CHANAKYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

Project Report

On

“GLOBAL ENVIROMENTAL PROBLEMS”

“Environment Law”

Submitted To-: Submitted By -:

Mr. Hrishikesh Manu Ashish Pandey

Faculty of Environment Law Roll No. 1520

Chanakya National Law University B.A. LL.B. (Hons.)

Patna. (7th Semester)

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The success of this final report is the outcome of Guidance and valuable suggestions provided by
all the concerned without whom the report could not fide on the right back. I would like to express
my sincere gratitude to Mr. Hrishikesh Manu Sir for giving me an opportunity to do this project
work. I also express my sense of deep gratitude towards the other faculty members for introducing
a program which enables us to learn more. Finally, I will be failing in my duty, if I do not thank
my parents, friends and well-wishers for their enthusiastic support and who have directly or
indirectly helped in some way or the other in making this final report a success.
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: Type of Research

The research includes different options. They are:

• Exploratory research:

It is usually a small-scale study undertaken to define the exact nature of a problem and to gain a
better understanding of the environment within which the problem has occurred. It is the initial
research, before more conclusive research is under taken.

• Descriptive research:

It is to provide an accurate picture of some aspects of market environment. Descriptive research is

used when the objective is to provide a systematic description that is as factual and accurate as
possible. It provides the number of times something occurs, or frequency, lends itself to satisfied
calculations such as determining average number of occurrences.

HYPOTHESIS

The hypothesis which researcher has made is that Everything that surrounds or affects an
organism during its lifetime is collectively referred to as its environment. It comprises both living
(biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) components. Human civilization and globalization are the
dominant culprits of constant change in the global environment in present scenario. Various
processes that can be said to contribute to the global environmental problems include pollution,
global warming, ozone depletion, acid rain, depletion of natural resources, overpopulation, waste
disposal, deforestation and loss of biodiversity. Almost all these processes are the result of the
use of natural resources in unsustainable manner. These processes have highly negative impact
on our environment.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction……………………………………..…………………………….07

2. Global Environmental Problems................................................................…...09

3. Green House Effect and Global Warming……………….……..…………….11

4. Global Sea-Level Rise and Ocean Acidification.……..…………...…………13

5. Organizations Working Towards the Cause………………………………….17

6. Conclusion………………………………………………………………..…...19

7. Bibliography………………………………………………………………..…21
 INTRODUCTION

Science indicates that several planetary boundaries have already been breached, including
genetic biodiversity, biochemical (nitrogen and phosphorus) flow, land-system change and
climate change. Large scale, transformational change is needed to deal with these problems, and
without a stable and healthy Earth system the Sustainable Development Goals will not be
achieved. In the World Economic Forum’s Global Risks Report 2018, 6 of the 10 greatest risks,
in terms of likelihood and impact, are environment-related.

Food and water crises are both intertwined with the environment, and also in the top 10 risks. A
deteriorating global environment poses significant threats to environmentally sustainable
development. Environmental challenges are complex and interlinked, not only in themselves but
also with social and economic issues.

Better human well-being, for example, poverty reduction, improved human health, energy access
and economic growth, are linked to ecological factors. Solutions for one problem can lead to
unintended negative consequences, or create new environmental or socio-economic problems.

For example, increasing food production in ways that deplete soils, waste water, kill pollinators
and increase desertification and deforestation, would eventually prove self-limiting. Addressing
these interconnected and interacting environmental and social challenges requires systems
thinking; this is fundamental to better integration. Systems thinking examines the relationships
between the different parts of a system, for example, the food supply system, or a commodity
supply chain, especially cause and effect relationships, and positive or negative feedback
mechanisms, between the biophysical and socio-economic features of the system.1

Systems thinking also considers the interactions between components of a system across
different locations and organizational levels, as well as over time.2

Many of these relationships are non-linear. Understanding the connections between variables
helps to identify points for effective intervention. Since its inception in 1992, the GEF has
recognized that environmental benefits and socio-economic development objectives can be
achieved simultaneously. Integration was built into the design of the GEF: it is specifically tasked

1
Steffen, W. et al. 2006. Global change and the earth system: a planet under pressure. Springer Science & Business
Media. Heidelberg, Germany.
2
Rockström, J. et al. 2009. A safe operating space for humanity. Nature 461. doi: 10.1038/461472a
 with integrating global environmental concerns with national objectives in the framework of
national sustainable development strategies.

The GEF has made considerable progress in successfully designing and implementing integrated
projects: in biodiversity, international waters, land degradation, and in multi-focal area projects.
In 2014, the GEF further cemented its efforts on integration with the three Integrated Approach
Pilot programs on food security, commodity supply chains, and sustainable cities, conceived in
response to the GEF’s 2020 Vision.

The Independent Evaluation Office’s OPS6 report, “The GEF in the Changing Environmental
Finance Landscape”, recommended a continued focus on integration: “The GEF should continue
pursuing an integrative principle in its programming based on scientific and technical merits.

