Notes in Thermodynamics 1
Notes in Thermodynamics 1
Notes in Thermodynamics 1
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS
1. Closed System is a system in which working substance does not cross its boundaries
but energy crosses its boundaries. A typical example of this system is a piston and
cylinder device as shown in Figure 1.1 below.
o Closed system is also called as Controlled Mass System. It has two types,
namely: then non-flow closed system, and the steady-flow closed system.
2. Open System is a thermodynamics system in which both the working substance and
energy are crossing its boundaries. An example of which is a pump or compressor
being cut from the suction point to the discharge side, as shown in figure 1.2 below.
1
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
o Open system is also called as Controlled Volume System. It has two types,
namely: the steady-flow open system, and the unsteady flow or transient flow
open system.
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
1. First Law of Thermodynamics deals with law of conservation of energy. The law of
conservation of energy states that “Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it just
transforms into another forms”.
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics deals with the direction of flow of heat energy, that
is from the higher temperature body to lower temperature body, and the property
known as “Entropy”.
3. Third Law of Thermodynamics deals with the restriction of all physical systems to the
temperature regime that excludes absolute zero. The law states that, “At absolute
zero, the entropy of a pure substance (in equilibrium at 0 oK or 0 oR) in some ‘perfect’
crystalline form becomes zero”.
4. Zeroth Law is law concerning thermal equilibrium and is the basis for temperature
measurement. The law states that “When two bodies, isolated from other
environment, are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, the two are in thermal
equilibrium with each other”.
The second law of motion of Newton states that, “The acceleration of a particular
body is directly proportional to the resultant force acting on it and inversely
proportional to this mass”. Acceleration is also the derivative of velocity of a body
with respect to time.
2
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
Mass is the absolute quantity of matter in substance or body. It is a quantity that does
not change with the change of gravity.
Weight is the force of gravity on the body and could be determined by a spring scale.
This quantity changes with the change of gravity.
o At the surface of the earth near sea level, mass and weight are numerically
equal.
DENSITY
SPECIFIC VOLUME
Specific volume is the volume of a unit mass substance; it is also defined as the
reciprocal of density.
SPECIFIC WEIGHT
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity is the ratio of the specific weight of a certain substance to that of the
specific weight of water at standard condition. It is also defined as the ratio of the
density of a certain substance to that of the density of water at standard condition.
PRESSURE
3
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
Absolute Pressure
o Absolute pressure is the algebraic sum of the barometric pressure or atmospheric
pressure and the gauge pressure.
TEMPERATURE
As defined by James Clerk Maxwell, “The temperature of a body is its thermal state
considered with reference to its ability to communicate heat to another bodies”
(Faires, 1978).
Temperature is also defined as the measure of coldness and hotness of a body; it is an
intensive thermodynamic property used to indicate the amount of energy within the
molecules of the substance.
Two arbitrary scales are commonly used for measuring temperature, namely: the
Fahrenheit scale (after Gabriel Fahrenheit, 1686-1736), and the Celsius scale (after
Anders Celsius, 1701-1744).
Fahrenheit scale is based on the freezing point of water as 0 oF and the boiling point
of water as 212 oF at 1 standard atmospheric pressure. This scale is used for English
system of measurement.
Celsius scale is based on the freezing point of water as 0 oC and the boiling point of
water as 100 oC at 1 standard atmospheric pressure. This scale is used in the Metric
and SI system of measurement.
Absolute temperature is the temperature of a body or system in reference to absolute
zero. Degrees Rankine is the unit used in the English system while Degreed Kelvin is
used in the Metric or SI system of units.
Temperature Equations:
5
o Conversion of oF to oC t C t F 32 Eq. 1.12
9
9
o Conversion of oC to oF t F t c 32 Eq. 1.13
5
4
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
Process is the manner of changing the condition or state of the substance or system.
Some of the processes of fluids are: Isometric or constant volume process, Isobaric or
constant pressure process, Isothermal or constant temperature process, Adiabatic or
isentropic process, and Polytropic process.
