Journal of

Management Organizational development

Development
15,5
in the Arab world
Abbas J. Ali
4 Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Indiana, USA

Introduction
Solving societal and organizational problems has always been a goal that
fascinated philosophers and ordinary people. They challenge philosophers to
probe the unknown and speculate endlessly. They provide them with vision and
foresight. Ordinary people, on the other hand, dream of a future where their
needs are met. Consequently, they have a reason to be involved and to work with
others. With each new generation, both philosophers and ordinary people face
new problems and challenges, thus making human life a fascinating journey.
After the Second World War, more precisely in the 1950s and 1960s, two
linked developments took place: an advancement in the material world and a
rapid improvement in the behavioural sciences. The first made prosperity,
especially in the western world, a reachable goal. The second allowed scholars
to develop new methodologies and tools not only to explain the world but also
to change it. It was during these two decades that change and growth managed
to capture the minds of social scientists and practitioners. It is no wonder that
organizational development (OD) became a familiar term in business and
education circles.
Since OD as a management discipline was born in the USA and since the
USA became the dominant global economic power, OD theories and techniques
have found a receptive audience all over the world. In addition, the demand for
other “American-made” theories became global in extent. For almost 50 years
now, management experts and consultants have roamed the globe advising
government personnel and business executives on ways to apply specific US
management techniques and theories. OD, management by objectives (MBO)
and participative management have become common appelations in the global
business literature. OD in particular has assumed a prominent place in the
business world and in scholarly efforts in the USA and abroad.
The phenomenal demand for US management theories has, of course, helped
to satisfy the curiosity of scholars and practitioners abroad. Serious questions,
however, are raised regarding the applicability of these theories to foreign
cultures. Many theorists argue that management theory is influenced by
specific societal values, beliefs, norms, and work and social experiences.
Hofstede[1], for example, argues that the “export of Western – mostly American
Journal of Management This paper was originally presented at the Arab Management Group Conference held in
Development, Vol. 15 No. 5, 1996,
pp. 4-21. © MCB University Press, Bradford, West Yorkshire on 4-6 July 1995. The author would like to thank Professors Robert C.
0262-1711 Camp and Paul Swiercz for their comments on an earlier version of this paper.
– management practices and theories to poor countries has contributed little or Organizational
nothing to their development”. He attributes such failure to the fact that local development in
management practice is part of the cultural infrastructure and therefore cannot the Arab world
be imported in packaged form. It is true that the debate over the transferability
of western theories to non-western civilizations is far from over. Nevertheless,
Hofstede’s statement is supported by empirical research[2,3]. Additional
research projects in various countries lend support to his observation[4-7]. 5
In the context of OD, Jaeger[8] concludes that there are “a large number of
cultural configurations, particularly in the developing world, that conflict with
OD in general and with the values underlying most interventions in particular”.
He recommends a broader repertoire of interventions that can bring about
necessary planned organizational changes without violating societal values and
norms. Golembiewski[9] suggests that OD designs/approaches are not
homogeneous; nor are organizations and even nations applying them.
Therefore, he argues that OD can be successfully applied in foreign cultures.
That is, OD is a flexible approach for organizational change. He suggests that
OD practitioners should become sensitive to different cultural settings and
thereby improve their judgements about the advisability of making OD
interventions. Srinivas[10], on the other hand, concludes that OD has fallen
short of the promise for positive change in respect of national development. He
analyses 100 OD cases across 35 countries and indicates that the results cast a
shadow of doubt on the applicability of OD.
This paper seeks to address issues related to the application of OD in the
Arab world. In particular, the paper argues that OD, in theory and practice,
should be moulded to fit the Islamic-Arab tradition as a frame of reference. This
does not mean that OD should be Arabized. Rather, it calls for developing an
OD perspective that is relevant and effective in dealing with particular and
peculiar cultural aspirations and problems.
This paper is organized into three parts. First, it examines the Islamic
influence vis-à-vis organization development. That is, it clarifies the impact of
the Islamic work ethic (IWE) on Arab organizations and their development.
Second, it identifies cultural elements and their OD implications. Finally, the
paper identifies major assumptions about organizational change prevalent in
Arab culture.

