Dissertation

‘Money can’t buy happiness.
’ Effects of Stress on Employee Productivity in the Energy

Sector. A Case of Rural Electrification Agency.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Fink (2010) regards stress as the perception of threat with resulting anxiety, discomfort,
emotional tension and difficult in adjustment. Freud (1978) considers stress as the result of
reduced discharge of libidinal energy either due to external obstacles or due to internal ones.
Aldwin (1994) considers that stress refers to the experience created as a result of the
interaction of the individual and the work environment. This interaction may lead to
psychological and physiological tension. Selye (1964) defines stress as the natural
degeneration of the body as the non-specific response of the body to any demand placed on
it. Fink himself recognised the meaning of positive Stress, which not only does not cause
degeneration and malfunctions, but can also act as a productive factor and as a factor of
development and creation.From the analyses of the above definitions one is bound to note
that stress is the perception of a threat which will result in discomfort.
Prokopenko (1992) defines productivity as the relation of output expressed in physical terms
(in tonnes or numbers of goods produced) to input expressed in work hours. Employee
productivity is an assessment of the efficiency of a worker or group of workers. According
to Sharma and Sharma (2014), employee productivity is based on the amount of time that an
employee is physically present at his/her job, besides the extent to which the employee is
mentally present or efficiently working during the presence at the job. Rouse (2010) defines
employee productivity as an assessment of the efficiency of a worker or group of workers.
Christo and Pienaar (2006) argued that the causes of occupational stress include perceived
loss of job, and security, sitting for long periods of time or heavy lifting, lack of safety,
complexity of repetitiveness and lack of autonomy in the job. In addition, occupational
stress is caused by lack of resources and equipment; work schedules (such as working late
or overtime and organizational climate are considered as contributors to employees stress)
Occupational stress often shows high dissatisfaction among the employees, job mobility,
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‘Money can’t buy happiness.’ Effects of Stress on Employee Productivity in the Energy
burnout, poor work performance and less effective interpersonal relations at work (Manshor,
Rodrigue, and Chong, 2003). Johnson (2001) similarly argued that interventions like
identifying or determining the signs of stress, identifying the possible causes for the signs
and developing possible proposed solutions for each signs are required.The causes of
occupational stress have an impact on employee productivity, therefore, this research
attempts to find out the effects of occupational stress on job performance and interventions
that can be applied by Management and employees to manage stress effectively at Rural
Electrification Agency.
Background to the Study
Stress is a universal element and persons from nearly every walk of life have to face stress,
thus according to Shakil (2009) and this statement justifies why there have been researches
on the effects of Stress on employee productivity. One of the studies was done in Europe in
Hotel Industry by O’Neill (2010). This study was done to discover the most common
stressors among employees in the hotel industry. Given how little is known about stress and
well-being in the hospitality industry, this study focused on the links between job demands
and individual and work outcomes. O’Neill identified the extent to which stressors occur
more focusing on the guest related stress and one could argue that the research was focusing
on the hotel industry, which implies that there is need for further research on the effects of
stress on productivity in other industries.
Moreover, in Denmark, Arhus (2010) investigated on effects of stress on managers in the

public sector. The research established that a variety of potential explanatory determinants
such a work-life balance, psycho-social work characteristics, gender and managerial
level as well as the potential interaction between them give a detailed platform for the
analyses. According to Mintzburg (1962), the roles of managers are categorised into
three which are interpersonal roles, informational roles and decisional roles. This then
leaves other employees since not all employees have managerial responsibilities. The
study by Arhus focused on managers leaving other subordinate employees thus it has a
loophole that needs to be filled by this study.
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To add on, Hameed, Ramzam, Zubair, Ali and Arslain (2014) examined the impact of
remuneration on employee performance on the banking sector of Pakistan. The study
suggests that remuneration has a positive impact on employee performance. The higher the
remuneration received by employees, the higher their performance will be, only occurs in
normal conditions. If there are obstacles in the work implementation process, then this
concept does not apply. This study established the effects of remuneration on employee
productivity but did not look at the effects of remuneration on stress which leads
to.productivity, the gap then gives room to this research.
Additionally, in Africa, Ramarumo (2012) investigated on effects of stress in South Africa

in the hospitality establishments in the Free State Province. Ramarumo states that job stress
and burnout can have a detrimental effect on the health of employees and their job
performance. This is especially applicable to the hospitality industry which is a service-
intensive industry where customer needs and wants are the most important focus. This study
stresses only on hospitality industry specifically because of its instensive need service
neglating other sectors that alsoprovide customer service.
Another study was conducted by Enyonam, Opoku, Addai and Batola (2017) in Ghana.This
Study established that stress enhances the job perfomance of employees. Enyonam et al.,
states that, the multiple causes of stress have physical, emotional and psychological effects
on employees at the company but the employees were able to cope with it. Judging with the
sample used by Enyonam et,al of 109, the organisation was a large entity hence that
explains why the employees were able to cope with the stress levels. An organisation that is
smaller with fewer employees where there is more workload on one employee is the gap
that this current study needs to provide answers to.
In Zimbabwe, a research by Chigumbu (2015) on Mimosa Mining Company on the effects

of stress on employee productivity was also conducted. Chigumbu, notes that there is an
inverse relationship between occupational stress and organizational performance meaning
that high level of occupational stress influences organizational performance in a negative
way. Chigumbu added that most employees experienced moderate to high occupational
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stress levels due to their work roles. Underground and surface employees doing menial tasks
reported higher occupational stress levels and lower organizational commitment compared
to office employees. The study by Chigumbu (2015) was done in a mining company and
when the country was in a less detiriorated economic situation. According to the Newsday
(14 April 2019), prices of bread are 220% higher than they were 5 years ago, so this
research seeks to research on energy industry where Rural Electrification Agency is a part of
in a deteriorating economic situation where stress levels are at the highest levels. This is the
gap the study seeks to provide answers to.
Statement of the problem
The search for superior organisational performance has forced many businesses to adopt a
raft of strategies. Some of the strategies end up saddling employees with overload of work
in order to meet deadlines. Availing a competitive salary has been introduced as a way of
trying to mitigate long working hours and work overload. However, unintended
consequences of work overload have culminated in a number of psychological and physical
challenges which is contrary to what these organisations intend to achieve. Although
organisations are paying more attention than in the past to the consequences of the trauma
their employees go through when they place extra-ordinary demands on them, there is still
more room for improvement. Again to generate enough revenue to be self sustaining and to
be able to fund the acquisition of modern equipment meant efficient service provision and
optimal employment of resources. There has been the need for a continuous change in
management strategies, administration and the demand of employees to perform have been
increasing. Zesa could be one such organisation where despite paying their employees well,
there has been many stress related cases for instance in the iHarare News on the 29 th of
march 2019 , three zesa employees had a fatal head on accident in Marondera where they
died on spot. This accident could be a result of devided attention because of stress on the
employee who was driving. Another example on stress related cases of Zesa was published
by Zimbabwe situation forum where a child was electrocuted by the wires left unsecured by
Zesa employees. This accident is also a result of undevided attention due to stress on the
employees that left the wires unsecured. Against this backdrop, it becomes imperative
therefore to assess the effects of stress on employee productivity despite the presence of a
competitive salary.
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Research Objectives
The research aimed to achieve the following objectives:
1. To identify the causes of stress on employees at Rural Electrification Agency