A strong, cogent rationale for designing integrated programs and multi-focal area projects –
based on demonstrated additionality, GEF experience, GEF comparative advantage, innovative
contributions, environmental need, and national relevance – must be the basis for such
interventions.”3

Balancing complexity and efficiency as the GEF seeks transformational change and lasting
outcomes remains a challenge. Nevertheless, STAP encourages the GEF to continue pursuing
integrative projects based on systems thinking. These actions will lead to more efficient and
effective approaches to planning, monitoring and implementing projects addressing complex
human-environment interactions

3
Steffen, W. et al. 2015. Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet. Science, 347.
doi:10.1126/science.1259855.
 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS

Our planet is plagued by environmental problems that deplete natural resources and strain
livelihoods, many of which are exacerbated by poor industrial practices. If left unchecked,
environmental problems negatively impact businesses both directly, as in supply chain
disruptions, and indirectly, as in health hazards that lead to loss of man-hours and efficiency.
Following are some common environmental problems that businesses need to address to ensure
sustainability and long-term financial viability.

Pollution

Pollution is one of the world’s biggest environmental problems, as it tends to be a typical

byproduct of modern life. Air pollution, for instance, is the result of fossil fuel combustion, as
well as various gases and toxins released by industries and factories.

Below are the most common air pollutants today, as well as a discussion of their source
processes and effects on health: 4

• Ozone – A colorless, odorless gas generated when nitrogen oxides (found in motor
vehicles and industrial machinery) and volatile organic compounds (found in gasoline,
paints, inks and solvents) are exposed to sunlight. Inhaling ozone can trigger health
problems including chest pain, cough, throat irritation and congestion, bronchitis, asthma
and emphysema.
• Carbon monoxide – A poisonous gas produced by the incomplete combustion of fossil
fuels. When inhaled, carbon monoxide reduces the blood’s oxygen-carrying capacity.
Exposure to high levels of carbon monoxide can cause death. Aside from being highly
toxic, carbon monoxide is colorless, odorless and tasteless, therefore often referred to as
the “silent killer”.
• Nitrogen dioxide – A highly reactive gas formed when fuel is burned at high
temperatures (such as in motor vehicle exhaust, electric utilities and industrial boilers).
Nitrogen dioxide reacts with water and oxygen to make nitric acid, one of the main

4
Griggs, D. et al. 2014. An integrated framework for sustainable development goals. Ecology and Society 19 (4). doi:
10.5751/ES-07082-190449.
 components of acid rain. Nitrogen dioxide can irritate the lungs and increase
susceptibility to respiratory ailments.
• Particulate matter – Very small solid particles and liquid droplets suspended in the air.
Short-term exposure to particulate matter can cause irritation to the eyes, nose and throat,
as well as heart and lung ailments. Prolonged exposure can lead to hospital admissions
and premature death due to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases.
• Sulfur dioxide – A highly reactive and pungent-smelling gas formed by the incineration
of fossil fuel at industrial facilities such as power plants. Other processes that generate
sulfur dioxide are sea spray and the decomposition of organic matter. Inhalation of sulfur
dioxide can cause wheezing, chest tightness and shortness of breath, as well as heart and
lung ailments.
• Lead – A common ingredient in many manufactured products. Gasoline and paint are
the major sources of lead emissions. Exposure to lead can cause kidney disease, nervous
system disorders, mental retardation, learning disabilities, miscarriage, stillbirth,
premature birth and death.

Pollution and modern living seemingly go hand-in-hand, but the costs of air pollution can no
longer be ignored. According to a 2012 study by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT), air pollution cost the Chinese economy $112 billion in 2005 . In Hong Kong, medical
bills and productivity loss due to air pollution amounted to HK$39.4 billion in 2013 .5

The costs of pollution go beyond medical bills and loss of productivity. Heavily polluted areas
make it difficult for companies located there to hire and retain workers, forcing them to pay
higher wages to attract and keep employees. In addition, unchecked pollution can temper
investors’ interest. To produce their products safely, companies in heavily polluted areas may
need to close shop and move their operations to less polluted locations.

Waste Disposal

5
Convention on Biological Diversity. About Climate Change and Biological Diversity.
https://www.cbd.int/climate/intro.shtml Last accessed on March 16, 2018.
As populations and industries grow, so does the problem of proper waste disposal. Communities
accumulate so much garbage that properly disposing of it has become increasingly difficult.
Solid garbage, for example, is usually buried in landfill sites or incinerated, which is extremely
harmful to the environment. Decomposing garbage may attract vermin, give off a foul smell or
leach into groundwater. The smoke given off by burning garbage contributes to air pollution.

Certain byproducts of the manufacturing process amplify the need for improved waste disposal.
Efficiency is sometimes pursued at the expense of environmental sustainability. To produce as
much as possible in the most cost-effective manner, manufacturers may adopt practices that
appear to be cheap, but are actually resource-intensive in the long run. These practices generate
byproducts that cannot be reused and must be disposed of.

