Hindawi Publishing Corporation

Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Volume 2014, Article ID 650752, 16 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/650752

Research Article
External Thermal Insulation Composite Systems:
Critical Parameters for Surface Hygrothermal Behaviour

Eva Barreira and Vasco P. de Freitas

Laboratory of Building Physics (LFC), Civil Engineering Department (DEC), Faculty of Engineering-University of Porto (FE/UP),
Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal

Correspondence should be addressed to Eva Barreira; [email protected]

Received 13 May 2013; Accepted 4 November 2013; Published 5 February 2014

Academic Editor: Markku Leskela

Copyright © 2014 E. Barreira and V. P. de Freitas. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.

External Thermal Insulation Composite Systems (ETICS) are often used in Europe. Despite its thermal advantages, low cost, and
ease of application, this system has serious problems of biological growth causing the cladding defacement. Recent studies pointed
that biological growth is due to high values of surface moisture content, which mostly results from the combined effect of exterior
surface condensation, wind-driven rain, and drying process. Based on numerical simulation, this paper points the most critical
parameters involved in hygrothermal behaviour of ETICS, considering the influence of thermal and hygric properties of the external
rendering, the effect of the characteristics of the façade, and the consequences of the exterior and interior climate on exterior surface
condensation, wind-driven rain, and drying process. The model used was previously validated by comparison with the results of an
“in situ” campaign. The results of the sensitivity analyses show that relative humidity and temperature of the exterior air, atmospheric
radiation, and emissivity of the exterior rendering are the parameters that most influence exterior surface condensation. Wind-
driven rain depends mostly on horizontal rain, building’s height, wind velocity, and orientation. The drying capacity is influenced
by short-wave absorbance, incident solar radiation, and orientation.

1. Introduction these systems, to measure the properties of its components,

to identify the main problems, and, in some cases, to develop
External Thermal Insulation Composite Systems (ETICS) are solutions [1–6].
often used in Europe since the 70’s, both in new buildings and One of the problems not yet solved is the cladding
in retrofitting. The popularity of this technology grew due defacement due to biological growth. Studies already per-
to its advantages regarding other techniques of insulation. formed in this field pointed high values of surface moisture
ETICS guarantees the reduction of the thermal bridges content as the cause of biological growth. External surface
and greater thermal comfort due to the higher interior moisture results from the combined effect of four parameters:
thermal inertia, providing a finished appearance similar to surface condensation, wind-driven rain, drying process, and
the traditional rendering. From the construction point of properties of the exterior layer [3, 5, 7–15].
view, ETICS allows thinner exterior walls and increases Although no changes occur in the thermal and mechan-
the facades’ durability. To the pointed advantages, three ical performance of the system, biological defacement has
very relevant aspects in the construction industry must be an enormous aesthetic impact, which gathers the building’s
added: low cost, ease of application, and possibility to be dwellers disapproval and restricts the full implementation of
installed without disturbing the building’s dwellers, which is this technology.
particularly important in refurbishment.
However, past applications of ETICS have revealed some 2. Main Advantages and Pathologies of ETICS
problems, particularly low impact resistance and the cladding
defacement due to biological growth. The scientific com- According to ETAG 004 [16], ETICS are systems comprising
munity has performed various studies to fully characterise prefabricated insulation panels, bonded and/or mechanically
2 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

35 ∘ C 35 ∘ C

Substrate 20 ∘ C 20 ∘ C

Expanded polystyrene (EPS)

Base coat
Fibreglass mesh
−10 ∘ C −10 ∘ C
Key coat (optional)
Thin acrylic-based coat Figure 3: Temperature variation in exterior walls [4].

Figure 1: Schematic example of ETICS available in the Portuguese

gains also increase, and during the warm season,
market [4]. delaying and moderating fluctuations of the heat flow
that helps maintaining the building temperature.
(iv) Increase of the facades’ durability as the masonry
is better protected from the climate loads (thermal
gradient—Figure 3, wind-driven rain, etc.).
(v) Ease of application and possibility to be installed
without disturbing the building’s dwellers, which are
particularly important in refurbishment.
(vi) High variety of finishing solutions, providing a simi-
lar appearance to the traditional rendering.
Several defects have been stated during the last decades
Figure 2: Reduction of heat losses due to the continued thermal of ETICS application in building façades, namely, lack of
insulation [4]. flatness highlighted by an oblique angle of sunlight striking
the surface, cracks in the rendering along the insulation
board joints or starting at the windows corners, accumulated
fixed onto the wall, and reinforced rendering, consisting in dirt due to rain water run-off, blistering or delamination
one or more layers and applied directly to the insulation. of the finishing coating or of all rendering layers, lack of
These systems should provide minimal thermal resistance in adhesiveness of the system causing its partial or total collapse,
excess of 1 m2 K/W. Normally, in the Portuguese market, the and so forth [4, 6, 17]. These defects are a result of design
insulation panels are expanded polystyrene (EPS), adhesively errors or bad workmanship. However, there are other two
attached to the substrate and covered with a base coat very relevant defects that are a characteristic of the system as
reinforced with fibreglass mesh. The finish coat is a thin it is manufactured nowadays.
acrylic-based rendering (Figure 1).
(i) Low resistance to normal impact generated compres-
The main advantages of ETICS, which have boosted its
sive stresses. This is a problem especially in accessible
commercial growth, are [1, 2, 4] as follows.
areas of the system and it not only has an aesthetic
(i) Reduction of the thermal bridges and global heat impact but also may compromise the system perfor-
losses due to the guaranteed continued thermal mance with respect to moisture protection from rain
insulation of the building envelop (Figure 2). As and exterior water vapour condensation (Figure 4).
a consequence, energy consumption decreases and (ii) Defacement of ETICS due to biological growth.
health conditions inside the building improve because Biological growth is due to high values of surface
interior surface condensation on the wall singularities moisture content, which results from the combined
is reduced. effect of four parameters: wetting due to surface
(ii) Increase of the effective interior area of the building’s condensation, which occurs mainly during the nights
rooms. This may be due to thinner exterior walls when with clear sky, wetting due to wind-driven rain,
single-leaf walls are designed instead of cavity walls or drying process, and properties of the exterior layer
because of the application of the thermal insulation (Figure 5).
on the wall’s exterior side instead of the interior one,
when the refurbishment of the façades implies higher 3. Numerical Simulation of Hygrothermal
thickness of insulation.
Behaviour of ETICS
(iii) The insulation lies on the outside of the wall resulting
in a higher thermal mass on the inside. This increases Different models for the coupled heat, air, and moisture
the thermal comfort during the cold season, as solar (HAM) transport have been developed and incorporated into
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 3