Islamic thoughts and OD implications

Scholars have long recognized that OD is a value-based process. French et
al.[11] note that OD theory and practice focus primarily on the human and social
aspects of organizations. Likewise, Bennis[12] argues that OD “almost always
concentrates on the values, attitudes, leadership, organizations’ climate – the
‘people variables’”.
Golembiewski[9] and Srinivas[13] argue that OD focuses on feelings and
emotions, ideas and concepts, placing considerable importance on the
individual’s involvement and participation. Earlier Burke[14] had indicated that
the values on which OD is based are:
Journal of • a humanistic orientation;
Management • the belief that feelings are important and need to be treated as data; and
Development • the belief that conflict needs to be surfaced and dealt with directly rather
15,5 than ignored.
OD almost always focuses on “people variables” to advance organizational
6 goals and induce positive change towards the achievement of these goals.
Thus, OD approaches and their content are necessarily linked to forces in
societies that shape and influence value orientations and attitudes. One of the
most influential forces in the Arab world that moulds and regulates individual
and group behaviour and outlooks is Islam. Religion is an influential force in the
Arab world because:
• Arab society is still traditional in the sense that commitments to honour,
honesty, respect for parents and older persons, loyalty to one’s primary
group, hospitality and generosity are held deeply by a majority of the
population.
• Islam was founded in Arabia. Arabs were the carriers of the Islamic
message. Thus, they believe that they are blessed by God.
• The family and other social institutions still command the respect of
almost all individuals regardless of their social backgrounds. These
institutions utilize Islam to sustain their endurance and influence.
• Arabic is the language of the Quran and people recite/listen to quranic
verses more than once a day. The Arabic language, with its phonetic
beauty, richness of synonym, imagery and majesty, arouses people’s
passion and produces an intense and emotional impact[15,16].
• Islam is a comprehensive religion that regulates not only the ascetic but
also the worldly tendencies. Almost all social, political, and military
precepts are covered in the Quran along with the piety of the soul and
moral aspects of individual behaviour.
Quranic principles and prophets’ prescriptions serve as a guide for Muslims in
conducting their business and family affairs. During the golden age of the
Arab/Islamic empire – the first six centuries of Islam – knowledge, trade,
industry, agriculture and the construction of complex organizations flourished.
It was during that time that various schools of thought were developed. Ali[17]
identifies these schools as Jabria, Tafwiz, Ikhtiar, Mutazilas, Ibn-Rushd
(Averroes) and Ikhwan-us-Safa (Brothers of Purity). These schools have had a
profound influence on various political and economic structures in Islamic and
Arab states (for more details, see [18]).
There is a need to clarify the implications of OD under each Islamic school
(see Table I).
Ali[15] argues that after the Arabs gained their independence in the twentieth
century, they established authoritarian regimes in the new nation-states (e.g.
Algeria, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Syria). Thus, independent thinking,
OD element Jabria Tafwiz Ikhtiar Mutazilas Ibn-Rushd Ikhwan-us-Safa
Initiator of A leader who has An individual An individual in Any person Collective Any person
change answers to all but collective consultation with regardless of responsibility regardless of
questions responsibility the agreed leader position in the position in the
for implementation organization organization
is seen as a virtue
Self-reliance Is not regarded as Characterizes an Is seen as a virtue Is a necessary Is a quality that Is necessary to
a virtue because it individual who is as it facilitates quality for growth everyone has ensure liberty
may open the door capable of assuming continuity of – a virtue regardless of and growth
for chaos responsibility community values gender
Potential for Individual No limit for No limit for Man is capable of External Man is able to
self-development development and self-development self-development growth and environment make progress
growth are development may constrain and control
predestined individuals from environment
achieving their
full potential
Organizational Results only from Is normal in the Is a normal process Everything is Is a contingent Is a healthy trend
change crises or the wish course of serving that should be encour- liable to change process towards growth
of the leader people’s interests raged by the leader or annihilation and continuity
Training Is not useful unless Is essential to reduce Is essential to achieve Is a prerequisite for Essential to Is essential to do
it is initiated by the uncertainty and to the group’s goals in a improving achieve the right work
leader and to cope allow a person to harmonious and co- performance and perfection in in the right way
with a crisis develop various operative environment achieving goals life
kinds of expertise
Conflict Is characteristic of May be reduced by Is avoidable by Debating issues Can become a Can lead to the
an unhealthy situation openness in dealing voicing concerns over which there is source for voicing of concerns
as it is a threat to with issues through spirited conflict is essential positive change to increase aware-
cohesiveness and debate, thus for societal welfare; ness, which is
conformity reinforcing consensus difference in ideas essential to prev-
should be appreciated ent stagnation
Systematic Is not seen as a virtue Is regarded as a virtue Is a virtue if used to Is a positive exercise Is essential to deal Is essential to
planning as it is in conflict with if it corrects maximize growth and of reason and with unexpected prevent chaos and
predestination wrongdoing to enhance responsibility knowledge events authoritarian
tendency