Cycle is the series of two or more processes in which the final condition after the
execution of the processes is the same as the initial condition.
When a certain mass of fluid in a particular state passes through a series of processes
and returns to it initial state, it undergoes a cycle (Faires, 1978).
CONSERVATION OF MASS
The law of conservation of mass states that “Mass can neither be created nor
destroyed, it just transforms into components”.
CONTINUITY EQUATION
Continuity Equation is the conservation of mass expression for steady flow open
system.
Continuity equation is in the form of mass flow rate and volume flow rate of the fluid
into or from the system.
Steady flow open system is an open system in which mass entering the system is
equal to the mass leaving the system; there is no change in the stored mass of the
system.
A thermodynamic system that generally serves as a heat source or heat sink for
another system is known as Heat Reservoir.
A thermodynamic system that operates continuously with only heat and work are
crossing its boundaries and its boundaries are impervious to the flow of mass is called
Heat Engine.
A thermodynamic system that is impervious to heat because of its perfect insulation
on the surface is known as adiabatic system.
A substance that is homogeneous and invariable in its chemical composition is called
Pure Substance.
The common units of pressure are kg f/m2, kN/m2, Pa, kPa, MPa, bar in the metric or
SI systems; and psi, lb/ft2 in the English systems.
Thermodynamic system is also defined as a collection of matter or space of fixed
identity.
Thermodynamic state of the system or substance is its condition that describes how
the substance exists.
STUDENT’S SELF-TEST
INSTRUCTION: Select the correct answer for each of the following questions.
5
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
6
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
17. When two bodies, isolated from other environment, are in thermal equilibrium with a
third body, the two are in equilibrium with each other.
a. First Law of Thermodynamics b. Second Law of Thermodynamics
c. Zeroth Law d. Amagat’s Law
18. If the mass of a substance is 60 kg, the weight at a condition with g = 9.675 m/s 2 is equal
to:
a. 59.195 kg b. 59.915 lb
c. 59.915 N d. None of the above
19. The equivalent of 130 oF to oC.
a. 54.44 oC b. 45.44 oC
c. 544.4 oC d. None of the above
20. What is the absolute pressure of the system if its gage pressure is 14.7 psi?
a. 101.325 kPaa b. 29.92” Hg abs.
c. 202.65 kPaa d. None of the above
21. A combination of processes taking a system through a succession of states and returning
to its initial state.
a. Process b. Cycle
c. State d. Datum
22. When two bodies, isolated from other environment, are in thermal equilibrium with a
third body, the two are in equilibrium with each other.
a. First Law of Thermodynamics b. Second Law of Thermodynamics
c. Zeroth Law d. Amagat’s Law
23. A spherical tank, 75 cm in diameter, is filled with a fluid whose density is 40 lb/ft 3. The
total mass of the fluid is:
a. 234.50 kg b. 2 2345.67 lb
c. 456.7 kg d. None of the above
24. Referring to the thermal condition of the system or substance.
a. Process b. Datum
c. State d. Temperature
25. It is a branch of science that deals with energy, its conversion from one form to another,
and the movement of energy from one location to another.
a. Physics b. Heat transfer
c. Thermodynamics d. Hydraulics
26. It is the capacity of a system or substance to do an effect.
a. Work b. Torque
c. Energy d. Power
27. It is the product of the component of a force in the direction of motion, and the distance
through which the point of application of the force moves during its action.
a. Heat b. Work
c. Energy d. All of the above
28. Open system is also known as:
a. Controlled mass system b. Controlled volume system
c. Transient system d. Isolated system
29. It is a thermodynamics law that deals with the direction of flow of heat energy, which is
from higher temperature body to lower temperature body.
a. Second law of thermodynamics b. First law of thermodynamics
c. Third law of thermodynamics d. Zeroth law
30. “The acceleration of a particular body is directly proportional to the resultant force acting
on it and inversely proportional to this mass.” The preceding statement is known as:
a. Newton’s first law of motion b. Newton’s second law of motion
c. Newton’s third law of motion d. Naperian law of motion
ANSWERS
1. b
2. b
7
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
3. d
4. b
5. c
6. a
7. b
8. c
9. d
10. a
11. d
12. d
13. b
14. c
15. a
16. c
17. c
18. a
19. b
20. c
21. b
22. c
23. d
24. c
25. c
26. c
27. b
28. b
29. a
30. b
ENERGY CONCEPT
ENERGY
Energy is basically defined as the capacity to do work; or energy is the capacity of the
substance or system to do an effect.