Figure 4: Damage of ETICS due to in-service impact (school building in Porto, Portugal).

Figure 5: Defacement of ETICS due to biological growth (school building in Porto, Portugal).

various software programs used in the field of porous build- material (J/kg), 𝑤 is the moisture content (kg/m3 ), 𝜆 is the
ing materials. However, most of the hygrothermal models thermal conductivity (W/m⋅K), 𝐷𝜙 is the liquid conduction
available to the public in general are not able to simulate coefficient (kg/m⋅s), 𝛿𝑝 is the water vapour permeability
properly the hygrothermal behaviour of ETICS, namely, the (kg/m⋅s⋅Pa), ℎV is the evaporation enthalpy of the water (J/kg),
undercooling phenomenon, responsible for external surface 𝑝sat is the water vapour saturation pressure (Pa), 𝑇 is the
condensation, and the effect of rain incident on the façade temperature (K), and 𝜙 is the relative humidity (%).
[18]. Regarding the treatment of the radiation effect on the
The software WUFI, developed by the Fraunhofer IBP in exterior surface, WUFI uses an explicit balance of the long-
Germany, is a commercial tool with the ability to simulate the wave radiation, defining the surface emission, 𝐼𝑒 , and the
undercooling phenomenon as an explicit balance of the long- radiation reaching the façade, 𝐼𝑙 . They are combined with the
wave radiation incident on the façade is used. The governing short-wave radiation components, 𝐼𝑠 , into a collective heat
equations for moisture and energy transfer are, respectively source at the surface which may have positive or negative
[19], value, depending on the overall radiation balance: a positive
value leads to heating up the component and a negative value
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝜙 leads to cooling it. With this methodology, the exterior heat
= ∇ (𝐷𝜙 ∇𝜙 + 𝛿𝑝 ∇ (𝜙𝑝sat )) ,
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝑡 transfer coefficient only contains the convective part [20, 21]:
(1)
𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝑇 𝑞 = 𝛼𝑠 × 𝐼𝑠 + 𝜀𝑙,surf × 𝐼𝑙 − 𝐼𝑒 . (2)
= ∇ (𝜆∇𝑇) + ℎV ∇ (𝛿𝑝 ∇ (𝜙𝑝sat )) ,
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑡
In (2), the two first items give the total amount of radiation
where 𝜕𝑤/𝜕𝜙 is the moisture storage capacity (kg/m3 %), (short and long) reaching the surface, as, according to
𝜕𝐻/𝜕𝑇 is the heat storage capacity of the moist building Kirchoff Law, the emissivity of a surface, 𝜀𝑙,surf , is equal
4 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Resin finishing coat (th = 0.005 m)

EPS (th = 0.04 m)

Concrete (th = 0.20 m)

Cement plaster (th = 0.015 m)

Building under study

(a) Aerial view of the campaign site (b) West façade (c) Layers of the wall

Figure 6: Building under study, located in University of Porto campus, Portugal.