A good starting point towards the zero-waste ideal is the circular economy model associated
with other concepts such as the “cradle to cradle” design and industrial ecology. The idea here
is that instead of products eventually being buried or burned, as in most linear models of
production, their parts are designed from the beginning to be re-used and processed for re-entry
into the production cycle.

For example, Google's Project Ara initiative addressed the challenge of outdated mobile phones
by reinventing consumers’ smartphone usage. By breaking down a phone into replaceable parts
that can be assembled and customized according to user requirements, consumers easily alter
their phone with simple skills and tools. Phone repair is done more easily and inexpensively by
replacing only what is broken instead of the entire phone. Google found a way to maximize a
phone's lifetime usage and reduce the need to use new resources for new phones, while
minimizing the amount of its generated e-waste.

In Europe, Philips has 22 service organizations that are collecting 40% of lamps that contain
mercury. The company has a recycling rate greater than 95% in the market. Philips also started
to sell lighting as a service to enhance the collection of their lighting equipment. They aim to
reach more customers as the company retains ownership of the lighting equipment so customers
don’t have to pay for lighting upfront. In addition, Philips guarantees comprehensive
environmental management pertaining to the recycling of their lighting equipment.
Climate Change

In his encyclical Laudato si , Pope Francis urged action on climate change, warning that climate
change is real and a problem that we can no longer afford to ignore:

“Climate change is a global problem with grave implications: environmental, social, economic,
political and for the distribution of goods. It represents one of the principal challenges facing
humanity in our day. If present trends continue, this century may well witness extraordinary
climate change and an unprecedented destruction of ecosystems, with serious consequences for
all of us.”6

Shoreline erosion, coastal flooding and greater storm surges cause significant damage to coastal
property and infrastructure. Cities, inhabited islands and tidal wetlands will be more prone to
flooding. These can indirectly lead to business losses in the form of operational disruptions
among suppliers, which in turn affect the rest of the supply chain and customers. In addition,
floodwater can bring waterborne diseases that are harmful to people, plants and livestock.

Climate change can also trigger a higher demand for energy. As the climate gets warmer, people
consume more electricity for air conditioning. Greater electricity consumption, in turn, means
higher operational costs for businesses. Furthermore, a higher energy demand translates to
increased consumption of natural resources such as fossil fuel and water, resulting in a lack of
resources for companies to turn into products and services. 7

Climate change has negative effects on agricultural productivity. Increased temperatures and
carbon dioxide levels can be beneficial to some crops, but this benefit can only be realized if

6
Nilsson, M. et al. 2016. Map the interactions between sustainable development goals: Mans Nilsson, Dave Griggs
and Martin Visbeck present a simple way of rating relationships between the targets to highlight priorities for
integrated policy. Nature, 534. doi:10.1038/534320a
7
For example: Vitousek, P. M. et al. 1997. Human domination of Earth's ecosystems. Science, 277. doi:
10.1126/science.277.5325.494; Berkes, F. et al. 2008. Navigating social-ecological systems: building resilience for
complexity and change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Folke, C. 2006. Resilience: The
emergence of a perspective for social–ecological systems analyses. Global environmental change, 16(3); Liu, J. et al.
2007. Complexity of coupled human and natural systems. Science, 317. doi: 10.1126/science.1144004; Ostrom, E.
2009. A general framework for analyzing sustainability of social-ecological systems. Science, 325. doi:
10.1126/science.1172133; Mooney, H. A. et al. 2013. Evolution of natural and social science interactions in global
change research programs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110 (Supplement 1).
doi:10.1073/pnas.1107484110
other conditions like nutrient levels, soil moisture and water availability are also adjusted.
Otherwise, crop yields may decrease. Crops may also become more susceptible to diseases,
given that some weeds, pests and fungi grow in warmer temperatures.

Wheat, for example, is an important food crop that grows in cool temperatures. Rising
temperatures will stress wheat crops and lower their yields. This explains why, according to a
December 2014 study that was published in Nature Climate Change , every 1°C increase in
global temperatures means a 6% fall in wheat production . Falling wheat production would
make it difficult for food manufacturers to produce vital foodstuffs such as cereal, bread,
noodles and pasta. Plus, in order to maintain optimal yields, wheat growers would have to use
chemical pesticides and fertilizers that are hazardous to both human health and the environment.

Drought/Inadequate Access to Water

The world’s water supply is becoming increasingly scarce. According to the WHO/UNICEF
Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP), 2.5 billion people
(roughly 36% of the world’s population) still lack access to improved sanitation facilities. 748
million people continued to get their drinking water from unsafe sources in 2012. The World
Wildlife Fund cautions that by 2025, water shortages will affect about two-thirds of the world’s
population .