besides remuneration.
2. To determine the relationship between stress and employee productivity at Rural
Electrification Agency
3. To recommend effective ways in which stress can be addressed at Rural
Research Questions
The research objectives gave rise to the following questions:
1. What are the causes of stress among employees at Rural Electrification

Agency besides remuneration?
2. What is the relationship between stress and employee productivity at Rural
Electrification Agency?
3. What recommendations can be made to enhance the effectiveness of stress
management at Rural Electrification Agency?
Assumptions
The following assumptions are applied for the purposes of improving accuracy of the
research findings:
 Rural Electrification Agency employees were co-operative and supportive in

allowing access to the relevant information.
 The research instruments generated adequate information for the research.
 The researcher gained access to all information needed for the research study.
 The sample reflects the true opinions of the population
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Significance of the Study
The research will be beneficial to various stakeholders, namely Rural Electrification Agency
(REA), Great Zimbabwe University (GZU), Human Resource (HR) practitioners and the
Researcher.
Rural Electrification Agency
The recommendations, if adopted, may provide a basis for the improvement of the
employee performance. The study will improve the knowledge base for stress factors
and its impact on employee performance at REF. This will assist managers in
planning their work.
Great Zimbabwe University
The findings will create a source of databank for academics, researchers and
administrative staff. The recommendations may be used to improve and develop
efficient and effective performance of employees.
Human Resource practitioners
Training professionals will use the research findings to improve and develop models
of stress that can be used to improve employees’ productivity. The study will also
form a data bank of knowledge which identifies gaps on some of the stress
management strategies being used in various organizations, as well as highlighting
the difference between types of stresses that employees face at the workplace and
outside the workplace.
Researcher
The researcher would benefit from this study by getting an in-depth understanding of the
effects of stress on employees and why it may or may not be a cause for attaining the
highest levels of employee productivity and creating a harmonious working environment.
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Furthermore, the study would enlighten the researcher on stress management strategies that
are effective in any organisation.
Delimitations of the Study
The research was confined to Rural Electrification Agency as a whole. The research covers
the period of 2018 to 2019.
Definition of Key Terms
Stress: An adaptive response mediated by individual differences and or psychological

processes that is a consequence of the external environment, action, situation or event that
places excessive psychological and or physical demands on an individual [ CITATION End11 \l
12297 ].
Stressors: Factors that place physical or psychological demands on an individual which lead
to the attack of stress [ CITATION Arm06 \l 12297 ].
Employee Productivity: Refers to whether an employee executes his or her job duties and
responsibilities well [ CITATION Kam091 \l 12297 ].
Stress Management: Refers to the wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies aimed
at controlling a person’s levels of stress Robbins (1990).
Evaluation: attempts to assess the total impact of stress that is fact finding on how
employees performance is influenced by stress (http:/www.colorado.edu).
Chapter Summary
7
The present chapter has explained the background of the study, statement of the
problem, research questions, objectives, assumptions, delimitations, and definition of
key terms.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.1 Introduction
The previous chapter presented the topic under investigation, the statement of the problem,
the objective and questions as well as the limitations and assumptions. It gave an insight of
the reason for conducting such kind of a study and identified gaps that were left by previous
research. The current chapter review literature on effects if stress on employee productivity.
The literature is reviewed basing on the research questions of the study. A review of theories
as well as related studies that inform this study will also be explored.
Theoretical Framework
There are several theoretical positions devised for examining and understanding stress and
stress-related disorders. They can be response theories, stimulus theories, and interaction (or
transaction) theories. The research is guided by the Job demands-resource model,
complemented by transactional model of stress and supported by Equity theory.
2.1.1 The Job demands- Resource model
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Adopted from Schaufeli and Bakker (2009)
 Workload
Shaufeli and Bakker (2009) suggest that the model addresses two relatively independent
processes which are the health impairment process and the motivational process. These can
be either positive or negative depending on how one’s job is affected. Fraher and Gabriel
(2016) asserts that Job redesign is one of a process that can accompany the restructuring
process over and this can lead to increased or decreased workload to the employees and the
workload can be over the capabilities of the employee and hence this can lead to the feelings
of burnout and cynicism if the employee fail to manage the tasks. Helgesen, (2017) adds
that role overload usually stresses the job holder to the extent that health problems can start
to manifest. Despite being paid more money, workload itself will lead to stress that leads to
heath problems on an employee which makes the researcher say that money can not buy
happiness.
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 Supervisor Support
Cordner (2017) suggests that the model shows that there are the physical or emotional
stressors in one’s role and supervision support is one of them, every employee cannot stand
on his own hence support from the superior is required so that engagement and commitment
of an individual is boosted. Simut (2017) argues that during or after restructuring which
includes downsizing of posts, retrenchment of stuff, change in management systems and
ownership supervisor support may be ignored and it becomes difficult for employees to
cope with the new structures and systems of operating due to role ambiguity and this usually
leads to the feelings of burnout and emotional exhaustion which leads to stress and lowers
the productivity of an employee. However if supervision support is fostered effectively
employees usually becomes engaged and satisfied with their work due to increased state of
well-being.
 Colleague Support
Job demands resources model suggests that strain is a response to imbalance between
demands on the individual and the materials and work demands one has to deal with
Schaufeli and Bakker (2009). Myers (2017) is with the view the colleague support is a very
important aspect as far as job satisfaction, employee happiness and engagement is
concerned. Furthermore Cordner (2017) views that restructuring is a process that may
disadvantage the aspect of colleague support because it encompasses retrenchment and
transferring of stuff to other branches depending on the need of the organization. These
movements affect the issue of colleague support negatively, likely to stress the employees
who separate from their used workmates and work may become unbearable and issues of
being late for work, going home early and late submission of tasks will increase.
 Job autonomy
Simuth, (2017) posits that job autonomy is the social or organizational factor that helps the
employee to achieve goals, and reduce stress. Moors (2017) says that if an employee has all
the strings and powers concerning the responsibilities and decision making process of a job,
happiness and engagement usually results hence positive well- being. Myrick (2017) also
adds that the freedom that the employee possesses in the governing of a job determines the
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output to be yielded. The restructuring process that comes with tight supervision and limited
powers of the job holder concerning his or her job is likely leads to emotional dissonance
and affective discomfort that influences one’s state of well-being negatively. Lim, (2017)
postulate that an independent employee is always happy and satisfied with his job and high
performance is likely to be his culture due to high levels of commitment than that one who
survive and operates under close supervision. Close supervison will lower the productivity
of an employee in such a way that an employee will deme it fit to stay on vacational leave,
sick leave and in some cases one can even bear more children so as to go on matenity leave
all this to get away from the tight supervison. This will lead to lower productivity as the
time spent on a job is very limited than that spent on home.
 Customer verbal aggression