to its long-wave absorbance. The last item is the radiation surface and diffuse) and the short-wave radiation reflectivity
emitted by the building surface. The total solar radiation, 𝐼𝑠 , is of the ground. The atmospheric long-wave radiation, 𝐼𝑙,atm ,
described as a function of the direct solar radiation normal to necessary for the calculation is read directly from the climatic
component surface, 𝐼𝑠,dir , of the diffuse solar radiation, 𝐼𝑠,dif , file, if it has this information available, or it may be calculated
affected by the atmospheric field of view, 𝑔atm , and of the solar using the cloud index data [20, 21].
radiation reflected by the ground, 𝐼𝑠,ref , affected by the field of To assess wind-driven rain (WDR), WUFI uses [20]
view of the ground, 𝑔ter :
WDR = 𝑅ℎ × (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 × V10 × cos 𝜃) , (6)
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑠,dir + 𝑔atm × 𝐼𝑠,dif + 𝑔ter × 𝐼𝑠,ref . (3)
where WDR is the wind-driven rain intensity (mm/h), 𝑅ℎ is
The total long-wave radiation reaching the surface, 𝐼𝑙 , the horizontal rainfall amount (mm/h), 𝑅1 is a driving rain
depends on the downward atmospheric radiation, 𝐼𝑙,atm , coefficient that depends on the construction element (is equal
affected by the atmospheric field of view, 𝑔atm . It also depends to 0 for façades), 𝑅2 is a driving rain coefficient that depends
on the emission and reflection of long-wave radiation by on the position on the façade, V10 is reference wind speed at
the ground, both affected by the ground field of view, 10 m above ground (m/s), and 𝜃 is the angle between the wind
𝑔ter . Long-wave radiation emitted by the ground, 𝐼𝑙,ter , is direction and the normal to the façade (∘ ).
calculated by the Stefan-Boltzmann Law, assuming that the
ground has the same temperature as the air and inputting 4. Validation of the Numerical Model
the ground long-wave emissivity. The atmospheric long-wave
radiation reflected by the ground is calculated using the 4.1. Experimental Set-Up. An “in situ” test campaign was
atmospheric long-wave radiation, 𝐼𝑙,atm , and the long-wave carried out during one year, from March 2009 to February
radiation reflectivity of the ground, 𝜌ter : 2010. Instruments were set up on the west façade covered
with ETICS of a building located in the University of Porto
𝐼𝑙 = 𝑔atm × 𝐼𝑙,atm + 𝑔ter × (𝐼𝑙,ter + 𝜌ter × 𝐼𝑙,atm ) . (4) campus (Figure 6). T-type thermocouples set up on the
façade under study provided information about the surface
The sky radiation is ruled by the Plank Law, considering
temperature and WDR gauges measured the amount of
the concept of effective sky temperature, which can be defined
rain incident on the façade (black dot in Figure 7). At the
as the temperature of a blackbody that emits the same amount
same time, climate parameters were also collected by the
of radiation as the sky [22]. The effective sky temperature
Building Physics Laboratory Weather Station, located near
depends on several atmospheric conditions, which are rarely
the building under study (Figure 7). Air temperature and
available. For that reason, it is assumed that the sky behaves
relative humidity were also collected inside the building.
like a grey body, ruled by Stefan-Boltzmann Law, considering
The annual averages of the outdoor and indoor climate are
the sky emissivity and the air temperature near the ground
presented in Table 1. Information regarding the accuracy
[23].
and calibration of the surface devices and about the weather
The long-wave radiation emitted by the surface, 𝐼𝑒 ,
station is given by Barreira [25].
depends on the surface emissivity, 𝜀𝑙,surf , and temperature,
𝑇surf , as it is ruled by the Stefan-Boltzmann Law:
4.2. Parameters for the Numerical Simulation. The hygrother-
4 mal software tool that was used to perform the simula-
𝐼𝑒 = 𝜀𝑙,surf × 𝜎 × 𝑇surf . (5)
tions was WUFI 1D (Section 3). Its inputs are the material
From the above equations, the direct solar radiation normal properties of each layer of the building component under
to component surface, 𝐼𝑠,dir , is automatically calculated by the study, orientation, inclination and height of the building
model from the direct solar radiation in horizontal surface, component, the surface transfer coefficients of the interior
included in the climatic data, using information about the sun and exterior layer, the radiant characteristics of the ground,
position. The diffuse solar radiation, 𝐼𝑠,dif , is obtained directly and the initial moisture and temperature in the component.
from the climatic data. The solar radiation reflected, 𝐼𝑠,ref , The hourly parameters of indoor and outdoor climate are also
is calculated using solar radiation data (direct in horizontal required. The outputs of the simulations are hourly values of
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 5

8∘

WS-LFC/FEUP

Figure 7: Layout with the surface devices and weather station locations.

Table 1: Outdoor and indoor climate during the test campaign Table 2: Properties of the exterior rendering (resin finishing coat).
(annual average).
Adopted
Property
Annual average value
Climatic parameter
Outdoor Indoor Basic properties
∘
Temperature ∘
15.4 C 20.3 C Bulk density (kg/m3 ) 1600
Relative humidity 72% 69% Porosity (m3 /m3 ) 0.2
Global radiation emitted by Heat capacity (J/kg⋅K) 850
the sun Heat conductivity dry (W/m⋅K) 1
Annual ave. of the positive
254 W/m2 Diffusion resistance factor dry (—) 25
values only∗ —
2 Additional hygrothermal functions
Annual max. value 1122 W/m
Moisture storage function No∗
Radiation emitted by the sky 335 W/m2 —
∘
Liquid transport coefficients for suction
Wind velocity/direction 1.4 m/s/170 — 0
and redistribution (m2 /s)
Climatic parameter Annual accumulated value Not
Water vapour diffusion resistance factor,
Rain 874 mm — moisture-
moisture-dependent
∗
The null values, corresponding to night-time, were not considered in the
dependent
average calculation. Not
Thermal conductivity,
moisture-
moisture-dependent
dependent
∗
surface temperature of the exterior layer and amount of rain It was assumed that the exterior rendering has no hygroscopic behaviour.
that reaches the façade.
The simulations were run using the wall from Figure 6(c). Table 3: Surface transfer coefficients in numerical simulations.
The materials used in each layer were selected from software
Surface transfer coefficients
database, which also gives the material thermal and hygric
properties necessary for simulations. No changes were made Leeward:
Exterior convective heat transfer 𝛼𝑐 = 0.33 × Vwind + 4.5
to them, except for the exterior rendering, whose adopted
coefficient (W/m2 ⋅K) Windward:
properties are shown in Table 2, considering a single layer 𝛼𝑐 = 0.16 × Vwind + 4.5
as the base coat has similar properties to the finishing coat.
Short-wave radiation absorbance
These properties were collected from the technical sheets of (exterior rendering)
0.35
the products used in the wall.
Long-wave radiation emissivity (exterior
The surface transfer coefficients used in the simulations 0.85 (measured value)
rendering)
are shown in Table 3. The wall was simulated facing west
and belonging to the upper part of a tall building (WDR Long-wave radiation emissivity (ground) 0.90 (measured value)
coefficient or 𝑅2 = 0.2 s/m). The hourly climatic data used Short-wave radiation reflectance
0.20
for the simulations were measured in the real conditions of (ground)
use and the annual averages are presented in Table 1. Long-wave radiation reflectance (ground) 0.10
Interior heat resistance (m2 ⋅K/W) 0.125
Rain absorption factor 0.70
4.3. Comparison between Simulated and Measured Values
4.3.1. Surface Temperature. Figure 8 shows surface tempera-
ture variation, measured and calculated, on the west façade, distribution function considering the whole month. The
during one day of November 2009 and the cumulative results show that there is a good agreement between the
6 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

35 100
30 90
80
25 70
20 60
T (∘ C)

(%)
50
15 40
10 30
5 20
10
0 0
17-11-09 15:00 18-11-09 3:30 18-11-09 16:00 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0
T (∘ C)
Meas
Sim Meas
Sim

Figure 8: Variation in time and the cumulative distribution function of surface temperature on west façade in November 2009, with clear
sky (measurements versus numerical simulation).