of thought
OD applications under
various Islamic schools
Table I.
Journal of concepts of liberty and power of mind were condemned, and Jabria principles
Management were sanctioned in every aspect of life. The Jabria is, therefore, the dominant
Development school in the contemporary Arab world. The other schools, with the exception
of Ikhtiar and Mutazilas have no influence on daily life. The Mutazilas appeal to
15,5 highly intellectual individuals and to think-tank institutions (e.g. the Arab
Thought Forum, the Centre for Arab Unity Studies, the National Board for Arab
8 Culture), while Ikhtiar still commands respect among some religious figures
and some enlightened merchant classes such as those found in Bahrain,
Lebanon and Iraq.

Islamic work ethic and Arab organizations

In the Arab world, any approach to organizational change is assumed to be
influenced by existing work ethics and norms. For example, advances in
psychology and a general improvement in living standards in the western
nations, especially in the USA and Britain, have given rise to various
organizational approaches – including OD, that are clearly influenced by the so-
called Protestant work ethic (PWE). These approaches attempt to induce
commitment and a drive to excel among members of business organizations.
Consequently, they appeal to organizations in various economic sectors and
make it possible for them to adopt various forms of organizational change.
Certainly, in the Arab world, any approach to organizational change is
assumed to be influenced by existing work ethics and norms. The Islamic work
ethic (IWE) is an orientation that has tremendous influence on people and
organizations. It stands not for life denial but for life fulfilment and holds
business motives in the highest regard[19,20]. The concept has its origin in the
Quran, the sayings and practice of Prophet Mohammed. The Quran instructs
the Muslim to pursue work persistently in whatever form, whenever it is
available. “[God] has also made subservient to you all that is in the heavens and
the earth”[21, 45:13]. Prophet Mohammed preached that hard work caused sins
to be absolved and that “no one eats better food than that which he eats out of
his work”. Similarly, Imam Ali[22], the fourth successor of Prophet Mohammed,
(AD 598-661) stated, “Persist in your action with a noble end in mind… Failure
to perfect your work while you are sure of the reward is injustice to yourself”,
and that “poverty almost amounts to impiety”.
The IWE flourished during the golden age of Islam. The defeat of Arab
Caliph and the ascendancy of the non-Arab Ottoman Empire (1412-1918),
however, helped to institutionalize autocracy and further the demise of trade
associations and freely-organized business activities in Arab lands[15,16].
Turner[23] argues that Islamic stagnation through the servile imitation of
traditions was the inevitable consequence of Turkish military absolutism; and
that in order to maximize their control over the Islamic umma [nation], the
Turks had encouraged a conservative theology of mere obedience to authority.
Knowledge and formal schooling were prohibited and Jabria principles were
advanced. The absence of written communication and the isolation of Arabs in
different parts of the Arab lands induced the people to treat many foreign
rituals and legends as original. With no knowledge of general Islamic Organizational
principles, each generation came to treat foreign habits and customs as their development in
own. The supremacy of western colonial powers over the Arab lands after the the Arab world
breakdown of the Ottoman Empire further reinforced cultural discontinuity
and alienation. For example, even though the western powers allowed schools
to open in various Arab states in the first decades of this century, they
established authoritarian regimes and attempted to replace Arabic with French 9
or English. In fact, in Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria, the French colonial
authorities forced their language on the indigenous people. After independence,
the new governments did not make serious attempts to revise the colonial
legacy and the French language is still used for instruction at university level
and often used in the workplace in these North African countries.
It is important to note that the dominant features of the IWE are contained in
all Islamic schools of thought except in the Jabria school. In its spirit and
meaning, therefore, the IWE stands in contrast to the teaching of the Jabria
school, which is currently sanctioned by existing Arab governments. Since the
1960s, however, a cultural awakening has spread through the Arab lands and
many groups and associations have been established to advocate cultural
revivalism. The IWE thus appears to attract many segments of the population,
not only for cultural reasons but because the IWE encourages the individual to
better himself and to strive for economic prosperity. In a survey regarding the
IWE in Arabia and in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Ali1[24] and Ali and
Azim[25] found that Arab managers scored high on IWE: the overall mean of
IWE in Arabia is 4.16 (on a 5-point scale) and in the UAE is 4.26. Both are
relatively high.

