Gauss's law describes the relationship between static electric fields and the electric charges that cause them. It states that the net electric field passing through any closed surface is directly proportional to the total electric charge enclosed divided by the permittivity of free space.
Gauss's law for magnetism states that there are no magnetic monopoles and that the net magnetic field passing through any closed surface is always zero. Magnetic fields form closed loops and are generated by magnetic dipoles resembling bound positive and negative magnetic charges.
Faraday's law of induction describes how a changing magnetic field generates an electric field. It predicts that a changing magnetic field induces an electric field and vice versa, allowing electromagnetic waves to propagate through empty space.
Gauss's law describes the relationship between static electric fields and the electric charges that cause them. It states that the net electric field passing through any closed surface is directly proportional to the total electric charge enclosed divided by the permittivity of free space.
Gauss's law for magnetism states that there are no magnetic monopoles and that the net magnetic field passing through any closed surface is always zero. Magnetic fields form closed loops and are generated by magnetic dipoles resembling bound positive and negative magnetic charges.
Faraday's law of induction describes how a changing magnetic field generates an electric field. It predicts that a changing magnetic field induces an electric field and vice versa, allowing electromagnetic waves to propagate through empty space.
Gauss's law describes the relationship between static electric fields and the electric charges that cause them. It states that the net electric field passing through any closed surface is directly proportional to the total electric charge enclosed divided by the permittivity of free space.
Gauss's law for magnetism states that there are no magnetic monopoles and that the net magnetic field passing through any closed surface is always zero. Magnetic fields form closed loops and are generated by magnetic dipoles resembling bound positive and negative magnetic charges.
Faraday's law of induction describes how a changing magnetic field generates an electric field. It predicts that a changing magnetic field induces an electric field and vice versa, allowing electromagnetic waves to propagate through empty space.
Gauss's law describes the relationship between static electric fields and the electric charges that cause them. It states that the net electric field passing through any closed surface is directly proportional to the total electric charge enclosed divided by the permittivity of free space.
Gauss's law for magnetism states that there are no magnetic monopoles and that the net magnetic field passing through any closed surface is always zero. Magnetic fields form closed loops and are generated by magnetic dipoles resembling bound positive and negative magnetic charges.
Faraday's law of induction describes how a changing magnetic field generates an electric field. It predicts that a changing magnetic field induces an electric field and vice versa, allowing electromagnetic waves to propagate through empty space.
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
Download as docx, pdf, or txt
You are on page 1/ 2
Gauss's law[edit]
Gauss's law describes the relationship between a static electric field and the electric charges that
cause it: a static electric field points away from positive charges and towards negative charges, and the net outflow of the electric field through any closed surface is proportional to the charge enclosed by the surface. Picturing the electric field by its field lines, this means the field lines begin at positive electric charges and end at negative electric charges. 'Counting' the number of field lines passing through a closed surface yields the total charge (including bound charge due to polarization of material) enclosed by that surface, divided by dielectricity of free space (the vacuum permittivity).
Gauss's law for magnetism: magnetic field lines never begin nor end but form loops or extend to infinity as shown here with the magnetic field due to a ring of current.
Gauss's law for magnetism[edit]
Gauss's law for magnetism states that there are no "magnetic charges" (also called magnetic monopoles), analogous to electric charges.[1] Instead, the magnetic field due to materials is generated by a configuration called a dipole, and the net outflow of the magnetic field through any closed surface is zero. Magnetic dipoles are best represented as loops of current but resemble positive and negative 'magnetic charges', inseparably bound together, having no net 'magnetic charge'. In terms of field lines, this equation states that magnetic field lines neither begin nor end but make loops or extend to infinity and back. In other words, any magnetic field line that enters a given volume must somewhere exit that volume. Equivalent technical statements are that the sum total magnetic flux through any Gaussian surface is zero, or that the magnetic field is a solenoidal vector field.
Faraday's law[edit]
In a geomagnetic storm, a surge in the flux of charged particles temporarily alters Earth's magnetic field, which induces electric fields in Earth's atmosphere, thus causing surges in electrical power grids. (Not to scale.) The Maxwell–Faraday version of Faraday's law of induction describes how a time varying magnetic field creates ("induces") an electric field.[1] In integral form, it states that the work per unit charge required to move a charge around a closed loop equals the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the enclosed surface. The dynamically induced electric field has closed field lines similar to a magnetic field, unless superposed by a static (charge induced) electric field. This aspect of electromagnetic induction is the operating principle behind many electric generators: for example, a rotating bar magnet creates a changing magnetic field, which in turn generates an electric field in a nearby wire.
Ampère's law with Maxwell's addition[edit]
Magnetic core memory (1954) is an application of Ampère's law. Each core stores one bit of data.
Ampère's law with Maxwell's addition states that magnetic fields can be generated in two ways: by electric current (this was the original "Ampère's law") and by changing electric fields (this was "Maxwell's addition", which he called displacement current). In integral form, the magnetic field induced around any closed loop is proportional to the electric current plus displacement current (proportional to the rate of change of electric flux) through the enclosed surface. Maxwell's addition to Ampère's law is particularly important: it makes the set of equations mathematically consistent for non static fields, without changing the laws of Ampere and Gauss for static fields.[2] However, as a consequence, it predicts that a changing magnetic field induces an electric field and vice versa.[1][3] Therefore, these equations allow self-sustaining "electromagnetic waves" to travel through empty space (see electromagnetic wave equation). The speed calculated for electromagnetic waves, which could be predicted from experiments on charges and currents,[note 3] matches the speed of light; indeed, light is one form of electromagnetic radiation (as are X-rays, radio waves, and others). Maxwell understood the connection between electromagnetic waves and light in 1861, thereby unifying the theories of electromagnetism and optics.
Formulation in terms of electric and magnetic fields
(microscopic or in vacuum version)[edit] In the electric and magnetic field formulation there are four equations that determine the fields for given charge and current distribution. A separate law of nature, the Lorentz force law, describes how, conversely, the electric and magnetic fields act on charged particles and currents. A version of this law was included in the original equations by Maxwell but, by convention, is included no longer. The vector calculus formalism below, the work of Oliver Heaviside,[4][5] has become standard. It is manifestly rotation invariant, and therefore mathematically much more transparent than Maxwell's original 20 equations in x,y,z components. The relativistic formulations are even more symmetric and manifestly Lorentz invariant. For the same equations expressed using tensor calculus or differential forms, see alternative formulations. The differential and integral formulations are mathematically equivalent and are both useful. The integral formulation relates fields within a region of space to fields on the boundary and can often be used to simplify and directly calculate fields from symmetric distributions of charges and currents. On the other hand, the differential equations are purely local and are a more natural starting point for calculating the fields in more complicated (less symmetric) situations, for example using finite element analysis.[6]
Key to the notation[edit]
Symbols in bold represent vector quantities, and symbols in italics represent scalar quantities, unless otherwise indicated. The equations introduce the electric field, E, a vector field, and the magnetic field, B, a pseudovector field, each generally having a time and location dependence. The sources are
the total electric charge density (total charge per unit volume), ρ, and
the total electric current density (total current per unit area), J. The universal constants appearing in the equations (the first two ones explicitly only in the SI units formulation) are:
the permittivity of free space, ε0, and
the permeability of free space, μ0, and the speed of light,
A Dynamical Theory of the Gravitational Field in a Connected Maxwell and Feynman Spacetime Continuum:On a Unified Field Theory of Space, Time and Matter