Some of these shortages can be attributed to climate change. For example, the California
drought, which is entering its fourth year, is said to be caused by rising temperatures and
changing atmospheric patterns conducive to diminishing rains. California’s climate is normally
characterized by a concentrated rainy season followed by a long and temperate dry period. In
the last three years, the rains have not come, with precipitation levels only being at 5% of the
historical average. 8

8
The World In 2050 (TWI2050) is a research initiative launched by the International Institute for Applied Systems
Analysis (IIASA), the Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN), and the Stockholm Resilience Center
(SRC). The initiative focuses on developing policy frameworks and pathways for implementing the SDGs, and
achieving transformational change.
Such water shortages have a detrimental effect on agriculture. Farms are dependent on water
for irrigation, so a decrease in water supply will drastically affect their productivity. Farms will
have smaller yields, which means manufacturers will also have fewer raw materials to turn into
products and services. Climate change-related water issues cost Unilever between $300m and
$400m every year .

If the water supply in a particular area gets critically low, businesses in that area may be forced
to move their operations to where water supply is still sufficient. Water is needed in almost
every aspect of business operations, from running machines, to keeping the office premises
clean. Relocation forces businesses to spend on new facilities and equipment, as well as on
hiring and training new staff. 9

9
Alcamo, J. et al. 2012. 21 issues for the 21st Century: results of the UNEP Foresight Process on Emerging
Environmental issues. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Nairobi, Kenya.
 GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING

Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth's near-surface air and
oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC), established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), two organizations of the United
Nations concluded that increasing greenhouse gas concentrations resulting from human activity
such as fossil fuel burning and deforestation are responsible for most of the observed temperature
increase since the middle of the 20th century. It also added that natural phenomena such as solar
variation and volcanoes produced most of the warming from pre-industrial times to 1950 and had
a small cooling effect afterward. These basic conclusions have been endorsed by more than 40
scientific societies and academies of science, including all of the national academies of science of
the major industrialised countries.10

Greenhouse gases also emit long wave radiation both upward to space and downward to the
surface. The downward part of this long wave radiation emitted by the atmosphere is the
‘greenhouse effect’. An increase in global temperatures can in turn cause other changes, including
a rising sea level and changes in the amount and pattern of precipitation. These changes may
increase the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, heat
waves, hurricanes, and tornados. Other consequences include higher or lower agricultural yields,
glacier retreat, reduced summer stream flows, species extinctions and increases in the range of
disease vectors. Warming is expected to affect the number and magnitude of these events;
however, it is difficult to connect particular events to global warming. Although most studies focus
on the period up to 2100, even if no further greenhouse gases were released after this date, warming
(and sea level) would be expected to continue to rise since Carbon dioxide has a long average
atmospheric lifeline.

Increasing global temperature will cause sea levels to rise and will change the amount and pattern
of precipitation, probably including expansion of subtropical deserts. The continuing retreat
of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice is expected, with the Arctic region being particularly affected.

10
Ickowitz, A. et al. 2016. Forests, trees, and micronutrient-rich food consumption in Indonesia. PloS one, 11(5),
e0154139. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0154139.
Other likely effects include shrinkage of the Amazon rainforest and Boreal forests, increases in the
intensity of extreme weather events, species extinctions and changes in agricultural yields.

Political and public debate continues regarding what actions (if any) to take in response to global
warming. The available options are mitigation to reduce further emissions; adaptation to reduce
the damage caused by warming; and, more speculatively, geo engineering to reverse global
warming. Most national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at
reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Remaining scientific uncertainty comes from the exact degree of climate change expected in the
future and particularly how changes will vary from region to region across the globe. A hotly
contested political and public debate has yet to be resolved, regarding whether anything should be
done, and what could be cost-effectively done to reduce or reverse future warming, or to deal with
the expected consequences. Most national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto
Protocol aimed at combating global warming.11

Impact of global warming

Global warming affects every aspect of human life. These include ocean, freshwater resources,
agriculture and food supply, and forests. The most prominent ocean related threat from global
warming is the sea level rise caused by the inflow of water from melting glaciers and polar ice
sheets, and by thermal expansion (warmer water takes up more space than cooler water). Higher
Seas are likely to increase damage from storm surges and accelerate coastal erosion, which could
threaten coastal development, transportation infrastructure and tourism. Coral reefs have also been
adversely affected by warming of seas. Nearly 500 million people around the world live within
100 kilometers of coral reefs, which provide a rich economic resource for fisheries, recreation,
tourism and coastal protection. Corals have difficulty adapting to warming water, putting them
under stress and causing them to expel the algae that live within them.12

11
Sims, R. et al. 2015. Black Carbon Mitigation and the Role of the Global Environment Facility: A STAP Advisory
Document. Global Environment Facility, Washington, D.C
12
Shindell, D. T. et al. 2011. Integrated assessment of black carbon and tropospheric ozone: summary for decision
makers. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and World Meteorological Organization (WMO);
Shindell, D. et al. 2012. Simultaneously mitigating near-term climate change and improving human health and food
security. Science, 335. doi: 10.1126/science.1210026.
Climate change is also very likely to put stress on fisheries by altering the distribution and
abundance of major fish stocks around the world. Many scientists believe that global warming is
likely, in many regions, to alter the distribution of freshwater, an important resource that supports
human activities and ecosystems. Increased temperature will mean that evaporation will occur at
a higher rate, promoting cycles of intense drought and flood. This occurs because a warmer
atmosphere with higher evaporation rates makes it difficult for water molecules in the air to stick
together to form raindrops, thereby lengthening drought periods. During this time, however, more
water vapor than usual will gather in the air. When a weather system finally triggers a rainstorm,
the extra water vapour may lead to more intense rainfall and flooding.13