30
25
20
T (∘ C)

15
10
5
0
5-11-09 23:00 6-11-09 11:30 7-11-09 0:00

Meas
Sim

Figure 9: Variation in time of surface temperature on west façade in November 2009, with cloudy sky (measurements versus numerical
simulation).

simulated and measured values, especially during the night are presented. Those results support a discussion on the
when temperatures were lower. During daylight, with clear relevance of each parameter for the surface condensation,
sky, the measured values are higher than the simulated values, wind-driven rain, and drying process. The parameters under
which may be related to inaccuracies in the calculation of the discussion were divided into four categories:
sun position in the horizon, which influences the amount of
direct solar radiation incident on the façade. The differences (a) properties of the exterior layer: moisture diffusivity,
obtained between simulated and measured values when the water vapour resistance, emissivity, absorbance to
sky is clear are less relevant when the sky is cloudy, as shown solar radiation, and thickness;
in Figure 9. Similar results were obtained when comparing (b) characteristics of the façade: orientation, height of the
measured and calculated values of surface temperature for the building, and total thermal resistance;
whole year under study. (c) exterior climate: temperature, relative humidity, solar
radiation, atmospheric radiation, wind velocity, wind
4.3.2. Wind-Driven Rain. Figure 10 shows that the measured direction, and rain;
and calculated values are quite similar, although the simu-
lated values are always higher than the measured values. That (d) interior hygrothermal conditions: temperature and
may be related, as stated by Nore et al. [26], to evaporation relative humidity.
of adhesion water from the gauge collection area or from the To assess the influence of each parameter, WUFI was used
reservoir, slashing of drops from the collection area at impact, to perform the numerical simulations. The simulations were
and so forth. Similar results were obtained for the whole year run considering the conditions described in Section 4, except
under study. for outdoor and indoor climate. The hourly outdoor climatic
data of Porto, Portugal, was numerically generated by the
5. Critical Parameters Involved in commercial software Meteonorm 6 [24]. Table 4 shows the
Hygrothermal Behaviour of ETICS average of the climatic parameters. Indoor temperature and
relative humidity were set to be constant: indoor temperature
5.1. Introductory Notes. In this paragraph, the results of a sen- was set to be 20∘ C and indoor relative humidity was set to
sitivity analysis, performed based on numerical simulations, be 60%. Although this is not a realistic situation, these values
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 7

2.5 12

2.0 10
8
WDR (mm)

WDR (mm)
1.5
6
1.0
4
0.5 2

0.0 0
28-11-09 11:00 28-11-09 23:30 29-11-09 12:00
Meas
Meas Sim
Sim

Figure 10: Variation in time and accumulated values of WDR on west façade in November 2009 (measurements versus numerical simulation).

Table 4: Porto climate generated by the commercial software partial pressure in the air (𝑃V (air) in Pa) and the water vapour
Meteonorm 6 [24]. saturation pressure on the surface (𝑃sat (surface) in Pa) may
be called Condensation Potential (CP in Pa), which implies
Climatic parameter Annual average
condensation for positive values. CP can be understood as the
Temperature 14.8∘ C amount of water vapour that is available to condensate:
Relative humidity 78%
Global radiation emitted by the sun CP = 𝑃V (air) − 𝑃sat (surface) . (7)
Annual ave. of the positive values 343 W/m 2
only∗ The same author states that both positive CP and its lasted
Radiation emitted by the sky 337 W/m2 time should be considered to evaluate the amount of conden-
Wind velocity/direction 2.6 m/s/195∘ sation. The product of positive CP (CP(>0) in Pa) by its lasted
time (Δ𝑡CP(>0) in h) may be called Condensation Potential
Climatic parameter Annual accumulated value
Equivalent (CPE in Pa⋅h) and allows estimating the amount
Rain 779 mm
∗
of condensated water. To estimate the risk of condensation for
The null values, corresponding to night-time, were not considered in the a certain period of time, CPE must be accumulated in time
average calculation.
(CPE𝑎 ):