As stated in the law of conservation of energy, “Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, it just transforms into another forms”.
There are several forms of energy, namely: potential energy, kinetic energy, internal
energy, work energy, heat energy, etc.
POTENTIAL ENERGY
8
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic Energy is basically defined as the energy of a body because of its velocity.
INTERNAL ENERGY
Internal Energy is the energy of a body or substance that is the sum of the energies of
all its molecules; it is also the sum of the various forms of energy that a molecule has.
WORK ENERGY
Work Energy is basically defined as energy in transition; it exists only when a force is
moving through a distance.
Work is that transitional energy (not stored in a moving substance) crossing the
boundaries of a system that could conceivably produce the one and only effect of
raising a weight (Faires, 1978).
Work energy has several forms, some of which are: strain or elastic work, work due
to surface tension, electrical work, non-flow work, and flow energy.
Convention of Sign for Work Energy
Elastic Work
o Elastic Energy or Elastic Work or Strain Work is defined as work that involves a
force deforming a solid body.
o Work due to surface tension is the work done on a surface with a thin film of fluid.
o Lubrication of rotating elements in a machine, say the bearing lubrication, is a typical
example of surface tension application.
o Surface Tension – is the force of molecular attraction per unit length of free surface; it is a
function of both the liquid and the surface in contact with the liquid. Surface tension of liquid
decreases as the temperature increases. It is always tangent to the interface.
Electrical Work
Electrical work is the product of potential difference and the current, which is in volt-
ampere
9
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
o A reversible process for a system is defined as a process that once having taken place
can be reversed and in so doing leave no change in either system or surroundings
(Sonntag, 1998).
o A quasi-equilibrium is one in which the deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium
is infinitesimal, and all the states the system passes through during a quasi-
equilibrium process may be considered equilibrium states (Sonntag, 1998).
o Flow work or Flow Energy is work done in pushing a fluid across a boundary, usually
into or out of the system (Faires, 1978).
o This energy or work is applicable only for an open system in which flowing of a
working substance is considered.
o Flow work is the product of the fluid pressure at a system boundary and the volume
flow rate of the working substance.
HEAT ENERGY
Heat Energy is basically defined as the energy in motion; it moves from higher
temperature body to lower temperature body.
Heat transfer or motion occurs only between bodies or systems mainly because of
temperature difference.
There are three modes of heat transfer, namely: the conduction, the convection, and
the radiation.
SPECIFIC HEAT
Specific heat is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass substance by one degree Kelvin.
10
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
o Constant volume specific heat or specific heat at constant volume is the change of
the molecular internal energy for a unit mass or one mole of a substance per degree
change of temperature with the volume remains constant from the initial state to the
final state.
Constant Pressure Specific Heat
o Constant pressure specific heat or specific heat at constant pressure is the change of
enthalpy for a unit mass or one mole substance per degree change of temperature
between two states without changing the pressure.
o Enthalpy is basically defined as the sum of internal energy and the product of
pressure and specific volume.
Specific heat ratio is the ratio of constant pressure specific heat to that of constant
volume specific heat.
Variable Specific Heat with Temperature
For actual gases specific heat during the process is not constant and can be obtain through
actual test. Specific heats vary with temperature because the energy associated with each
vibrational mode becomes greater, particularly at high temperature conditions
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
The law of conservation of energy states that “Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it
just transforms into another forms”.
11
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
Translational kinetic energy is the energy associated with the translational motion of the
molecule.
Vibrational energy is the energy because of the back and forth movement of the atoms in
the molecule, toward and away one another.