These floods have the potential to cause massive dislocations and damage in some regions. The
vulnerability of water supplies to climate change can be extended to vulnerability in the growing
of crops and production of food. Changes in the precipitation type, timing, frequency and intensity
will affect crop yields, and warmer temperatures may cause explosions in insect populations,
leading to increased use of pesticides to control them. Global warming is expected to affect
countries differently. Production in developed countries with relatively stable populations, such as
the United States may increase, whereas crop yields are likely to decrease in developing countries
with increasing populations. Many of these countries are located in arid and semi-arid regions,
where drought and famine already pose challenges to agriculture.

The problem is expected to get worse, and the disparity between developed and developing nations
is likely to increase as global warming and temperatures rise.

13
Vitousek, P. M. et al. 1997. Griggs, D. et al. 2013. Policy: Sustainable development goals for people and planet.
Nature, 495(7441), 305. doi:10.1038/495305a.
 GLOBAL SEA-LEVEL RISE AND OCEAN ACIDIFICATION

Ocean acidification is a direct consequence of increased human-induced carbon dioxide (CO2)

concentrations in the atmosphere. The ocean absorbs over 25% of all anthropogenic emissions
from the atmosphere each year. As CO2 dissolves in sea water it forms carbonic acid, thereby
decreasing the ocean’s pH, leading to a suite of changes collectively known as ocean acidification.
Ocean acidification is happening in parallel with other climate-related stressors, including ocean
warming and deoxygenation. This completes the set of climate change pressures on the marine
environment – heat, acidity and oxygen loss – often referred to as the ‘deadly trio’. Interaction
between these stressors is often cumulative or even multiplicative, resulting in combined effects
that are more severe than the sum of their individual impacts.14

Present ocean acidity change is unprecedented in magnitude, occurring at a rate approximately

ten times faster than anything experienced during the last 300 million years. This rapid timeline
is jeopardising the ability of ocean systems to adapt to changes in CO2 – a process that
naturally occurs over millennia. Changes in ocean pH levels will persist as long as concentrations
of atmospheric CO2 continue to rise. To avoid significant harm, atmospheric concentrations of
CO2 need to get back to at least the 320-350 ppm range of CO2 in the atmosphere.

Compared to other similar events in Earth's history, ocean acidification, over hundreds of years,
has been happening very fast. However, its recovery has been very slow due to the inherent time
lags in the carbon and ocean cycles.

Ocean acidification has the potential to change marine ecosystems and impact many ocean-
related benefits to society such as coastal protection or provision of food and income. Although
more knowledge on the impacts of ocean acidification on marine life is needed, changes in many
ecosystems and the services they provide to society can be extrapolated from current

14
Cumming, G. S. et al. 2006. Scale mismatches in social-ecological systems: causes, consequences, and solutions.
Ecology and society, 11(1); Liu, J. et al. 2015. Systems integration for global sustainability. Science, 347. doi:
10.1126/science.1258832.
understanding. Some of the strongest evidence of the potential effects of ocean acidification on
marine ecosystems stems from experiments on calcifying organisms.15

Increased sea water acidity has been demonstrated to affect the formation and dissolution of
calcium carbonate shells and skeletons in a range of marine species, including corals, molluscs
such as oysters and mussels, and many phytoplankton and zooplankton species that form the base
of marine food webs.16

Changes in species growth and reproduction, as well as structural and functional alterations
in ecosystems, will threaten food security, harm fishing industries and decrease natural
shoreline protection. They will also increase the risk of inundation and erosion in low-lying
areas, thereby hampering climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction efforts.

Increased ocean temperatures are likely to have direct effects on the physiology of marine
organisms and influence the geographical distribution of species. Some species such as reef-
forming corals, already living at their upper tolerance level, will have more difficulties ‘moving’
fast enough to new areas. Drastic changes in ocean temperature can also lead to coral
bleaching events, where corals expel the symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing them to
turn completely white. The role of coral reefs in buffering coastal communities from storm waves
and erosion, and in supporting income generation (fisheries and tourism) for local communities
and commercial businesses, is jeopardised. The potential recovery of such bleaching events is
hampered due to the declining calcification rates on reefs caused by ocean acidification.