were adopted for the sake of simplicity and considering that CPE = CP(>0) ⋅ Δ𝑡CP(>0) . (8)
the phenomenon under study occurs outdoors.
For the sensitivity analyses, each parameter was changed 5.3. Drying Process. The drying process allows the evapora-
individually, in a range selected based on the likelihood tion of the liquid water accumulated on the surface due to
of the variation. It must be clarified that the new exterior the surface condensation and WDR. Evaporation from the
climate created for each simulation is not real and the existing wet surface occurs whenever the saturation pressure at the
correlation between climatic parameters was not considered surface is greater than the vapour pressure of the ambient air
in this analysis. [28]. If the drying process is not sufficiently fast, the surface
moisture content remains high for long periods and increases
5.2. Exterior Surface Condensation. Exterior surface conden- the risk of microbiological growth [10].
sation occurs mostly during the night, when the exterior sur- As condensation, also the drying capacity of a wet surface
face temperature is lower than the dew point temperature, as can be analyzed using psychrometry principles [28]. By
a result of long-wave radiation exchange between the surface analogy, it is possible to establish the concept of Drying
and the atmosphere. During clear nights, the atmosphere’s Potential (DP in Pa) being the difference between the water
emitted radiation decreases considerably and the radiation vapour saturation pressure on the surface (𝑃sat (surface) in
emitted by the surface is greater than the one that reaches Pa) and the water vapour partial pressure in the air (𝑃V (air)
the surface, causing a loss of radiation towards the sky. This in Pa), which implies evaporation for positive values. DP can
negative balance on the surface is maintained until heat be understood as the amount of water vapour transferred to
transport by convection and by conduction compensates for the air, considering that the surface remains permanently wet:
the loss by radiation [27].
Exterior surface condensation can be analyzed using DP = 𝑃sat (surface) − 𝑃V (air) . (9)
psychrometry principles. When water vapour partial pressure
of the air is greater than the water vapour saturation pressure To evaluate the maximum ability to dry out, the product of
at the surface, condensation will occur [28]. According to positive DP (DP(>0) , in Pa) by its lasted time. (Δ𝑡DP(>0) , in
Zheng et al. [29], the difference between the water vapour h) shall be considered and may be called Drying Potential
8 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Table 5: Relevance of the parameter values and expected variations in terms of surface condensation (C), WDR, and drying process (D).

Relevance
Parameter Initial situation Variation
C WDR D
Properties of the exterior layer
Moisture diffusivity, in (m2 /s) 0 0.0013∗ # # #
Water vapour diffusion resistance factor 25 1000 # # #
Emissivity (Figure 11) 0.85 0.60 ### # #
Absorbance to solar radiation (Figure 12) 0.35 0.50 # # ##
Thickness, in (m) 0.005 0.02 # # #
Characteristics of the façade
Orientation (Figure 13) W N; E; S # ## ##
Height of the building (Figure 14) Tall Small # ### #
Total thermal resistance (Figure 15) 𝑒EPS = 0.04 m 𝑒EPS = 0.06 m ## # #
Exterior climate
Temperature, in (∘ C) (Figure 16) 𝑇Porto 𝑇Porto − 2 ### # #
Relative humidity, in (%) (Figure 17) HRPorto HRPorto − 5 ### # #
Solar radiation, in (W/m2 ) (Figure 18) 𝐼𝑠-Porto 0.70 × 𝐼𝑠-Porto # # ##
Atmospheric radiation, in (W/m2 ) (Figure 19) 𝐼atm-Porto 1.05 × 𝐼atm-Porto ### # #
Wind velocity, in (m/s) (Figure 20) 𝑊V-Porto 0.90 × 𝑊V-Porto # ## #
Wind direction, in (∘ ) DirV-Porto DirV-Porto + 180 # ## #
Rain, in (mm) (Figure 21) RainPorto 0.20 × RainPorto # ### #
Interior climate
Temperature, in (∘ C) (Figure 22) 20 22 ## # #
Relative humidity, in (%) 60 65 # # #
∗
For moisture content at 80% of RH (WUFI database).
Scale: # Low. ## Medium. ### High.

Equivalent (DPE in Pa⋅h). To estimate this ability for a certain influenced by rain, height of the building, wind velocity, wind
period of time, DPE must be accumulated in time (DPE𝑎 ): direction, and orientation. Figures 11 to 22 show the results
obtained for the parameters that most influence surface
DPE = DP(>0) ⋅ Δ𝑡DP(>0) . (10) condensation, WDR, and drying process.
Different values adopted for the exterior layer emissivity
It must be stated that DPE𝑎 is not useful as a parameter and absorbance to short-wave radiation may change the
for modelling the real drying capacity of a wet surface, as surface temperature. The emissivity rules the amount of long-
it is not permanently saturated. After some time, the liquid wave radiation emitted by the surface and, consequently, the
water evaporates and the vapour pressure at the surface loss of heat by radiation. The greater the emissivity is, the
depends not only on the surface temperature, but also on its higher the radiation emitted by the surface is and the greater
relative humidity. However, to simplify the parameters used the drop of the surface temperature is. This phenomenon
to evaluate the drying process, DPE𝑎 can be employed as an occurs both during the day and during the night but has more
overvalued drying capacity. impact for the night period as during the day, the sun effect is
preponderant (Figure 11). The absorbance coefficient to short-
5.4. Discussion of the Results. Table 5 shows a qualitative anal- wave radiation influences the solar radiation absorbed by the
ysis of the results obtained in the simulations and points the wall during the day and changes the surface temperature.
relevance of each parameter in surface condensation, WDR, Its effect on surface temperature is quite relevant during
and drying process, by comparing, respectively, the annual the day, but, during the night, due to the small thermal
accumulated values of CPE, WDR, and DPE calculated for capacity of the rendering layer, the heat stored is rapidly lost
the initial situation with the ones obtained after changing the and temperatures only increase slightly (Figure 12). Similar
parameter under study. studies carried out by the Fraunhofer IBP point these same
The results show that the parameters that most influ- conclusions, both for emissivity and for absorbance to short-
ence surface condensation are exterior relative humidity, wave radiation, considering the Holzkirchen climate [10, 27,
atmospheric radiation, exterior temperature, and emissivity, 30, 31]. WDR does not depend on exterior layer emissivity
followed by the total thermal resistance of the wall and and absorbance to short-wave radiation.
the interior temperature. The most relevant parameters in The wall orientation has some influence on the surface
the drying process are absorbance to short-wave radiation, temperature and on the amount of rain that reaches the façade
solar radiation, and orientation. Wind-driven rain is most (Figure 13). During the day, the surface temperature variation
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 9

20000 9000000

18000 8000000
16000 7000000
14000
6000000

DPE (Pa·h)
12000
CPE (Pa ·h) 5000000
10000
4000000
8000
3000000
6000

4000 2000000

2000 1000000

0 0
Annual accum. value of CPE Annual accum. value of DPE

e = 0.85 e = 0.85
e = 0.60 e = 0.60

Figure 11: Properties of the exterior layer: emissivity.