Shaufeli and Bakker (2009) shows that resources and job demands should be managed well
so as to provide the best services customers for them to remain satisfied and loyal to the
organization. If the organization cease to provide the best products that the customers are
used to or rather improve for the better, customers can be aggressive to the employees and
this tension can affect the employee well- being negatively and feelings of burnout and
disengagement can be noticed in employees. Godwin, (2015) notes that restructuring can
come with new features of products and services that confuses customers and rated of poor
quality and customers can confront the employees in an aggressive manner that can stress
the employee to the extent that levels of job satisfaction and engagement decreases which
eventually leads to lower productivity.
 Opportunities for advancement

Simuth, (2017) suggests that the job demand resource model also has a bearing on the aspect
of career development depending on how one is managing the tasks demands of the job in
relation to the resources available or provided by the organization. Cascio, (2017) postulates
that employees are happy, engaged and satisfied with their jobs when they notice
opportunities for carrier development/ advancement therefore the restructuring process that
encourages programs for training and development usually leads to positive well-being. For
instance merging and acquisition of new business can lead to training and development of
employees so that the catch up with the new technology and business systems and this result
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in increased well-being. Despite being paid a satisfying salary, the need for advancement is
needed, this traces back to Maslow’s heirarchy of needs, where an employee needs self
actualisation inorder to be motivated and be productive to the organisation, a lack on this
causes stress and lower productivity.
2.1.2 Transactional Model of Stress
There are two processes on the transactional Model of Stress which are appraisal and coping
as shown in figure 2.3 below. There is the coping process which refers to the cognitive and
behavioural efforts made by the individual to reduce internal or external threats and
conflicts. These efforts attempt to change the person-environment realities. It is also part of
the reappraisal process by which events are constantly reappraised.
Appraisal refers to the assessment, meaning and evaluation of the event. On the appraisal, it
is the analysis of a proposed harm based on emotional processes and significance of the
elaborated outcome of an event. As the individual appraises the situation as stressful, coping
processes are implemented to manage the troubled person as well as the environment
relationship. Individuals experience stress when the perceived threat exceeds perceived
available resources (Cooper, 2014).
Figure 2.1.2 below represents the transactional model of stress.
Stressors
Primary Appraisal
Irrelevant Being Positive Being Stressful
Harm or loss Threat Challenges
Coping Secondary
Resources Appraisal
Inadequate
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Coping Resources
are greater than
demand
Reappraisal
Emotion No Stress
Stress
Problem
Source: The Transactional Model of Stress Folkman L. (1984)
Figure 2.1.2: Transactional model of stress
Figure 2.3 shows the Transactional Model of stress which illustrates that individual
appraise events to decide whether they are potential stressors or not. If events are
potential stressors, individuals evaluate whether they have adequate resources to
cope up. When the resources are inadequate it explains that stress is the final result.
This theory shows that there are situations that stress the employee and if there are
no copying resources then there is a problem. It shows how a situation gets to be a
stressful event which will then affect the productivity of an employee in a work
setting. Even when an employee is given enough remuneration, bad blood between
the employees can not be avoided; these may be caused by a diverse in religions or
even political parties. After percieving stress, cases such as late for work, sick
leaves, accidents, only to mention a few will happen and lowers the employee
productivity which results in a lower organisational outcome.
2.1.3: Equity theory
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Equity theory according to Adams (1963) is based in the idea that individuals are
motivated by fairness, and if they identify inequities in the input or output ratios of
themselves and their referent group, they will seek to adjust their input to reach their
perceived equity. Adams suggested that the higher an individual's perception of equity, the
more motivated they will be and vice versa: if someone perceives an unfair environment,
they will be de-motivated.
Input includes hard work, skill-set, motivation, enthusiasm, and technical know-how.
Output relates to salary, perks, bonus, and recognitions in the form of awards. According to
Mussarat (2013), if an individual thinks that he/she is treated in a fair manner, which means
that ratio of their input to the output is comparatively similar to those around him/her, it
would be acceptable. If there is nothing to compare, then he/her would judge with
employees in other organisation at the same level. However, if an individual thinks that
others are getting more rewards and recognition compared to him/her who is putting in
similar amount of inputs in his/her job; it would lead to some imbalance. The dissatisfaction
often leaves the employee demotivated which would result in lower employee productivity,
and in some cases attrition. There is one thing to note that equity theory does not only
depend on the input-to-output ratio but also on comparison with peer group.
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Basing on this theory, if an employee is satisfied with the inputs and outputs in a job then
they are most likely to be motivated which will result in higher employee productivity. In a
case of Rural Electrifiction Fund, the inputs compared to the outputs are balanced since its
one of the most paying parastatal organisations but the stress levels are still high amongst
employees. A recent case of one REA Engineer who has been involved in a lot of car
accidents before died late May in a car accident Newsday (May 28, 2019). These accidents
can be perceved as high level of stress which results in lower levels of concentration.
2.2 Conceptual Framework
In this study the main concepts of this study are the effects of stress on employee
productivity, related studies and the management of stress in an organisation.
2.2.1 Definition of Stress
According to Robbins (2004), stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual is

confronted with opportunity, constraint or demand related to what he desires and for which
the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important. It is often described as a
feeling of being overloaded, wound-up, tight, and tense and worried.it is a response to a
demand that is placed upon a person. It can be simply understood as a condition where one
experiences a gap between the present and the desired state [ CITATION Mac13 \l 12297 ].
Seyle (1956) cited in Sengupta (2007) noted that stress is exhilarating, creative, successful
work is benefitial while that of failure, humiliation or infection is detrimental. Seyle further
classified stress into two types a) eustress b) distress
a) Eustress: This is pleasant or curative stress. Stress is also seen to have beneficial
effect to ones behaviour. Eustress is also seen from events which led to a
stimulating effect that can result in personal growth.
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b) Distress: Dysfunctional or negetive stress. This type of stress affects one’s