In the convention of sign for work: work is positive (+), when work is done by the
system; work is negative (-), when work is done to the system.
In the convention of sign for heat: heat is positive (+), when heat is transferred from the
surroundings to the system; and heat is negative (-), when heat is transferred from the
system to the surroundings or when heat is rejected by the system.
Non-flow work is work done by or to the non-flow closed system because of the moving
boundary of the system.
Flow work or flow energy is the work done to the fluid in the crossing the boundaries of
an open system whether steady flow or transient flow open system.
The law of conservation of energy states that whenever heat is transferred, energy is
conserved.
When a fluid undergoes a reversible process, both the fluid and its surroundings can
always be restored to their original state.
STUDENT’S SELF-TEST
INSTRUCTION: Select the correct answer from each of the following questions.
12
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
13
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
14
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
ANSWERS
1. b
2. b
3. d
4. b
5. c
6. a
7. b
8. c
9. d
10. b
11. c
12. c
13. a
14. d
15. d
16. b
17. c
18. d
19. a
20. b
21. b
22. a
23. c
24. d
25. d
26. c
27. b
28. b
29. b
30. d
31. a
32. d
33. c
34. d
35. d
15
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
36. d
37. d
38. d
39. a
40. c
41. b
PURE SUBSTANCE
For a closed system, it means the sum of internal energy and the product of pressure
and specific volume.
For an open system, enthalpy means the sum of internal energy and the flow energy
or flow work.
16
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
OTHER DEFINITIONS
Existing pressure or applied pressure refers to the pressure of the system in which
change of phase at constant pressure is considered.
Solid water is a condition of water in which the temperature is below the freezing
temperature corresponding to an existing pressure.
Subcooled liquid is a liquid condition in which the given temperature is higher than
the melting temperature and lower than the saturation or boiling temperature
corresponding to an existing pressure.
Compressed liquid is a liquid condition in which the pressure is higher than saturation
pressure corresponding to the given temperature.
Saturated liquid is a liquid condition in which boiling or evaporation is about to begin
and with the temperature is equal to the saturation or boiling temperature
corresponding to an existing pressure.
Wet vapor or wet steam is the mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor with the
temperature equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to an existing pressure.
Saturated vapor/steam or dry and saturated vapor/steam is vapor condition in which
evaporation is ended and condensation is about to begin with the temperature equal to
the saturation temperature equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to an
existing pressures.
Superheated vapor or steam is a vapor in which the temperature is higher than the
saturation temperature corresponding to an existing pressure.
Heat of fusion is the amount of heat required to change the phase from solid to liquid
or vice versa.
Latent heat or enthalpy of evaporation is the amount of heat required to convert
saturated liquid to saturated vapor; it is the amount of heat required to change
saturated liquid to saturated vapor at constant temperature without changing the
pressure.
Sensible heat is the amount of heat required to change the temperature without
changing the pressure.
Critical point is a point in which liquid and vapor are coexisted in equilibrium.
Critical pressure is the existing pressure at the critical point. Critical temperature is
the temperature at the critical point corresponding to an existing critical pressure.
o For water, critical pressure, p c = 22.09 MPaa, and critical temperature, t c = 374.14
o
C.
Triple point is a point in which the melting and boiling or saturation temperature are
the same corresponding to the existing pressure.
o For water, at triple point: p = 0.6113 kPaa and t = 0.01 oC
Sublimation is the process in which solid will directly change from solid to vapor at a
temperature corresponding to an existing pressure.
o For water, sublimation process will occur at p = 0.260 kPaa and t = - 10 oC.
17
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
Super critical condition is a condition above the critical point (p > 22.09 kPaa for
water). This is a condition where there is no liquid or vapor phase of pure substance
existing in equilibrium.
SELF-TEST
INSTRUCTION: Select the correct answer from each of the following questions.