20000 9000000
18000 8000000
16000
7000000
14000
6000000
DPE (Pa·h)
CPE (Pa ·h)

12000
5000000
10000
4000000
8000
3000000
6000

4000 2000000

2000 1000000

0 0
Annual accum. value of CPE Annual accum. value of DPE

a = 0.35 a = 0.35
a = 0.50 a = 0.50

Figure 12: Properties of the exterior layer: absorbance to solar radiation.

is related to the amount of direct solar radiation incident on WDR also depends on the façade orientation as the
the façade. During the night, the loss of heat by radiation does combined effect of rain and wind is only taken into account
not depend on orientation. Consequently, the drying capacity if the wind is facing the façade. The annual accumulated
is higher in the south façade and lower in the north façade and WDR value is lower than the expected value. That may be
the condensation is almost similar for all orientations. The justified by the fact that calculated values of WDR depend
studies carried out by Zillig et al. [30] and Holm et al. [27] considerably on the model used in the simulation. As stated
also point small differences on the amounts of condensation by Freitas et al. [32], there are significant differences between
with orientation. However, the variation of condensation with the values obtained using different WDR models. Also, the
orientation is not similar, as Fraunhofer IBP pointed that amount of rain in a horizontal plane given by Meteonorm is
the west façade had higher condensation followed by north, lower than the expected value (Tables 1 and 4).
south, and east, which is not in accordance with Figure 13. The height of the building has no impact on the surface
This difference in the results may be due to different climatic temperature of the façade (Figure 14). Although the wind
conditions and parameters assumed for the simulations. velocity increases with the distance from the ground and,
10 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

20000 100 9000000

18000 90 8000000
16000 80 7000000
14000 70
6000000

WDR (mm)
CPE (Pa ·h)

DPE (Pa·h)
12000 60
5000000
10000 50
4000000
8000 40
3000000
6000 30
2000000
4000 20

2000 10 1000000

0 0 0
Annual accum. value of CPE Annual accum. value of WDR Annual accum. value of DPE

W E W E W E
N S N S N S

Figure 13: Characteristics of the façade: orientation.

20000 90 9000000

18000 80 8000000
16000 70 7000000
14000
60 6000000
WDR (mm)

DPE (Pa·h)
CPE (Pa ·h)

12000
50 5000000
10000
40 4000000
8000
30 3000000
6000
20 2000000
4000

2000 10 1000000

0 0 0
Annual accum. value of CPE Annual accum. value of WDR Annual accum. value of DPE

Tall Tall Tall

Small Small Small

Figure 14: Characteristics of the façade: height of the building.

consequently, the heat exchanges by convection between the decreases and surface temperature drops. Lower surface
surface and the air, hygrothermal models do not take this temperature worsens surface condensation [27, 30]. During
variation of convective heat transfer coefficient with height the day, due to solar gains, the heat transfer by conduction
into account [33]. Therefore, neither condensation nor the is not relevant on the exterior surface temperature and,
drying capacity is influenced by the height of the building. consequently, the drying capacity does not depend on the
In WDR, the building height has great impact, as WDR total thermal resistance of the wall. Also the WDR is not
coefficients are a function of the distance between the surface affected by the total thermal resistance of the wall (Figure 15).
and the ground and its exposure to the wind [20]. Exterior temperature and relative humidity are two of the
The total thermal resistance of the wall induces changes most relevant climatic parameters regarding surface conden-
in heat transfer from the indoor environment, especially sation, not only because they control water vapour partial
during the night when there is no effect of the sun. Increasing pressure of the air, but also because they influence the surface
the total thermal resistance of the wall (by increasing, e.g., temperature and, consequently, the water vapour saturation
the thickness of the thermal insulation), the heat flow that pressure on the surface. A decrease in the air temperature
reaches the exterior surface of the wall during the night causes a decrease of the surface temperature and of the dew
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 11

20000 9000000
18000 8000000
16000
7000000
14000
6000000

DPE (Pa·h)
12000
CPE (Pa ·h) 5000000
10000
4000000
8000
3000000
6000

4000 2000000

2000 1000000

0 0
Annual accum. value of CPE Annual accum. value of DPE

eEPS = 0.04 m eEPS = 0.04 m

eEPS = 0.06 m eEPS = 0.06 m

Figure 15: Characteristics of the façade: total thermal resistance.