concentration and perfomance. It usually demotivates someone from working
Simmons et al (2001) noted that eustress and distress could be distinguished based on
affective state. Thus hope, meaningfulness and positive affect where significant indicators
of eustress. Moreover the distressful nature of any particular stimulus was also found to be
governed by how one interpreted it and chose to react to it. When an individual perceived
stress positively then the result was eustress, negetive perception of stress led to distress.
The above two concepts suggested that along with the degree of demand the perception of
stimulus was vital to bring a difference between eustress and distress (Fevre, M.L,et.al
2003)
2.2.2 Approaches to Stress
Different authors view stress in differently. According to Quick, (2007), there are three
different approaches to stress. The first one is the response approach; this is when stress is
viewed as a reaction or a response to the external factors. The other one is the interactional
approach; this is when stress is viewed as a reaction resulting from dis-equilibrium between
the intrinsic and extrinsic demands on the person. Stress can also be viewed as an external
factor or stimulus exerting a force on the person (situational approach).
Response Approach
This was adopted by Taylor, (2004) in his experiment with animal. He argues that any
demands place for example, extreme temperatures, reaction is just the same. He called this
the general adaptation and it also applies to people. However, researchers today believe that
response may vary from situation to situation (Wilson, 2011).
Interactional Approach
Interactional approach depicts the relationship between the individual and his or her
environment. This approach regards stress as resulting from disequilibrium between
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demands placed on the individual and his perceived capability for meeting those
demands[ CITATION Pal01 \l 12297 ].
Situational Approach
Stress is viewed as pressure on human beings thus according to Ayed (2014). This shows
that people withstand certain pressures although the levels differ. Every individual has an
optimum condition where they feel comfortable to work so people have to be aware of the
stressors in their lives in-order to manage stress effectively.
2.2.3: Types of Stress
Stress can be eustress or distress depending on its nature.Eustress refers to good stress that is
motivational and improves performance (Ganster, 2005). It offers potential gain when it is a
positive stimulus to keep the adrenaline running. Individuals use stress positively to perform
at their maximum. Distress is viewed as bad stress that is demotivating and leads to
diminishing returns in the performance of employees (Michie, 2003). High levels of stress
or even low levels of stress sustained over a long period of time cause distress resulting in
the reduction of employee performance.
Traumatic stress
This is a brutal stress reaction that results from a catastrophic event or intense experience
such as a sexual assault and life-threatening accident. After the initial shock and emotional
fallout, many trauma victims gradually begin to recover. However, for some people, the
physical and psychological symptom triggered by the trauma does not move away. The
body does not return to equilibrium, and life does not return to normal. This condition is
known as post trauma stress disorder. Common symptoms of this type of stress are
nightmares about the trauma and avoidance of places and things associated with the trauma,
hyper vigilance for signs of danger and irritability (Robotham, 2008).
Episodic acute stress
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This is when a person is always behind time, always late, always taking on too many
projects and handling too many demands. When an individual is prone to episodic acute
stress, he or she may not know it or admit it. They may be wedded to a life style that
promotes stress. People with episodic acute stress find it habitual that they resist changing
their lifestyles until they experience severe physical symptoms (Bhupinder, 2011).
Acute Stress
This is the most common type of stress and also most recognizable form of stress. This type
of stress is when an individual has an idea of the exact reason why he is stressed. It can also
be something scary but thrilling, such as an interview. Normally, the body rest when these
stressful events cease and life gets back to normal because the effects are short-term. Acute
stress usually does not caused severe or permanent damage to the body (Bandura, 1997).
Chronic Stress
Chronic stress involves on going demands, pressures and worries that seem to go on forever,
with little hope of letting up. This type of stress is more harmful to people’s health and
happiness. Sometimes individuals can get used to chronic stress, and may not notice it so
much. It continues to wear people down and has a negative effect on their relationships and
their wellbeing. The period of stress affects one’s ability to use or cope with stress. Chronic
stress depicts stress experienced over a prolonged period of time. With chronic stress,
employees begin to experience symptoms of physical and psychological stress (Bataineh,
2011).
2.2.4: Causes or sources of stress at work
Different authors have different views on the causes of stress at the workplace. Stress can be
due to intrinsic or extrinsic factors.
Factors intrinsic to the job
Intrinsic factors are those factors that causes stress and are found at the workplace and not
from the individual. The factors intrinsic to the job include:
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New technology and policies
The introduction of new technology at the work environment has required workers to adapt
continually to new equipment, systems, and ways of working. This leads to a greater source
of pressure on the employees at work. For example, a boss trained in the latest methods like
the Input Result Based Management (IRBM) can be an extra burden for an employee trained
in the old ways and this can increase stress levels of an employee (Kelly, 2001).
Work overload
This is when the employee has too much work to do within a specific period of time,
because of imposition of deadlines which often cause stress in employees. This is usually
caused by Supervisors (managers) when they delegate without assessing whether the
employee already has work to do. This becomes a source of stress since this affects an
employee mentally (Ahmed, 2013).
Work under-load
Omolara, (2008), elaborates on the problem of employees not being sufficiently challenged
by their jobs. Job under-load is associated with repetitive routine of work and under-
stimulating work which causes a lot of stress for employees who find themselves in such
situations. Employees need something that occupies their minds so as to remove things that
affect them mentally. This means that when employees are not given work which challenges
their abilities and capabilities they suffer high levels of stress (Armstrong, 2006).
Long working hours
The long working hours required by many jobs appear to take a toll on employees’ health
and also making them suffer high level of stress. Those employees who have no sleep for
many hours may find that both the quality of work and themselves suffer.
Poor working conditions
This refers to the physical surroundings of the workplace which include level of noise, high
or low lighting, fumes, heat, poor ventilation systems, smells and all the stimuli which
19
affects a worker’s senses and can affect his moods and overall mental state. Also, the
physical design of the workplace comes under poor working conditions. If an office is
poorly designed, with personnel who require frequent contact spread throughout, it creates
poor communication networks and develops in poor working relationships which can cause
stress to employees (Luthans, 2002).
Shift work
Stress is caused when workers have jobs which require them to work in shifts, some of
which involves working staggered hours. This affects a worker’s blood temperature,
metabolic rate, blood sugar levels, mental efficiency, and sleep patterns, resulting in
hypertension, mild diabetes and peptic ulcers (Henry, 2008)
Risk and danger
According to Fairbrother (2003), jobs which are riskier and dangerous put employees in
higher stress levels. This is because when an employee is constantly aware of potential
danger and he is prepared to react immediately, this results in rush, respiration changes and
muscles tension which are all seen as potentially threatening to long-term health.
Poor Relationships with other employees and managers
Relationships with other employees and managers can account for stress on employees'
performance. Interesting findings were found from the study by Smith and Renk (2007)
where family support was not significantly related to work-related stress; however, it is the
level of social backing received by the managers and employees from significant others
such as their word of advice which might be more likely to be an instant influence in their
daily lives (Chaplin, 2000).
Factors extrinsic to the job
Extrinsic factors are those factors that causes stress and are found on environments outside
the workplace. The factors extrinsic to the job include:
Family Pressures
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The family can also be a trigger of stress to employees. Some families have issues that
create hatred among family members. Conflicts in families are unavoidable; this can place
an excessive deal of pressure on an individual. This results in unstable mind-set hence
affecting the performance of an employee (Cooper, 2014).
Finance
The results of prior researches suggest that financial problems could be a potential stress
factor for employees which contribute to poor performance. Every employee needs money
for anything or another. Shortages of finance can cause stress to employees (Endler, 2009).
2.2.5: Effects of stress on employee productivity
Stress shows itself in different ways. A person who is experiencing a high level of stress can
face a number of problems like developing high blood pressure, ulcers and these affect
employees' productivity. These can be grouped under three general categories;
Physiological, Psychological and Behavioural symptoms (Bateiner, 2011).
Psychological effects
The physiological, psychosocial and behavioural effects of stress have an influence on an