The long time lags inherent in the marine carbon cycle put an added penalty on delaying limits
on CO2 emissions and a premium on early action if the worst damages associated with ocean
acidification are to be avoided. While climate change is the consequence of a range of greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions, ocean acidification is primarily caused by increased concentrations of
atmospheric CO2 dissolved in sea water. It becomes evident, however, that the objective of the

15
O’Connell, D. et al. 2016. Designing projects in a rapidly changing world: Guidelines for embedding resilience,
adaptation and transformation into sustainable development projects. (Version 1.0). Global Environment Facility,
Washington, D.C.
16
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 2012. Measuring Progress: Environmental Goals & Gaps.
Nairobi, Kenya.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to achieve ‘stabilisation
of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system’ cannot be encapsulated by a single ‘one-size-
fits-all’ climate indicator. The current emissions targets need significant tightening if they are
to tackle the issue of ocean acidification and ocean warming. Limiting the global average
temperature increase to well below 2°C, rather than a lower level, will significantly harm the ocean
life on which we all depend in some form or another. Scientists even suggest that a healthy ocean
needs an atmospheric carbon concentration of much less than 400 ppm. This benchmark has
recently been exceed.17

Other initiatives such as the Ocean Acidification international Reference User Group (OAiRUG),
composed of scientists and various stakeholders, need to be engaged as a key means of conveying
scientific results. The OAiRUG examines in detail the types of data, analyses and products that
are most useful to managers, policy advisers, decision makers and politicians, and ensure an
appropriate format and distribution pathways.

Sustainable management, conservation and restoration of the ocean are needed. At the IUCN
World Conservation Congress 2016, IUCN Members approved a resolution calling for the
protection of 30% of the planet’s ocean by 2030.18

17
Jabbour, J. et al. 2012. Internationally agreed environmental goals: A critical evaluation of progress. Environmental
Development, 3, 5-24. doi:10.1016/j.envdev.2012.05.002
18
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 2013. Embedding the Environment in Sustainable Development
Goals. Post-2015 Discussion Paper 1. Nairobi, Kenya.
 ORGANIZATIONS WORKING TOWARDS THE CAUSE

Emergence of environmental issues in the International agenda

Human being’s desire had been to speed up the process speed up the process of production. But
by the end of the nineteenth century it was clear that the process is causing wide spread damage to
the environment. But the seriousness of the situation was not widely recognised. By the early
decades of the twentieth century pressure from both industrial and agricultural development
increased. The atmosphere of large cities in Europe and North America was covered with smoke
released by the industrial and domestic use of coal as a fuel. Problems peaked in North America
in the 1930s when droughts devastated the Great Plains. Soil erosion was rampant. Plain areas
became deserts. The socio-economic condition of USA and Canada was shattered because of the
sheer magnitude of the above problems.

By the middle of the century, the environmental cost of serious pollution was beginning to attract
broader attention. Air and water pollution received most attention. Land pollution was not
discussed much. The issue of land pollution came into limelight with the introduction of pesticides.
It was considered to be a revolution in agricultural sciences.19

Stockholm Conference

The Stockholm Conference heralded the beginning of environmental awareness in the international
community. When it was convened, the environmental movement itself was new. To the extent
that any countries recognised environmental problems, they were primarily the industrialised ones.
The problems that they identified were generally the correctable by-products of industrialisation,
including water pollution and smog. In 1972, even the United States, world environmental affairs
leader, had an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) that was barely two years of age. The few
existing treaties dealt primarily with shared natural resources, such as Antarctica or the high seas,
and no formal international arena existed in which countries could raise environmental issues.20

19
Berkes, F. et al. 2008; Liu, J. et al. 2007; Biggs, R. et al. 2010. Navigating the back loop: fostering social innovation
and transformation in ecosystem management. Ecology and society, 15(2); Phelps, J. et al. 2013. Agricultural
intensification escalates future conservation costs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(19
20
Aronson, D. 1996. Overview of systems thinking. Pegasus Communications (781)
Stockholm placed the environment on the international agenda for the first time and set the stage
for international actions over the course of the next twenty years--until Rio. From an international
legal perspective, the 1972 conference's single most important achievement was the Stockholm
Declaration, a non-binding statement of principles, "to inspire and guide the peoples of the world
in the preservation and enhancement of the human environment." Principle 21, its most famous,
held a state responsible for actions within its own borders that cross over those borders and harm
another state; it has since become a binding international law. Institutionally, Stockholm's most
impressive achievement was the creation of the United Nations Environmental Programme
(UNEP), which today remains the world's primary international body that addresses global
environmental problems from its headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya.21

The success of Stockholm can be tangibly measured by the many international conferences that
have since been sponsored by UNEP and the over 1,200 multilateral and bilateral treaties and other
agreements on environmental matters that exist today. Virtually every country in the world has
some form of environmental legislation or agencies, although the developed countries have made
the most progress in these areas. And yet, the global environment is worse now than it was two
decades ago--Not one major environmental issued debated in Stockholm has been solved.

The Stockholm Conference was the pivotal event in the growth of the global environmental
movement. It was the first occasion on which the political, social and economic problems of the
global environment were discussed at an intergovernmental forum with a view to actually taking
corrective action.