20000 9000000
18000 8000000
16000
7000000
14000
6000000
CPE (Pa ·h)

DPE (Pa·h)

12000
5000000
10000
4000000
8000
3000000
6000

4000 2000000

2000 1000000

0 0
Annual accum. value of CPE Annual accum. value of DPE

TPorto TPorto
TPorto − 2∘ C TPorto − 2∘ C

Figure 16: Exterior climate: temperature.

point temperature. However, as the drop is higher for the day and, consequently, the drying capacity, as the lower
dew point temperature, condensation reduces. A decrease heat load applied results on a cooler surface. WDR is not
in the air relative humidity causes a very small decrease in influenced by solar radiation (Figure 18).
surface temperature and a more marked decreases in dew The atmospheric radiation has a significant impact on
point temperature, reducing condensation. The influence of surface condensation. The higher the atmospheric radiation
temperature and relative humidity in the drying process is emitted by the sky is, the higher the radiation adsorbed by
not very relevant, although a decrease in the relative humidity the surface is. During the night, this increase of absorbed
increases the drying capacity. WDR does not depend on radiation reduces the negative radiant balance on the façade
exterior temperature and relative humidity (Figures 16 and surface, which leads to a smaller drop in the surface temper-
17). ature and consequently decreases condensation. The increase
The influence of global solar radiation (direct plus diffuse) of long-wave radiation adsorbed by the surface also increases
is not very relevant in surface condensation. As it was surface temperature during the day, but its effect on the
stated for the absorbance to short-wave radiation, the solar drying process is not very relevant. WDR is not influenced
radiation affects mainly the surface temperature during the by solar radiation (Figure 19).
12 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

20000 9000000
18000 8000000
16000
7000000
14000
6000000
CPE (Pa ·h)

DPE (Pa·h)
12000
5000000
10000
4000000
8000
3000000
6000

4000 2000000

2000 1000000

0 0
Annual accum. value of CPE Annual accum. value of DPE

HR Porto HR Porto
HRPorto − 5 % HR Porto − 5 %

Figure 17: Exterior climate: relative humidity.

20000 9000000
18000 8000000
16000
7000000
14000
6000000
DPE (Pa·h)
CPE (Pa ·h)

12000
5000000
10000
4000000
8000
3000000
6000

4000 2000000

2000 1000000

0 0
Annual accum. value of CPE Annual accum. value of DPE

Is -Porto Is-Porto
0.7 × Is -Porto 0.7 × Is-Porto

Figure 18: Exterior climate: solar radiation.

Rain, wind velocity and wind direction influence mostly higher. WDR does not depend on interior temperature
the amount of rain that reaches the façade because they are (Figure 22).
key parameters to calculate WDR. Although the wind induces
changes in heat transfer by convection near the surface and, 6. Conclusions
consequently, influences the surface temperature of the wall,
it has no real impact on condensation and on the drying The results of the sensitivity analysis, performed for Porto -
process (Figures 20 and 21). Portugal, show that the parameters that most influence sur-
Interior temperature induces changes in heat transfer by face condensation are exterior relative humidity, atmospheric
conduction from the indoor environment, especially during radiation, exterior temperature, and emissivity, followed by
the night when there is no effect of the sun. Higher interior the total thermal resistance of the wall and the interior air
temperature increases the heat flow that reaches the exterior temperature. The most relevant parameters in the drying
surface of the wall and also increases the exterior surface process are the ones related to the effect of the sun in the
temperature. Condensation reduces due to an increase of wall: absorbance to short-wave radiation, solar radiation, and
the interior temperature and the drying capacity is slightly orientation. Wind-driven rain is most influenced by rain,
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 13

20000 9000000
18000 8000000
16000
7000000
14000
6000000

DPE (Pa·h)
CPE (Pa ·h)
12000
5000000
10000
4000000
8000
3000000
6000

4000 2000000

2000 1000000

0 0
Annual accum. value of CPE Annual accum. value of DPE

Iatm-Porto Iatm-Porto
1.05 × Iatm-Porto 1.05 × Iatm-Porto

Figure 19: Exterior climate: atmospheric radiation.

20000 90 9000000

18000 80 8000000
16000 70 7000000
14000
60 6000000
WDR (mm)

12000
DPE (Pa·h)
CPE (Pa ·h)

50 5000000
10000
40 4000000
8000
30 3000000
6000
20 2000000
4000

2000 10 1000000

0 0 0
Annual accum. value of CPE Annual accum. value of WDR Annual accum. value of DPE

WV-Porto WV-Porto WV-Porto

0.9 × WV-Porto 0.9 × WV-Porto 0.9 × WV-Porto

Figure 20: Exterior climate: wind velocity.

height of the building, wind velocity, wind direction, and the amount of the atmospheric radiation that reaches
orientation. the façade, which is a climate parameter [14, 15].
The climatic parameters, influencing surface wetting of Therefore, nearby obstacles may change the radiative
ETICS, cannot be controlled by man. However, they may balance on the surface, by increasing the gains of long-
justify differential behaviour of a building façade due to the wave radiation during the night. In a façade nearby an
local climate. obstacle surface condensation is less intense than in a
(i) Local relative humidity, in a specific microclimate, more exposed surface due to the increase of exterior
may be higher due to the existence of, for example, a surface temperature during the night.
lake, a river, the sea, and so forth, which will increase (iii) If a building is located in a valley or in a depression
the amount of water vapour in the air that is available of the terrain, where local temperature of the exterior
to condensate and decrease the drying capacity of the air changes about 1 or 2∘ C, its façade may present
surface. different hygrothermal behaviour. If the temperature
(ii) The existence of other buildings nearby a façade is higher, the amount of water vapour in the air that
covered with ETICS may be simulated by increasing is available to condensate is also higher, which it is
14 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

20000 90 9000000

18000 80 8000000

16000 70 7000000
14000 6000000
60

WDR (mm)

DPE (Pa·h)
12000
CPE (Pa ·h)

50 5000000
10000
40 4000000
8000
30 3000000
6000
20 2000000
4000

2000 10 1000000

0 0 0
Annual accum. value of CPE Annual accum. value of WDR Annual accum. value of DPE

RainPorto RainPorto RainPorto

0.2 × RainPorto 0.2 × RainPorto 0.2 × RainPorto

Figure 21: Exterior climate: rain.