employee performance. They are the major consequences of stress since the mental health of
employees is threatened by high levels of stress and poor mental health. These physiological
symptoms of stress include headaches, high blood pressure, and lung cancer due to lack of
exercise, smoking, heart problems and ulcers. Unlike the physiological symptoms,
psychological symptoms could also result in employees work performance to deteriorating.
Anger, anxiety, depression, nervousness, irritability, aggressiveness, and boredom results in
low employee performance, low self-esteem, resentment of supervision, inability to
concentrate, trouble in making decisions and job dissatisfaction. Also the psychological
symptoms of stress can lead to burnout. This is a prolonged withdrawal from work which
makes the sufferer devalue his work and sees it as a source of dissatisfactionScullen, (2000).
21
When individuals are affected physiologically and psychologically by stress, they behave in
ways that reduce those effects of stress thus the fight or flight response. The behavioural
effects of stress result in increased smoking or the consumption of alcohol, presenteeism or
absenteeism or reduced employee attendance, increased accidents and a decrease in
productivity. Furthermore, strikes, aggressive behaviour such as negligence and destruction
of resources due to anger are associated with high levels of stress. Generally, negative
effects of stress include the retardation in efficiency, reduced capacity to perform, as well as
lack of concern for associates (Fairbrother 2003).
2.2.6: The impact of stress on employee productivity
There are two main sources of job stress and these involve environmental and personal
factors. A variety of external environmental factors could lead to job stress. These external
environmental factors includes work schedules, place of work, job security, route to and
from work and the number and nature of clients. Even noise, including machines, people
talking and telephones ringing, contribute to stress. However, individuals react differently to
these external environmental factors because personal factors also influence stress.
Stress is not necessarily dysfunctional; some people work well only when under a little
stress and find they are more productive when a deadline approaches (Desseler, 2000).
Employees who are stressed may be absent from work. Due to stress, they may come to
work but not be able to perform their duties to the normal standards and they may suffer
from other health problems that develop from the stress. For instance, long term chronic,
mental health. These factors will significantly impact the organization. There may also be
safety incidents as a result of stress.
When having a new job it is likely to be very stressful if the person is inexperienced, unable
to cope with workload, uncomfortable around their managers or colleagues and stimulated
by their work. However, a person entering an area of work where they felt competent,
supported by their colleagues and stimulated, would be more likely to experience the change
as challenging than stressful (Cresswell, 2003).
22
Job stress consequences involve reductions in the quantity and quality of job performance,
increased absenteeism and turnover, increased grievances and health care costs. Stress and
depression may cause employees to seek medical care for vague physiological and
psychological problems and can in fact lead to more serious health conditions.
According to Cranwell, (2009), on the job stress results in lost time from work, deflated
productivity, low staff morale, turnover and higher health care costs.
Walton (1997) further defined work related stress as the psychological state that represents
an imbalance or mismatch between people’s perceptions of the demand on them and their
ability to cope with these demands.
Factors leading to stress in the work place are summarized in figure 2.1
Work lord and time pressure
Job condition and hours of work
Role conflict and ambiguity  Perception

 Past Experience
 Social Support
Unexpected changes
 Individual Difference
Lack of feedback
Less control of work

environment
Stress
Uncontrolled policy changes
Source: Causes and management of stress Mickie, (2002)
Deshinger (2003) suggested that different aspects of employee job performance that are
likely to be affected by stress include productivity, job satisfaction / morale, absenteeism,
decision making abilities, accuracy, creativity, attention to personal apperance,
organisational skills, courtesy cooperation, initiative, reliability, arlertness, perseverance and
23
tardiness. Cox (2001) is of the view that when occupational stress upsurges, it reaches
optimal level where the output is higher thus there will be a positive impact of stress, but if
stress increases further it reduces output thus negetive impact of stress. Figure below
summarizes how occupational stress affects perfomance of an employee.
Therefore, stress has a major impact on the organization. Managers must therefore take
measures to overcome the problems of stress that affect employee performance.
2.2.8: Stress Management
There are different ways that can be used to cope up with stress. Stress can be reduced by
both positive and negative ways. The provision of appropriate resources to employees
enables individuals to deal with stress. A number of research studies have concluded that
coping behaviour and social support structures can be beneficial in reducing the effects of
stress on individuals. In some instances, however, individuals need professional support to
reduce their levels of stress. However, it is open to question whether employees recognize
that they are under stress. In addition, there is often a lack of information about institutional
support services available to employees (Haralambos, 2014).
Training programs for employees can be a stress management instrument by ensuring

effective upward and downward communication in the organization; improvement in
personnel policies such as good welfare packages, incentives, pension schemes, good job
24
design and improvement in the physical work environment, and also management should
provide support to employees (Cooper, 2010).
In addition, stress can be managed in an organization through increasing employee