Implications
The strong commitment to the IWE has several implications for OD
practitioners and consultants. First, the emphasis on hard work, meeting
deadlines and persistence in securing work means that the establishment of a
time-table and the clarification of goals and responsibilities are essential for
carrying out successful change interventions. In a culture where “saving face”
is important, meeting OD goals takes on an added value.
Second, work is viewed not as an end in itself but as a means of fostering
personal growth and social relationships. In this context, group interactions
and team activities, if designed appropriately, could result in the optimal
facilitation of intended changes.
Third, dedication to work and work creativity are seen as virtues. OD
practitioners should focus their design process on the new method of change
and on producing results that reinforce existing commitment and enthusiasm.
Fourth, justice and generosity in the workplace are necessary conditions for
society’s welfare. This has three implications:
(1) The OD practitioner/consultant must show that he/she is attentive to and
is concerned about human needs.
Journal of (2) Social skills and effective public relations are essential to the success of a
Management change intervention. In Arab society, once a commitment is obtained
Development there will be smooth implementations.
15,5 (3) Goals for change should be directed towards serving the community or
the society as a whole. This means that the OD practitioner/consultant
should demonstrate the fruits of the results to both the organization and
10 the society.
Finally, unlike Judaic-Christian ethic, the IWE places more emphasis on the
intention than on the results. Prophet Mohammed stated, “Actions are recorded
according to intention, and man will be rewarded or punished accordingly”.
That is: unlawful work that results in accumulation of wealth (e.g. gambling,
prostitution, drug trafficking, fraud, extortion, hoarding, monopoly) is
condemned and those who engage in it are looked at with contempt. Thus, the
OD practitioner/consultant should articulate change goals and make sure that
no personal interests are pursued at the expense of the group or community.
The IWE survey results[24] convey a very important message for the OD
practitioner/consultant. It is that Arab managers look favourably on change
and are receptive to changes that improve organizational effectiveness and
enhance employees’ welfare. As such, organizational renewal efforts would be
viewed positively. In this context two questions should be raised:
(1) Will an OD intervention lead to the realization of its goals? The answer,
of course, depends on the situation and especially on whether or not
western methods are employed. There needs to be an awareness of and a
sensitivity to prevailing cultural values. In today’s society a large
segment of Arab people are attempting to return to Islamic principles,
and many of them are suspicious of western methods. To achieve
planned goals, the practitioner/consultant must not be aggressive in
his/her approach and needs to play a low-profile role outside the
organization while acting as a facilitator/team player in any
organizational group setting. Furthermore, the practitioner/consultant
should focus on the positive side of any organizational story when
linking it to Arab/Islamic history. While many OD changes in the USA
were undertaken without having specific defined purposes[26], in the
Arab world, change must have a meaningful purpose for the
organization and its members, otherwise, the practitioner/consultant will
be discredited. The reason is this: in Arab society, people often socialize
intensively after working hours. Members of organizations or a
community develop close personal relationships and a strong knowledge
of each other. But while training or OD sessions are taken seriously as a
means for improving such knowledge, socializing during these sessions
is of secondary importance. In the USA, social interaction is a goal in
almost all OD sessions. In addition, the current quest for Islamic revival
or “back to basics” tendency among educated Arabs may induce many
people to search for alternatives and be aware of changes around them.
 This may be appropriate/beneficial because it forces people to reflect on Organizational
their situation and broaden their horizons. Thus, it may be important for development in
the practitioner/consultant to play a major role in sensitizing people to the Arab world
the difference between aspirations and reality, between principles and
common – but unethical – practices.
(2) Do the results of the survey reflect real attitudes and values or a mere
infatuation with idealism? Again, there is almost always a tendency 11
among individual Arabs, because of their language and upbringing,
towards idealized forms. For example, Kuroda and Suzik[27] find that
relative to American and Japanese students, Arabs view organizations
as places where everything should be handled rationally without
establishing primacy in relationships among group members. Thus, the
authors concluded that favouritism, “give-and-take”, paternalism and
the like have no place in the Arab workplace. The reality of Arab
organizations, however, indicates that this is not the case. That is,
favouritism and paternalism are common in Arab organizations.
International researchers should be cautious in making such a hasty
generalization.
In the work environment, however, there does appear to be a gradual but real
change among educated groups, including managers. Unlike the less educated,
members of the more educated groups are seriously debating societal ills and
advocating changes. The rank and file, to a large extent, are still passive or at
best spectators with regard to societal attitudes and orientations. The OD
practitioner/consultant, therefore, should identify carefully, as the initial
“agents” for change, individuals who are receptive to change and able to
influence the rank and file. Once such individuals agree on change targets, other
workers are expected to follow. Nevertheless, the OD practitioner/consultant
should maintain focus on the change direction and targets while showing
sensitivity to a possible conformity of the rank and file to suggestions made by
such “agents”.