The Conference has four major results.

First, the conference confirmed the trend towards a new emphasis on the human environment.
Before Stockholm, people usually saw the environment, as something not connected to humanity.
Stockholm recorded a fundamental shift in the emphasis of our environmental thinking.22

Second, Stockholm forced a compromise between the different perceptions of the environment
held by developed and developing countries. Before Stockholm, developed countries used to

21
Reis, J. et al. 2014. Relevance of systems approaches for implementing Integrated Coastal Zone Management
principles in Europe. Marine Policy, 43, 3-12. doi: 10.1016/j.marpol.2013.03.013.
22
Bollen, J. et al. 2010. An integrated assessment of climate change, air pollution, and energy security policy. Energy
Policy, 38(8), 4021-4030. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2010.03.026.
largely determine environmental priorities. After Stockholm, the needs of least developed and
developing countries became a key factor in determining international policy.

Third, the presence of so many NGOs at the conference and the role they played marked the
beginning of a new and more insistent role for governments and intergovernmental organizations.

Fourthly, the most tangible outcome of Stockholm was the creation of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). It had limitations and difficulties. But it was probably the best
form of institution possible under the circumstances and it became the focus of a new interest in
global responses to global problems. Public pressure forced the political and industrial
establishment to reassess its environmental quality. There was explicit concern for environmental
issues.

In the mid-1980s there was a major resurgence of environmental problems. The resurgence can be
attributed to the public backlash against the perceived anti-environmentalism of US
Administration, when Ronald Reagan was the President. This phase is known as the second wave
in the environmental movement. The second wave is characterised by a new environmentalism, in
which there is a growing awareness of the breadth and complexity of issues. One of the results is
that the economic and political components of the issues were better understood and better
addressed than in the past. The second wave gave birth to important developments at the
international stage. They were the World Commission on Environment and Development (1986),
Rio Conference (1992), Kyoto Protocol (1997), and the Johannesburg Summit (2002).

Brundtland Commission

The World Commission on Environment and Development is popularly known as the Brundtland
Commission. The Brundtland known by the name of its Chair Gro Harlem Brundtland, was
convened by the United Nations in 1983. The commission was created to address growing concern
about the accelerating deterioration of the human environment and natural resources and the
consequences of that deterioration for economic and social development. In establishing the
commission, the UN General Assembly recognised that environmental problems were global in
nature and determined that it was in the common interest of all nations to establish policies for
sustainable development. It firmly combines economy and environment through its promotion of
sustainable development. It defines sustainable development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

The report concluded that environment and development were interrelated and the policy
responses were handicapped by the fact that existing institutions tended to be independent,
fragmented, too narrowly focused and so tended to address issues such as acid pollution as discrete
policy problems.

Part of the Commission’s mandate was to explore new methods of international cooperation that
would foster understanding of the concept of sustainable development and allow it to develop
further To that end it promoted a major international conference held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992
known as the Earth Summit.23

The outcomes of Rio can be summarized in five key agreements.

a) The Framework Convention on Climate Change: The major significance of the Rio Convention
was that it established the principle that climate change was a serious problem that needed
precautionary measures that could not await the resolution of questions about scientific certainty.
It also emphasized the role of Developed countries in the production of greenhouse gases. The
Developed countries agreed to take steps to cut greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the
year 2000.

b) The Convention on Biological Diversity: Negotiated under the auspices of UNEP, this
convention was aimed at preserving global biological diversity thorough the protection of species
and ecosystems. Since most of the threats were being experienced in least developed countries and
most biotechnology was based in Developed countries, discussions were again based around
attempts to reach a compromise between the needs of the two sides.24

c) Agenda 21: This was an action plan for sustainable development, integrating the goals of
environmental protection and economic development, and based on local community and free
market principles. Agenda 21 ensured that the concept of sustainable development became an

23
Williams, A. et al. 2017. Systems thinking: A review of sustainability management research. Journal of Cleaner
Production.
24
Tengberg, A. and Valencia, S. (2017). Science of Integrated Approaches to Natural Resources Management, A
STAP Information Document. Global Environment Facility, Washington, D.C.
important principle of the United Nations. A recommendation was made for the creation of a UN
Commission on Sustainable Development to oversee the implementation of Agenda 21.

d) The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: This consisted of 27 principles guiding
action on environment and development. The declaration tried to maintain a balance between the
least developed countries and the Developed countries.

e) The Forest Principle: It emphasized the sovereign right of individual states to exploit forest
resources within the general principles of forest protection and management.