autonomy in their job, increase or decrease of personal responsibility, allowing more
flexible working hours, job rotation and transfers, providing better working conditions,
including social/fitness clubs and instituting a counselling service (Cooper, 2014).
Employees can manage stress by riding bicycles, walking, practicing yoga, jogging,
swimming, playing tennis and swatting squash balls. This can occupy the mind of the
individuals leading to reduced stress. Most runners and fitness addicts admit that, it is very
hard to focus on job stress when one is trying to complete vigorous workouts (Dean, 2002).
Employees can also manage stress through relaxation. It is because, when employees relax
the response for stress will be reserved in the human mind-body system. Individuals can
reduce tension through relaxation techniques such as meditation, hypnosis and biofeedback.
The aim is to reach a state of deep relaxation in which the employee feels physically
relaxed, somewhat detached from the immediate environment and detached from body
sensations. Relaxation practices diminish an employee’s heart rates, blood pressure and
other physiological indicators of stress (Palmer, 2001).
There are two main strategies of coping with stress. The first one is the problem-focused
coping. This involves the analysis of the main sources of challenge with the aim to see
whether changes are possible. The use of problem-focused strategy can assist the employees
attain control over the problem. One of the options for employees may be to try and reduce
their work load by examining what is required of their jobs. The other thing is that
employees need also to be taught on how to manage their stress through programs and
workshops (Frost, 2003).
2.2.9: Related Studies
Kamarudin (2009) carried out an exploratory research on stress at University of Technology

in Malaysia. The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between stress factors
which are health, social, and academic as well as the level of perceived stress and their
impact on the employee performance. The feedback from the study suggested that if the
25
pressure prolongs and is perceived as unmanageable, this tends to elicit a sense of

helplessness, depression and stress, thereby placing the life style of some employees in
danger. The study by Kamarudin leaves a gap of remuneration which is intended to be
covered by the current study.
Fonkeng (2018) conducted a research on the effects of work stress on employee

performance in a microfinance institution in Cameroon. The Study established that the
negative factors that distressed employees had a negative effect on their performance. One
major reason for stress established by Fonkeng is that if there is more remuneration and
performance appraisal there will be less stress levels, whereas the study done by the
researcher has no problems in remuneration as it is high so the gap remains on other factors
that causes stress on employees in a well paying organisation.
Hameed, Ramzam, Zubair, Ali and Arslain (2014) examined the impact of remuneration on
employee performance on the banking sector of Pakistan. The study suggests that
remuneration has a positive impact on employee performance. The higher the remuneration
received by employees, the higher their performance will be. Mangkunegara (2009) defines
employee performance as the work results based on quality and quantity achieved by
employee in doing his or her job. Remuneration is said to increase employee perfomance as
conducted by Hameed et al, but the study by the researcher seeks to answer why there is low
productivity in the presence of remuneration.
Ekienabor (2016) investigated on the academic staff of Nigeria Universities; the

investigation looked on the impact of job stress on employees' productivity and commitment
among academic staff of Nigerian Universities. The study found that there is an impact of
job stress on employees' commitment. This is because employees feel uncared for by the
organization. The effcts of stress at job were lack of financial rewards, inflexibility in work
hours, personal issues, low control over the work environment and management system.
Ekeinabor looked upon lack of financial rewards as a factor causing stress whereas this
study needs to unfold other areas of concern causing stress since the financial rewards are
present.
26
Mawanza (2016) investigated on the effects of stress on employee productivity in

Zimbabwe. Due to the fear of the unknown by employees, due to perennial economic crisis
in the country, high degree of uncertainty due to restructurings and redundancies, and work
changes without consultations, there was a positive impact of work related stress on
employees’ productivity; this is what the study postulated. Mawanza’s study looked at all
employees in Zimbabwe despite their different employment sectors making it a broad study.
This study therefore seeks to close in the gap by being more direct, looking at the energy
industry.
It is worth reiterating that there is a positive correlation between high stress levels despite
the presence of a satisfying remuneration and poor employee performance which therefore
calls for due consideration by company management to address a number of stress factors
among workers.
2.2.0.1: Chapter Summary
The present chapter dealt with the conceptual and theoretical frameworks as well as
previous researches on the impact of stress on employee performance. The next chapter will
cover research methodology of the study.
27
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
The previous chapter presented the literature review of employee productivity and employee
stress levels, it also explored the concepts of employee stress, employee productivity and
theories and models that supports them. In this chapter the research methodology used in the
study is described. The geographical area where the study was conducted, the study design
and the population and sample are described. The instrument used to collect the data,
including methods implemented to maintain validity and reliability of the instrument are
described.
3.2 Research philosophy
A research philosophy is a belief about the way in which data about a phenomenon should
be gathered, analysed and used. As defined by Saunders, et al., (2009) research philosophy
is the development of knowledge and the nature of knowledge. Saunders further explained
that the basic meaning of the definition is precisely the exact thing every researcher is doing
when conducting a research and that is the will to develop knowledge in a particular field.
A research philosophy assists the researcher with different types of methodologies and as
such avoiding inappropriate and unrelated works. Understanding the basic meaning of
research philosophy and understanding its advantages and benefits, helps the researcher to
be more creative and exploratory in their method of research. Examples of research
philosophy can be pragmatism, positivism, realism or interpretivism.
Crotty (1998) describes positivism as a philosophical stance of the natural scientist and
entails working with an observable social reality to produce law like generalisation. Crotty
28
further explained that one should remain neutral and detarched from the research and data
inorder to avoid influencing findings.
3.3 Research approach
Mertens (2009) defined research approach is a plan and procedure for research that span the
steps from broad assumptions to detailed method of data collection, analysis and
interpretation. It is therefore, based on the nature of the research problem being addressed.
Research approach can be divided into three that is quantitative and qualitative research
approach, due to the researcher’s selection of positivism research philosophy, the researcher
used a quantitative research approach.
Creswell (2012) postulated that quantitative research is an approach for testing objective
theories by examining the relationship amoung variables. These variables in turn can be
measured, typically on instruments, so that numbered data can be analysed using statical
procedures. The final written report has a set of structure consisting of introduction,
literature and theory, methods, results and discussion. Cooper, Heron and Heward (2007)
state that by choosing quantitative research method, there is an assumption of existing
theories deductively, building in protections against bias, controlling for alternative
explanations and being able to generalise and replicate the findings.
3.4 Research design
According to Mullins (2000) a research design is a plan and structure of the investigation
criteria used to obtain evidence to answer research questions. In relation to that, Buchanan
and Bryman, (2009) define research design as an overall plan for conducting a study that
considers several components. Research design can be descriptive, explanatory, and
exploratory or policy oriented. Descriptive survey design was used by the researcher
because it depicts the participants in an accurate way. This was done in order for the
researcher to understand the impact of Stress on organisational productivity at Rural
29
The descriptive survey design describes what exist and may assist to reveal new facts and
meanings. . Quantitative research relies on measurement to compare and analyse different
variables (Bless et al., 2010). According to Polit and Hungler (2009) the purpose of
descriptive research design is to observe, describe and document aspects of a situation as it
naturally occurs. More specifically descriptive design enables the use of observations, case
studies and surveys and it also allows acquisition of quantitative data. The purpose of
quantitative research may also be described as the evaluation of objective data that consists
of numbers, where the aim is not to deal directly with everyday life but rather with an
abstraction of reality Welman et al, (2015). Although quantitative research allows for the
accurate and economic interpretation of data, it does limit analysis to semantics and
syntactic factors because the Quantitative content analysis is limited to the characteristics of
text (Rossouw, 2013:164) Quantitative research relies on measurement to compare and
analyse different variables (Bless et al. 2010). The purpose of quantitative research may also
be described as the evaluation of objective data that consists of numbers, where the aim is
not to deal directly with everyday life but rather with an abstraction of reality (Welman et
al., 2015).
3.5 Target population