Assumptions about organizational change in Arab culture

In Islam man is master of the universe and is endowed with free will:
It is He [God] who created everything on earth for you[21, 2:29].
We have made you inhabit the land and provided you with the means of sustenance[21, 7:10]
…certainly no one will bear the responsibility of the sins of another, nor can man achieve
anything without hard labor[21, 53:39-40].

In addition, man and his society are in a state of dynamic change, but also in
complete harmony. The responsibility for change is left to man. The Quran[21,
13:11] states: “God does not change the condition of a nation unless it changes
what is in its heart”. Thus the issue of change is the sole responsibility of man,
preferably a collectively assumed responsibility. In addition, Arab traditions
highlight the importance of future commitments and orientations. Imam Ali
Journal of (598-661 AD) states: “Do not fill your heart with past sorrow; for this prevents
Management you from making preparation for the future”.
Development The question then is: “What is the nature of change for the Arab culture?” To
answer this question, it is necessary to identify the basic assumptions on which
15,5 change is predicated. Marshak[28] identifies the basic assumptions of the
Lewinian-based model underlying OD. Thus, an attempt is made here to
12 highlight the nature of change for Arab/Islamic culture by contrasting their key
features with elements used by Marshak[28].
A word of caution is in order here. The following model is not based on
current mind-sets in the Arab world, but has been drawn from ideas and
thoughts contained in the Quran. Six aspects of Quaranic thought are reflected:
(1) Change is neither cyclical nor linear; rather change flows in a zig-zag
pattern. During the prophet Mohammed’s time change was a continuous
process that often entailed going back to the initial stage all over again.
He started with the emphasis on qualities from the pre-Islamic Arab
culture (sensitizing stage) and incorporated these in his teaching. In the
second stage (transitional), he refined some instructions, gave the good
and bad aspects of some qualities, forgave faults but always reminded
the Arabs of their pre-Islamic situation. In the third phase, he sought to
establish a desired state. He was precise in his instruction clarifying
what is halal or right and what is mahram or prohibited. However,
change was frozen at certain points when he faced formidable resistance.
In addition, there were many segments of Arabian society that initially
subscribed to Islamic teaching but had doubt about some of its aspects.
Mohammed relied on reintervention through reinforcement and group
teaching methods. When the sermons and reminders failed, he resorted
to forceful methods as a last attempt. Just after his death, many Arabs
renounced Islam, thus his first successor had to intervene to reinstate
Islamic principles. The progression-regression-progression aspect of
change in Arab/Islamic culture has its roots in Islamic understanding of
motivation. In Islamic thought, unlike some western and especially US
motivation models, human needs are not hierarchically arranged. For
example, the spiritual need – an essential need in the Islamic system of
motivation represents a cushion that helps to absorb frustration, crisis,
failure, etc. Theoretically, it is supposed to provide a balance among the
other existing needs. There are, however, three levels of the human
psyche[29,30] that are specified in the Quran[21,12:53; 75:2; 89:27-30].
First, ammara (the prone-to-evil level): this is a primitive stage that man
shares with animals. Second, lawama (self-reproaching level): at this level
man is conscious of evil. There is a struggle between good and evil and
man seeks to repent to achieve salvation. Third, mutmainna (the
righteous level): the mind is perfectly in tune with good deeds and the
individual realizes complete satisfaction and self-actualization. The
dominance of a particular level of the psyche determines human needs
 and behaviour. The three levels of psyche, however, are in a state of Organizational
dynamism. The three levels of psyche are descriptive of personal values development in