20000 9000000

18000 8000000
16000 7000000
14000
6000000
CPE (Pa ·h)

DPE (Pa·h)

12000
5000000
10000
4000000
8000
3000000
6000

4000 2000000

2000 1000000

0 0
Annual accum. value of CPE Annual accum. value of DPE

Tint = 20∘ C Tint = 20∘ C

Tint = 22∘ C Tint = 22∘ C

Figure 22: Interior climate: temperature.

not compensated by the small increase in the drying any relevant obstacles that protect it from wind and
capacity. shadow sunlight, its façades will probably present
lower surface moisture content.
(iv) Also rain and wind, although they do not influence
much surface condensation, may have an important The way buildings are used may also influence exterior sur-
role in the surface wetting of ETICS as they are key face moisture content. If the interior is heated continuously
parameters in the amount of rain water that reaches during the winter, exterior surface condensation may be
the façade. Buildings located in rainy and windy reduced as the heat flow by conduction coming from the
territories are more prone to wetting than buildings interior slightly increases the exterior surface temperature.
located in less exposed locations. Total thermal resistance of the façade has also an impor-
tant role. Total thermal resistance depends mostly on the
(v) Exposure to sunlight and to wind without rain may thickness of the thermal insulation layer that is calculated
also affect the building hygrothermal behaviour as based on the country legislation in connection with the com-
it influences the drying process. When a building fort level demanded by the users. However, designers must
is located, for example, in the top of a hill without be aware that the thicker the insulation layer is, the higher
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 15

the amount of surface condensation may be, because the heat testing,” Journal of Thermal Envelope and Building Science, vol.
flow by conduction coming from the interior decreases. 25, no. 3, pp. 167–188, 2002.
Although orientation is not a relevant parameter con- [6] H. Kunzel, H. M. Kunzel, and K. Sedlbauer, “Long-term
cerning surface condensation, it is quite important for wet- performance of external thermal insulation systems (ETICS),”
ting due to wind-driven rain (rain water only reaches the Architectura, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 11–24, 2006.
surface normal to the wind direction) and for the drying [7] H. Barberousse, R. Brayner, A. M. B. Do Rego, J.-C. Castaing,
process (direct solar radiation on the surface varies consider- P. Beurdeley-Saudou, and J.-F. Colombet, “Adhesion of façade
ably with orientation). That is the reason why exterior surface coating colonisers, as mediated by physico-chemical proper-
ties,” Biofouling, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 15–24, 2007.
moisture content varies between different façades of the same
building and the aesthetic impact due to biological growth is [8] H. Barberousse, B. Ruota, C. Yéprémianb, and G. Boulonc,
“An assessment of façade coatings against colonisation by aerial
considerably different.
algae and cyanobacteria,” Building and Environment, vol. 42, pp.
The exterior rendering properties are very relevant in 2555–2561, 2007.
ETICS exterior surface moisture content, namely, emissivity [9] R. Becker, “Patterned staining of rendered facades: hygro-
and absorbance to solar radiation. To decrease surface con- thermal analysis as a means for diagnosis,” Journal of Thermal
densation, emissivity must be reduced. To improve the drying Envelope and Building Science, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 321–341, 2003.
capacity, absorbance to solar radiation must be increased [10] M. Krus, D. Rösler, and K. Sedlbauer, “New model for the
beneath certain limits that insure ETICS proper performance hygrothermal calculation of condensate on the external build-
[34]. Moisture diffusivity that rules the transfer of liquid ing surface,” in Proceedings of the 3rd International Building
water through porous materials, although does not influence Physics Conference—Research in Building Physics and Building
surface condensation, WDR, nor the drying process, has Engineering, pp. 329–333, August 2006.
some impact on the availability of liquid water on the [11] H. M. Kunzel and K. Sedlbauer, Biological Growth on Stucco.
surface. Lower moisture diffusivity allows longer availability Performance of Exterior Envelopes of Whole Buildings VIII:
of liquid water on the surface as less water is absorbed by Integration of Building Envelopes, ASHRAE, Florida, USA, 2001.
the plaster system following WDR and surface condensation [12] K. Sedlbauer and M. Krus, “Mold growth on ETICS (EIFS) as a
[13]. Of course, it may also improve the potential drainage. result of “bad workmanship”?” Journal of Thermal Envelope and
Although the thermal and hygric properties of the exterior Building Science, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 117–121, 2002.
rendering are very similar for all ETICS available in the [13] H. Venzmer, J. Von Werder, N. Lesnych, and L. Koss, “Algal
market, further studies in this field may allow achieving defacement of façade materials—results of long term natural
a better economical and environmental solution to ETICS weathering tests obtained by new diagnostic tools,” in Proceed-
ings of the 8th Symposium on Building Physics in the Nordic
hygrothermal behaviour.
Countries, vol. 1, pp. 277–284, DTU, Copenhagen, Denmark,
2008.
Conflict of Interests [14] E. Barreira and V. P. Freitas, “The effect of nearby obstacles
in surface condensations on external thermal insulation com-
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests posite systems: experimental and numerical study,” Journal of
regarding the publication of this paper. Building Physics, 2013.
[15] E. Barreira and V. P. Freitas, “Experimental study of the
hygrothermal behaviour of External Thermal Insulation Com-
Acknowledgment posite Systems (ETICS),” Building and Environment, vol. 63, pp.
31–39, 2013.
The authors would like to thank the financial support of [16] European Organization for Technical Approvals-Eota, “Guide-
Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) that allowed the line for European technical approval of external thermal insu-
necessary conditions to carry out this study (Doctoral Grant lation composite systems with rendering—ETAG 004,” EOTA,
SFRH/BD/39904/2007). Belgium, 2000.
[17] Qualité Construction—Agence Pour la Prévention des
Désordres et L’Amélioration de la Qualité de la Construction
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