According to Bates (1995), population is the aggregate of items from which the sample is to
be drawn. This research targeted all the employees at Rural Electrification Agency with a
population of 300 employees, 10 senior level managers, 36 middle level managers and 54
lower level managers and 200 general employees.
3.6 Sample size

In this research, a sample of 10% was used. According to Hogg and Tanis (2009), a sample
size should not be greater than 25%. This is because such sample sizes usually result in a
normal distribution of data.
3.7 Sampling technique

Sekeran and Bougie (2010) affirmed two different groups of sampling techniques which are
probability and non probability sampling. Probability sampling includes simple random
sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling and multistage
30
sampling. Non probability sampling techniques include judgemental sampling, quota

sampling, convenience sampling and snowball sampling. In this research stratified random
sampling technique was used. The research used the stratified random sampling because of
how it captures key population characteristics. It produces characteristics in the sample that
are proportional to the overall population. It also provides greater precision. A stratified
sample was also employed because it is applicable to a population that consists of different
groups, for instance, at Rural Electrification Fund there are groups such as senior
management, middle management and general employees.
3.7.1 Stratified random sampling

Muchengetwa and Chakuchichi (2010) assert that stratified random sampling is a sampling
technique which involves putting a population into non – overlapping groups called strata
then selecting for the survey using proportional allocation. In this research the population
under consideration contains well defined groups (strata) in the form of different levels and
stratified random sampling was used so as to balance representation. A total of three
hundred employees (300) employees were used. According to Trochim (2006) 10% is the
benchmark and minimum size required to reduce errors, ensure equal and fair representation
10% employees selected in each employment level were randomly selected in order to
prevent vague results.
Table 3.7.2 : Summary of sample

POPULATION SAMPLE POPULATION SAMPLE
Senior level management 10 1

Middle level management 20 2
Lower level management 35 3
General employees 235 24
TOTAL 300 30
3.8 DATA COLLECTION
3.8.2 Data collection instrument
31
One of the primary methods used for data collection in quantitative studies is the survey
research methods (Webb, 2012). Surveys allow for the collection of large amounts of data.
As a data collection method, surveys are relatively economical and can occur in realistic
settings (Du Plooy, 2012). Rossouw (2013) describes survey research as a multi-tieres
process.
Data was collected by means of a survey, using a questionnaire. Questionnaires are a way of
getting information from people by asking questions. They form part of the more structured
end of the data collection methods because they allow for the determination of which
questions need to be asked and on the possible range of answer that can be provided
(Gillhim 2012) For the purpose of this study, the relevant questionnaire was given to chosen
employees. The main intention of the questionnaire was to test the information gleaned from
the literature study. A self-administered questionnaire was used for this study.
3.8.2 Pilot study
The researcher conducted a pilot study before administering questionnaires to the intended
population. McNeil (2010) notes that a pilot study is used to simulate the main study, fewer
people are involved but they will still be of the same kind as the final target group. Pilot
study is used to determine any short comings or mistakes before the final distribution of the
questionnaire. It also provides an opportunity to ensure that the questionnaire covers all the
information that it is intended to cover. It was pre-tested using the following steps. First the
questionnaire was presented to the HR Manager of REA to determine the simplicity of the
questionnaire and to establish if any additional points needed to be included. Secondly three
people were asked to pre-test the questionnaire and indicate whether they understood the
questionnaires instructions, the meaning of the questions and the terminology used in the
questionnaire. All three questionnaires were received back and all the records indicated that
there were no problems with the questionnaire. Therefore, the final questionnaire was
distributed to the rest of research population.
3.8.4 Questionnaire design
32
Questionnaires normally consist of a list of questions or statement that respondents are