and lifestyles. At the first level (ammara) a person is motivated by the the Arab world
urge to do things without regard to the consequences and harm that
might be inflicted on others. Here a person is motivated by only selfish
needs. That is, spiritual needs are not internalized. Thus a reorientation
strategy is essential to focus attention on the benefits of change. At the 13
second level (lawama), a person is clear about the advantages of change
but is influenced by selfish desire. Thus, the benefits of good deeds must
be reinforced by persistent reminders and examples. The third level
(mutmainna) represents perfection and happiness in doing one’s job and
realizing one’s goals. It is the ideal level, where change that maximizes
societal welfare and organizational goals is undertaken.
(2) Change is processional. One moves from one state to another. In the
process, however, a balance must be maintained; otherwise disharmony
prevails. Mental states, however, are not mutually exclusive; rather there
is a mix of states, with a tendency to lean towards one or another until a
state of equilibrium is reached. The Quran[21, 76:2-3] states: “We created
man from the union of sperm and egg to test him. We gave him hearing
and vision. We showed him the right path whether he should be grateful
or ungrateful”. Al-Sadr[31] argues: “A Muslim’s preoccupation with
spirituality may sometimes create in him a negative attitude in regard to
the worldly affairs and may lead him to renunciation, contentment or
lethargy”.
(3) Change is goal-oriented and is a continuous or open-ended process. Al-
Sadr[31] indicates that in the West, wealth and property have played a
big role in “stirring up [man’s] potential to organize developmental
activity in a particular manner”. There is an ever-increasing urge to
exploit and accumulate wealth. In Islam, however, a balance must be
achieved between the material and spiritual quests. In life a man has the
capacity to pursue various enjoyments. It is in the hereafter, however,
that unlimited enjoyments will be bestowed on him. The Quran states:
“And verily the end is better for thee than the beginning”.
(4) Change is aimed at maintaining equilibrium. In the Islamic faith man is
a two-dimensional creature. Thus man needs religion to protect him from
swinging either to ascentricism or to worldliness[32]. Prophet
Mohammed says: “The believers in their mutual love, sympathy and
cooperation, are like the [interacting] parts of the human body: when one
part complains, the other parts call each other to hasten to its rescue,
each sharing its pain and sleeplessness”.
(5) Change is planned and managed by people. The Quran not only gave the
responsibility for change to human beings but also appointed man as His
deputy on earth[21, 2:31]: “It is He who created everything on earth for
Journal of [man]”. Thus man has to master the universe and to have a purpose in
Management life. “Everyone pursues his goal. Compete with each other in performing
Development good deeds”[21, 2:29; 2:148].
15,5 (6) Change is normal. In the Islamic religion change is a natural process.
There are various forces that induce change and once conditions are ripe
for change it is time for man to act. Man, however, is not a passive actor;
14 rather man is proactive in directing change in a way that serves his own
and the community’s interests. Salvation comes from within through
knowledge and good deeds. Regression in life is a possibility.
Nevertheless, it is an exception not the norm.
The assumptions outlined above appear to have similarities to both Lewin’s (e.g.
change is managed by people) and Confucius’s (change is a continuous process,
through which one must maintain equilibrium) models of change[28] (see Table
II). In addition, the Arabic/Islamic assumptions about change have similarities
to those of western OD models. That is, there is a common emphasis on making
the organization more competitive and more human.
They differ, however, in many aspects (change being neither cyclical nor
linear, but rather a normal process in Islamic culture). This suggests that in the
Arab/Islamic world different change approaches may be needed. It is necessary
to note that some western OD practitioners have reported successful change