Rio drew unparalleled levels of public attention to the problems of environment and represented
another major step along the road to a workable resolution of the tensions between environmental
management and economic development.25

Environmental issues: a global interpretation

Environmental issues have become international and global in several senses. First, some
environmental problems are inherently global. The cause of the problem may be local. But their
effect and solution can be visualized at a global level. Carbon dioxide emissions contribute to
global climate change which clearly indicates that the effects are global and it needs cooperation
at the global level to tackle the problem. Second, there are some resources which are shared by the
whole world. These include atmosphere, the deep-sea bed and outer space. Hence these resources
need to be preserved at a global level in the interest of the whole world. Third, many environmental
problems cross national boundaries even though they are not purely global. Any environment
related hazardous activity in one country would produce changes in neighboring countries.

US war with Iraq produced black rain in Kashmir. Fourth, there are many environmental issues
which are local or national. But they happen in too many localities. Hence they are considered as
global problems. This includes unsustainable agricultural practices, soil erosion, and deforestation.
Finally, and the most important among all these is the fact that environmental issues are intimately
linked to broader political and socio-economic processes which themselves are part of global

25
Reed, J. et al. 2015. What are ‘Integrated Landscape Approaches’ and how effectively have they been implemented
in the tropics: a systematic map protocol. Environmental Evidence, 4(1), 2.
political economy. It is widely recognized that the pattern of wealth distribution, power,
industrialization affect the environment in a significant way.26

Hence globalization and interdependence among nation states give all environmental problems an
international dimension. Thus it is very clear that global environmental issues encompass a wide
range of problems which are interrelated. However each of these problems needs specific and
careful explanation so that effective solutions can be found. The following is an attempt to illustrate
some of global environmental issues.27

26
Scherr, S. J. and McNeely, J. A. 2008. Biodiversity conservation and agricultural sustainability: towards a new
paradigm of ‘ecoagriculture’landscapes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 363.
doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2165; Phalan, B. et al. 2011. Reconciling food production and biodiversity conservation: land
sharing and land sparing compared. Science, 333. doi: 10.1126/science.1208742; Reed, J. et al. 2016. Integrated
landscape approaches to managing social and environmental issues in the tropics: learning from the past to guide the
future. Global Change Biology, 22(7). doi: 10.1111/gcb.13284
27
Kremen, C. and Miles, A. 2012. Ecosystem services in biologically diversified versus conventional farming
systems: benefits, externalities, and tradeoffs. Ecology and Society, 17(4). doi: 10.5751/ES-05035-170440; Milder, J.
C. et al. 2012. Landscape approaches to achieving food production, natural resource conservation, and the millennium
development goals. In Integrating ecology and poverty reduction (pp. 77-108). Springer, New York, NY; Scherr, S. J.
et al. 2012. From climate-smart agriculture to climate-smart landscapes. Agriculture & Food Security, 1(1), 12
 CONCLUSION

Environmental issues are harmful effects of human activity on the biophysical

environment. Environmental protection is a practice of protecting the natural environment on
individual, organizational or governmental levels, for the benefit of both the environment and
humans. Environmentalism, a social and environmental movement, addresses environmental
issues through advocacy, education and activism.

The carbon dioxide equivalent of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the atmosphere has already
exceeded over 9000 parts per million (NOAA) (with total "long-term" GHG exceeding 455 parts
per million) (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Report). The amount of greenhouse gas in the
atmosphere is possibly above the threshold that can potentially cause climate change. The UN
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) has stated "Climate change is not
just a distant future threat. It is the main driver behind rising humanitarian needs and we are seeing
its impact. The number of people affected and the damages inflicted by extreme weather has been
unprecedented." Further, OCHA has stated:

Climate disasters are on the rise. Around 70 percent of disasters are now climate related – up from
around 50 percent from two decades ago.

These disasters take a heavier human toll and come with a higher price tag. In the last decade, 2.4
billion people were affected by climate related disasters, compared to 1.7 billion in the previous
decade. The cost of responding to disasters has risen tenfold between 1992 and 2008.

Destructive sudden heavy rains, intense tropical storms, repeated flooding and droughts are likely
to increase, as will the vulnerability of local communities in the absence of strong concerted action.

Environment destruction caused by humans is a global problem, and this is a problem that is on
going every day. By year 2050, the global human population is expected to grow by 2 billion
people, thereby reaching a level of 9.6 billion people (Living Blue Planet 24). The human effects
on Earth can be seen in many different ways. A main one is the temperature rise, and according to
the report ”Our Changing Climate”, the global warming that has been going on for the past 50
years is primarily due to human activities (Walsh, et al. 20). Since 1895, the U.S. average
temperature has increased from 1.3 °F to 1.9 °F, with most of the increase taken place since around
year 1970 (Walsh, et al. 20).
The effect that humanity is having on the environment is becoming ever-more important. Through
our actions we are destroying habitats and endangering the lives of future generations.

At this point there is no denying the fact that our environment is changing. Hundreds of studies
have been conducted to demonstrate that this is happening and it is having an effect on life around
us.

However, many may be unaware of the specific issues that have led to these changes. Terms like
“climate change” and “genetic modification” are commonplace, but without additional information
it is difficult to see why they actually matter.

To complicate the matter, many of these issues are linked to one another. The key is that they are
all important challenges that need to be confronted.
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