requested to answer or indicate the extent to which they agree/disagree with a given
statement (Goddard & Melville, 2011:47). The purpose of a questionnaire is to investigate
attitude, beliefs, feelings, behavior, knowledge, and demographic character (Webb, 2012).
Questionnaires can consist of open or closed ended questions. Open ended questions do not
provide the respondents with a prior list of answers but rather provide space where the
respondent can write their own answer. Closed ended questions offer the respondent a range
of possible answer from which the respondent must then select his/her appropriate choice
(Welman, et al., 2015). So the researcher used closed ended questions.
The questionnaire designed for this study consisted of a cover page and the questionnaire.
The intent of the cover page was to inform the respondents about the purpose of this study
and to provide them with the assurance that all information obtained through the
questionnaire would be treated as confidential and that the results would only be used for
research purposes. In addition, the cover letter provided the respondents with the details and
contact information of the researcher.
The questionnaire consisted of five sections which are:
Section A: Personal and biographical information;
Section B: Causes of Stress on Employees
Section C: The relationship between Employee productivity and Stress.
Section D: The relationship between stress and remuneration.
Section E: Effectiveness of Stress Management Strategies.
Section A, the personal and biographical information section; cover the more general
question of the study. It consists of questions regarding gender, age, department and years in
current position and years with the organization.
Section B to E, the job satisfaction scale consists of statement relating to the job satisfaction
factors that were identified through the literature study. The aims of these questions are to
evaluate how employees perceive the causes of Stress despite working at one of the most
33
paying organisations in the country, how it affects their work and the measures taken by the
organisation to minimise stress levels.
3.9 Validity and Reliability of Research Instruments
According to Roberts, Paula, Priest, Helena, Traynor and Micheal (2006), reliability and
validity are ways to demonstrate the rigour and trustworthness of qualitative and
quantitative research. To ensure that the questionnaire used would be valid and reliable, the
researcher conducted a pilot study before the actual research. Saunders (2007) states that
before using a questionnaire to collect data it should be pilot tested first. This was important
in ensuring that respondents understood the questions. The researcher conducted a pilot
study using the Human Resources Department.
3.10 Data analysis
Robson (2002) defines data analysis as a process of inspecting, transforming, cleaning and
modeling data with the goal of highlighting useful information. Before data analysis the
researcher validated the findings checking for corrections and omissions without changing
the respondent’s contents. To present the data obtained from the questionnaires and
interviews the researcher presented it diagrammatically making use of various tables, pie
charts and bar graphs since they are easy to understand and interpret information well. The
analysis of the data was done below each diagram presentation
3.11 Ethical Consideration
When carrying out a research, there is need for morals and values to be followed during the
study. The researcher has a moral and professional obligation to be ethical even when
research subjects are unaware of or unconcerned by ethics. Ethics can be a conceptualization
of human conduct in terms of good or bad behavior. Boss (1999) defines ethics as the study
of human conduct. These ethics includes among others, debriefing, voluntary participation,
informed consent, confidentiality and anonymity and withdrawal of participation.
34
Makore-Rukuni’s definition of debriefing that it is a situation when one has to explain to the
participants the full nature of the research to be undertaken was considered. The researcher
debriefed the participants so as to allay any fears that participants might have. In this area of
study because of the animosity between local leaders over the ownership of the site, the
researcher had clearly explained the position to the participants that the research is purely
for academic purposes and informs the communities that the study focuses on the benefits to
all the four communities. The researcher ensured the research subjects understand her
research in all its dimensions.
The research participants were given a choice for participating and hence they were not
coerced into participating in research. Diener and Crandall (1978:173) are of the opinion
that limited coercion is acceptable only as long as it has a clear educational objective, the
students are given a chance of research experience and other ethical principles are upheld
but in this case, it was not necessary to have limited coercion because they were many
willing people who wanted to participate in the study. Voluntary participation is linked to
informed consent. Diener and Crandall (1978:34) define informed consent as the procedure
in which individuals choose whether to participate in an investigation after being informed
of the facts that would be likely to influence their decision. The researcher considered the
above sentiments by not misleading the participants; the participants were fully informed
them about the procedures involved in research.
In the light of Dooley (1990), the researchers are expected to provide the prospective
subjects with written information about the study and a form to be signed by the subject The
researcher drafted an informed consent form where every participant would sign as an
indication that one is participating in the research voluntarily. The scholar (Dooley) further
reiterate that, ‘if a demented social researcher physically pulls you off the street and forces
you to serve as a subject in his experiment, you can look to the criminal justice system for
your liberation and the punishment of this violation of the kidnapping statutes .
Participants were not forced into research but were fully informed about the purpose of the
study and why the researcher was carrying it out, the participants then willingly join and
make self-informed decisions. This was done in the light of what Abbot and Sapsford
35
(2006) argued that informed consent is not easy when the researcher may be a practitioner
within the area of social practice that is targeted by the researcher or if they stand in a
position of power or influence over the researched. In the case of this study, the researcher
had no influence over the employeees but ensured that the managers in the organisation did
not coerce subjects into participating in the study. The researcher also avoided sensitive
issues that would be hard to respond to. It was important to note and practise what Diener
and Crandall (1978) suggest that the researchers should not place people in a situation where
they face social pressure to deny their convictions, have subjects to lie or cheat in research.
Confidentiality and anonymity are also crucial ethical issues to consider when carrying out
research. The two aspects could be said to be compulsory to all researchers. Singer et, al.,
(1995) found that assuring confidentiality modestly improved responses when researchers
asked about highly sensitive topics. The researcher therefore guaranteed privacy to
participants and private information was said to remain relatively confidential and the
researcher avoided dissemination of sensitive information that was matching personal
information with the true identity of research participants.
Nachmias and Nachmias (1996) stressed the aforesaid idea when they indicated that the
researcher must not identify or associate the name with the data and should not acquire
names on research. Campbell et al (1976) also cites that the researcher should guarantee
privacy to research subjects by assuring them that, the data collection would be summarized
in group statistics so that no one will learn of your individual answers. After assuring
confidentiality and anonymity to research subjects, the researcher had an obligation to honor
the promise and commitments agreed.
3.10 CONCLUSION
The chapter explored the research design, target population, data collection procedure and
analysis as well as the sampling procedure. The following chapter which is chapter 4
focuses on data presentation and analysis.
36
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‘Money can’t buy happiness.

’ Effects of Stress on Employee Productivity in the Energy

Background to the Study

Moreover, in Denmark, Arhus (2010) investigated on effects of stress on managers in the

Additionally, in Africa, Ramarumo (2012) investigated on effects of stress in South Africa

In Zimbabwe, a research by Chigumbu (2015) on Mimosa Mining Company on the effects

Statement of the problem

The research aimed to achieve the following objectives:

1. To identify the causes of stress on employees at Rural Electrification Agency

The research objectives gave rise to the following questions:

1. What are the causes of stress among employees at Rural Electrification

 Rural Electrification Agency employees were co-operative and supportive in

Significance of the Study

Rural Electrification Agency

Great Zimbabwe University

Human Resource practitioners

Delimitations of the Study

Definition of Key Terms

Stress: An adaptive response mediated by individual differences and or psychological

2.1.1 The Job demands- Resource model

Adopted from Schaufeli and Bakker (2009)

 Customer verbal aggression

 Opportunities for advancement

2.1.2 Transactional Model of Stress

Figure 2.1.2 below represents the transactional model of stress.

Irrelevant Being Positive Being Stressful

Harm or loss Threat Challenges

Source: The Transactional Model of Stress Folkman L. (1984)

Figure 2.1.2: Transactional model of stress

2.1.3: Equity theory

2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2.1 Definition of Stress

According to Robbins (2004), stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual is

b) Distress: Dysfunctional or negetive stress. This type of stress affects one’s

2.2.2 Approaches to Stress

2.2.3: Types of Stress

Episodic acute stress

2.2.4: Causes or sources of stress at work

Factors intrinsic to the job

New technology and policies

Long working hours

Poor working conditions

Risk and danger

Poor Relationships with other employees and managers

Factors extrinsic to the job

2.2.5: Effects of stress on employee productivity

The physiological, psychosocial and behavioural effects of stress have an influence on an

2.2.6: The impact of stress on employee productivity

Work lord and time pressure

Job condition and hours of work

Role conflict and ambiguity  Perception

Less control of work

Source: Causes and management of stress Mickie, (2002)

2.2.8: Stress Management

Training programs for employees can be a stress management instrument by ensuring

In addition, stress can be managed in an organization through increasing employee

2.2.9: Related Studies

Kamarudin (2009) carried out an exploratory research on stress at University of Technology

pressure prolongs and is perceived as unmanageable, this tends to elicit a sense of