Western (Lewinian) East Asian (Confucian) a

OD/change isa: change isa: Arab/Islamic change is:

Linear Cyclical Movement in a zig-zag

pattern
Progressive Processional Processional
Destination-oriented Journey-oriented Goal-oriented and
continuous
Based on creating
disequilibrium Based on restoring/ Aimed at maintaining
maintaining equilibrium equilibrium
Planned and managed by Observed and followed by Planned and managed by
people who are external to people who are at one with people who must act
and independent of the everything and must act according to specific goals
objects or processes on why correctly to maintain
they act to achieve the harmony in the universe
desired goals
Unusual, because everything Usual because everything is Normal because everything is
is normally in a quasi- normally in a continually subject to change and man is
stationary or static state changing dynamic state proactive in directing change
Table II. in ways that serve his and
Assumptions about the community’s interests
change in different Source: a [28]
cultures
implementation in selected Arab states[33-36]. These practitioners were able to Organizational
observe non-western phenomena and react to them in a responsive way. development in
Nevertheless, caution is in order for two reasons: the Arab world
(1) Arab individuals are infatuated with ideal forms, even when they know
these forms are contradicted by reality. For the Arabs, the ideal is carried
out in conduct and is identical with practice rather than merely
15
constituting the criterion by which practice is to be judged[37-39]. Thus,
there may be a tendency to inflate any feedback (especially survey
feedback). For example, Ali[22] compared the results of the same survey
on the work ethic conducted in the USA and Scotland to those in the
Arab world and noticed that Arab managers scored higher than did
American and Scottish managers on the work ethic. However, this does
not mean that Arab managers are more productive than western
managers. Endorsement of the work ethic by Arab managers may not
mirror that of Arab society as a whole. In addition, Islam has an innately
positive view of hard work, but the endorsement of the work ethic
reflects a commitment to rather than a practice of principles.
(2) The assumptions outlined in the preceding paragraphs are based on
Islamic principles and early Islamic practices. The majority of the
population, however, are unaware of the genuine aspects of their culture
due to cultural discontinuity[40-43]. For example, issues of equity and
justice, consultation and fairness, hard work and discipline, honesty and
faithfulness, cleanliness and prohibition of briberies are detailed in the
scriptures. A large segment of the Islamic people, including Arabs, are
not familiar with these precepts and often tend to violate them in
practice.
So many parts of Islamic society have come to treat foreign practices and rituals
as their own that illusion is confused with reality[4-7,44,45]. Despite this fact,
there are some cultural qualities that Arabs have been able to preserve
generation after generation. These societal qualities have been identified in the
literature[4-7,15,16,37-45]. These qualities range from infatuation with ideal
forms and a willingness to change to strong social solidarity. Table III specifies
some of these qualities and their implications for organizational change.
Familiarity with cultural qualities accentuates cultural peculiarities and so
can often prevent social blunders and improve OD practitioners’ judgements
about the feasibility of some OD approaches. But, most importantly, identifying
societal qualities facilitates productive interaction and involvement between
OD practitioners and Arab participants.
Huse[46] grouped OD interventions into ten basic classifications:
(1) individual consultation activities;
(2) unstructured group training activities;
(3) structured group training;
 Qualities Implications for OD strategies

Displays flexibility Highlight the advantages of new methods in

in incorporating new facilitating growth and achieving goals
elements into traditional
structures

Adapts to an ever-changing Facilitate adaptation of new techniques

environment

Infatuation with idealized forms Relate intended changes to the experience of idealized
Arab leaders to emphasize that these leaders were
gifted and were agents of change

Love of normative and Discuss the philosophical dimensions of the new

philosophical arguments approaches/techniques

Politeness and enthusiasm Encourage participants to be involved in the change

process and identify possible avenues for productive
conduct

Optimistic outlook Identify the benefits of changes in the long term and
encourage participation in designing programmes
after a short period of orientation

Belief in self-development Encourage participation in the change process after a

feeling of trust is established

Consultative tendency Consult with subordinates and participants on

matters that affect them

Tendency to emulate and Consultant/practitioner should display the image of

identify with the hero image protector who has courage in making decisions and is
firm and responsible

Deep sense of family and Foster social relationships among groups, meet group
primary group loyalty needs and emphasize that commitment to
organizational goals benefits everyone

Self-awareness (social and Highlight the importance of involvement in

individual) organizational analysis by identifying weaknesses
and recognizing outstanding performance; place
emphasis on the familial aspects of the group and that
involvement in the process of change fosters
professional growth and development

Respect for personal dignity Emphasize personal relationships and the value of
identifying with others in need of help and assistance
Table III. Avoids displays of public Encourage intensive discussion of the problems to be
Societal qualities and conflict solved and highlight the importance of an open
their implications for agreement/disagreement and that the goal is to
organizational recognize group cohesiveness
development (Continued)
strategies
Qualities Implications for OD strategies

Believes that problem solving Commit urgent attention to the problems at hand and
is best achieved through provide a comprehensive solution on a timely basis
immediate and integrated
action

Respectful of mediating approaches Play the role of a mediator who is interested in

to conflict resolution avoiding/reducing conflict and in ensuring smooth
operations

Intellectual inquisitiveness Highlight how curiosity helps advance personal and

professional growth and emphasize that seeking
knowledge is a virtue that was accentuated in the
Quran and in Prophet Mohammed’s practice

Contempt for rigid rules and strict Highlight the need to reduce rules and organizational
orders constraints; encourage openness and input from
participants

Esteem for equality and social justice Keep open channels of communication; show kindness
and identify with participants’ needs

Focus on intentions Clarify in advance the expected benefits of new

approaches to the organization and the community

Results-oriented focus Clarify goals and expected benefits for participants

and organizations Table III.

