

The speed of an engine increases from and this is the distance that P moves in t seconds.
1200 rev/min to 3600 rev/min in 0.2 seconds. Cal- distance moved r
culate the angular acceleration of the crankshaft linear velocity = =
time in seconds t
in radians/s2 .

but =  the angular velocity
Solution t
Use 2 = 1 + t This gives linear velocity v = r
Transposing gives  = 2 − 1 /t
3600 × 2
2 = = 377 rad/s 10.12 Centripetal
60
1200/60 × 2 acceleration
1 = = 1257 rad/s
60
Velocity has both magnitude and direction and, by
 = 2 − 1 /t definition, any change of velocity is accompanied
∴  = 377 − 1257/02 by an acceleration. When an object is moving in a
circular path, as shown in Figure 10.5(a) the veloc-
 = 1257 rad/s2 ity is constantly changing. The vector diagram in
Figure 10.5(b) shows the change of velocity U
that occurs when P moves to Q.
10.11 Relation between Let the change of velocity be u m/s
change of velocity
angular and linear The acceleration of P = =
u time taken
2
velocity t
m/s
If t and  are made very small, the sector OPQ
Figure 10.5(a) shows an object at point P that may be regarded as a triangle; this triangle is
is rotating at velocity v m/s in an anti-clockwise similar to the triangle formed by the vector dia-
direction at a radius r, about point O. gram ACB.
Point P moves round the circumference of a The distance moved by P = vt
circle to point Q in a time of t seconds. AC r
The angle turned through is  radians. From this =
AB vt

A
V1
Change of Velocity u

ϑ2
P
Q
V2 C θ
V m/s
r ϑ1
θ

O B
Angular Velocity – Centripetal Acceleration Vector Diagram
(a) (b)

Fig. 10.5 Centripetal acceleration

118 Automotive science and mathematics

But AC = v, and AB = u, Example 10.8

v r A diesel pump governor weight has a mass of
∴ = 0.4 kg. The centre of gravity of the weight is
u vt
25 mm from the centre of the pump shaft. If the
Cross-multiplying gives pump shaft rotates the governor at 1800 rev/min
determine the force exerted by the governor
v2 u weight.
=
r t
u Solution
But = acceleration of P Centrifugal force = m2 r
t
rev/min
u v2 = × 2 = 1800/60 × 6248
Acceleration = = m/s2 60
t r
= 187.4 rad/s
This acceleration is called centripetal acceler-
ation and it gives rise to centripetal force, the CF = 04 × 1874 × 1874 × 25/1000
reaction to which is called centrifugal force. Centrifugal force at the governor weight = 351.2 N
In terms of angular acceleration, the centripetal
acceleration = 2 r, because v = r
Accelerating torque
Centripetal force = mass × acceleration The torque required to accelerate a rotating mass
2
v is analogous to the force required to accelerate an
=m = m2 r object in linear motion. For example, the torque
r
required to accelerate a flywheel is dependent on
Centrifugal force is the reaction to centripetal the mass of the flywheel and its radius of gyration.
force; it is therefore equal in magnitude but oppo- If the mass of the flywheel is m kg and the
site in direction. radius of gyration is k, the torque T required to
accelerate the flywheel at  radians/s2 is
Example 10.7
A truck of mass = 8 tonnes is travelling at 48 km/h T = mk2 
round a curve in the road that has a radius of
100 m. Calculate the centrifugal force (CF) acting But mk2 = I, where I is the moment of inertia of
at the centre of gravity of the truck. the flywheel,
Solution
mv2 ∴ T = I compare this with F = ma
Centripetal force =
r
v = 48 × 1000/3600 = 1333 m/s Example 10.9
2000 × 1333 × 1333 A flywheel has a mass of 6 kg and a radius of
CF = = 200 × 1777 gyration of 100 mm. Calculate the torque exerted
100
on the flywheel when the engine accelerates from
= 35547 N = 35.55 kN
1200 rev/min to 4800 rev/min in a period of 0.5 s.
= 200 × 1777
= 35547 N Solution
= 3555 kN Moment of inertia of the flywheel I = mk2
Centrifugal force acting at the centre of gravity = The radius of gyration k = 01 m
3355 kN ∴ I = 6 × 01 × 01 = 006 kg m2
 Velocity and acceleration, speed 119

Angular acceleration between the kilometre posts? What is the

change of angular velocity magnitude of the acceleration of the truck?
= 10.8 A motorist travelling at steady speed of
time taken
18 km/h in a car experiences engine failure.
4800 − 1200 × 2 From the point at which the engine cuts
= = 754
60 × 05 out, the motorist decides to coast and the
 = 754 rad/s vehicle retards uniformly. In the first 30
seconds the vehicle covers 110 metres and
T = I continues to slow down and then stops after
T = 006 × 754 a further 30 seconds. Sketch the speed–time
graph and then determine the distance.
Torque T = 452 N m 10.9 A car travelling at 36 km/h is deceler-
ated uniformly at 3.5 m/s2 until the speed
reaches 21 km/h. Determine the time taken
to reduce the speed and the distance cov-
10.13 Exercises ered during the retardation period.
10.10 A vehicle starts from rest and accelerates at
10.1 Convert the following into m/s: 10 km/h; 8 m/s2 until the speed is 72 km/h. It contin-
100 km/h; 56 km/h; 64 mile/h. ues at this speed until the brakes are applied
10.2 At a given instant a car is moving with a to stop the vehicle in a distance of 60 m. If
velocity of 5 m/s and a uniform acceleration the total time from start to stop is 25 sec-
of 1.2 m/s2 .What will the velocity be after onds, calculate the distance covered while
10 s? the vehicle is travelling at 72 km/h.
10.3 A bullet is travelling with a velocity of 10.11 A vehicle accelerates at 8 m/s2 for 10 sec-
300 m/s, hits a target, and penetrates it by a onds, from a standing start. Calculate the
distance of 100 mm. Assuming retardation velocity of the vehicle at the end of the 10
is constant, (a) determine the time taken second period.
for the target to stop the bullet, and (b) 10.12 An engine runs at 3600 rev/min. Calculate
determine the retardation of the bullet. its angular velocity in radians/s.
10.4 The maximum retardation that the brakes 10.13 The speed of an engine increases from
of a certain truck can produce is 7 m/s2 . If 2000 rev/min to 4500 rev/min in a time of
the truck is travelling at 80 km/h, what is 0.5 seconds. Determine the angular accel-
the shortest distance in which the truck can eration in radians/s2 .
be brought to a standstill? 10.14 Calculate the angular velocity in rad/s of a
10.5 With what initial velocity must a body be wheel that has of rolling diameter of 0.8 m
travelling if it is brought to rest in a dis- when the vehicle to which the wheel is
tance of 35 m with a uniform retardation of fitted is travelling at 72 km/h.
2.4 m/s2 ? 10.15 An out-of-balance weight of 30 grams acts
10.6 Convert the following speeds to metres at a radius of 0.3 m on a tyre. The tyre has
per second (take 0.625 mile = 1 km): (a) a rolling circumference of 2.5 m. Calculate
30 mile/h; (b) 90 km/h; (c) 205 km/h. the force acting on the weight when the
10.7 A truck passes a certain kilometre post with vehicle is travelling at 72 km/h.
a velocity of 20 m/s and the next kilometre 10.16 The driver of a certain formula 1 car takes
post with a velocity of 35 m/s. What is the a corner of radius 175 m at a speed of 160
average velocity of the truck? How many km/h. If the driver weighs 68 kg calculate
seconds will it take to cover the distance the force exerted on the driver’s body.