(4) process consultation;

(5) survey-guided development efforts;
(6) job redesign;
(7) personnel system methods;
(8) management information and financial control systems;
(9) organizational design; and
(10) integrated approaches.
Many of these methods have been used in the Arab world. In fact, personnel
system methods, management information and financial control systems, and
survey-guided development efforts have been used intensively by public and
private organizations. Unstructured group training approaches, along with
process and individual consultations, however, may not be as adequate in
achieving serious planned changes. One method that appears to be useful is
structured group training. Under this approach, various types of intervention
are possible. The most common are: lectures, group exercises, group problem
solving, story telling and case studies. Table IV provides a comparison of these
intervention methods across specific criteria. It is important to note that
Table IV.

intervention methods
across specific criteria
Comparison of various
Group
Group problem Story
Criterion Lecture exercise solving Cases telling

Acceptability Medium to Fairly high Fairly high High Very high

high

Feasibility Very high High High Very high Easy

Motivational potential It depends on If status differences Selecting a Cases that Story telling can
the content and are avoided and the problem that are new and be highly
personality of the physical setting relates to challenging motivating especially
OD practictioner/ arranged carefully, organization could produce a if focus is on real
consultant. Arabs it could stimulate and its desired impact foreign and
are infatuated with and motivate competitors domestic issues, and
the figure of a participants to could produce a if the stories provided
prophetic leader who achieve a higher desired effect are meaningful
is visionary and goal
confident

Consistency with Very high Medium to high Medium to high High to very high Highly consistent
cultural norms

Achieving the Possibly high if Possibly only Possibly medium Possibly high – Possibly very high
desired change the presenter medium – role to high – to meet the Arab participants provided that
manages to keep playing tends to desired goal, prefer to identify stories are
participants have immediate practical and with practical connected to
emotionally involved but not long-term challenging issues organizational life
and sensitizes them impact on an problems must and explained in the
to common problems individual’s be provided context of the
orientations, unless society’s culture and
it is reinforced through values
a variety of situations
over a longer period
methods of intervention are useful, especially if trainers avoid the trap of Organizational
“playing the expert” and strive to motivate participants and clients to tackle development in
organizational issues in an environment of trust. Since Arabs often rely on the Arab world
common sense, trainers should focus their attention on building trust by
dealing with issues patiently, competently, and confidentially. This implies that
trainers should avoid condemnation and confrontation, and utilize dialogue
instead in directing intervention methods. Furthermore, trainers should use 19
traditional methods in facilitating change in terms of the above types of
intervention.
Three traditional methods stand out. The first is mudarasa or spirited
debate. This is a means to stimulate discussion, generate better ideas and
develop new perspectives. The role of the leader is to identify the specific issue
for discussion, direct the meeting and provide various options for tackling the
problem. The second is muthakrha or specific goal-oriented assignments that
will be the subject of intensive mudarasa. The third is munatharah or theory
building: an individual introduces his/her theory and others comment on its
strengths and deficiencies. These traditional methods have been used in Arab
culture and have helped, to some extent, in maintaining cultural identity
through transition. Their utility to OD should not be underestimated. They may
call attention, however, to the need for a different mind-set on the part of the
facilitator.

Conclusion
This paper has sought to identify cultural attributes prevalent in the Arab
world and their OD implications. In addition, the paper has reviewed major
Islamic schools of thought and the application of OD under each school. Several
aspects of the Islamic work ethic have been highlighted and the possibility of
organizational change addressed.
The paper concludes that Islamic values and culture, if correctly identified
and understood, would facilitate organizational change and development. The
issue of OD in Arab culture has seldom been addressed adequately in the
literature. In this paper several questions have been raised and attempts made
to specify cultural assumptions and to identify societal qualities required for
OD change. Future research should focus on the development of OD models
that are relevant to Arab and Islamic cultures. In particular, the paper has
suggested issues of which OD consultants should be aware. Furthermore, it has
raised the question: should OD consultants, in their work processes, advocate
ideal principles in spite of the current prevalence of unethical practices? This
question needs to be answered by future research. There is a need to challenge
the traditional role of OD consultants and to persuade them to broaden their
societal perspective, instead of confining their attention within the boundaries
of organizations and the limits set by their clients. This is especially pertinent,
as more and more OD consultants engage in international or cross-cultural
assignments.
Journal of Finally, the paper advocates that the role of the prophetic “Great Man” in
Management Arab culture needs to be examined in the context of the OD process and
Development organizational change.
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