18
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
19
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
18. The difference between the temperature of superheated vapor and the saturation
temperature for an existing pressure.
a) Degree of superheat b) Degrees sub-cooled
c) Superheat temperature d) Sub-cooled temperature
19. The vapor that has temperature equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to an
existing pressure.
a) Wet vapor b) Saturated vapor
c) Superheated vapor c) All of the above
20. A substance existing in the gaseous phase but relatively near its saturation temperature is
known as:
a) Vapor b) Saturated vapor
c) Wet vapor d) Liquid
21. A liquid that has a temperature equal to the boiling temperature corresponding to the
existing or given pressure.
a) Sub-cooled liquid b) Compressed liquid
c) Saturated liquid d) Subcooled water
22. The value of specific volume of a wet vapor is:
a) Higher than the value of specific volume of superheated vapor
a) Lower than the value of specific volume of saturated vapor
b) Higher than the value of specific volume of saturated liquid
c) Higher than the value of specific volume of saturated liquid and lower than the value of
the specific volume of saturated vapor.
23. A substance is said to be saturated liquid if:
a) The quality of vapor is equal to 100 %
b) The quality is vapor is equal to zero
c) The quality of vapor is less than zero
d) The quality of vapor is higher than 100 %
24. The work done in pushing a fluid across a boundary, usually into or out of the system is
known as:
a) Internal energy b) Flow energy
c) Work due to surface tension d) Kinetic energy
25. It is defined as a process that once having taken place can be reversed and in so doing
leave no change in either system or surroundings.
a) Irreversible process b) Reversible process
c) Non-flow process d) Steady flow process
ANSWERS
1. b
2. b
3. a
4. b
5. c
6. c
7. a
8. b
9. a
10. a
11. c
12. a
13. b
14. a
15. b
16. d
20
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
17. b
18. a
19. b
20. a
21. c
22. d
23. b
24. b
25. b
The First law of thermodynamics deals with the Law of Conservation of Energy. The
law of conservation of energy states that “Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, it just transforms into another form or forms”.
The first corollary of the first law of thermodynamics is the application of the
conservation of energy to closed system or control mass (Burghardt & Harbach,
1993).
Closed system is also known as a fixed or controlled mass system; it could be a non-
flow closed system or steady flow closed system.
The first law of thermodynamics states that, “during any cycle a system undergoes,
the cyclic integral of the heat is proportional to the cyclic integral of the work”
(Burghardt & Harbach, 1993), or “ when a system is undergoing a cyclic change, the
net heat added to or rejected from the system is equal to the net work done by or done
to the system” (Faires, 1978).
To analyse a steady flow open system, the following conditions are being considered:
21
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
The mass rate of flow into the system is equal to that from the system; there is neither
accumulation nor diminution of mass within the system;
There is neither accumulation nor diminution of energy within the system; it follows
that the rate of flow of heat Q and Work w are constant;
The state of the working substance at any point in the system remains constant;
For the determination of properties, one-dimensional flow at inlet and exit boundaries
of the system is assumed; properties are then handled as though uniform across the
sections.
Adiabatic Turbine
Adiabatic Turbine is an engine, equipment, or prime mover that convert enthalpic
energy into mechanical energy.
Turbine could be a steam turbine, water turbine, air turbine, or gas turbine.
Turbine process is adiabatic, means there is no heat transfer from the surroundings to
the turbine or from the turbine to the surroundings.
Condenser
Condenser is basically defined as an apparatus that condenses a substance from its
vapor phase to its liquid phase by extracting heat from the substance.
In steam power plant, condenser is a component used to maintain vacuum conditions
on the exhaust of prime mover by transfer of heat to circulating water or air at the
lowest ambient temperature.
In refrigeration system application, condenser is used to reject heat from the
refrigerant at a relatively high temperature and pressure in order to convert refrigerant
vapor into liquid.
Condenser is generally classified as surface condenser and contact condenser. In a
surface condenser, there is no direct mixing of vapor and the coolant; while in the
contact condenser, there is a direct mixing of the vapor and coolant in the extraction
of heat.
Throttling Devices
A throttling Device is an apparatus in which by an obstruction in its through-flow
reduces the pressure of the flow; it is a device that is used to reduce the pressure of
the fluid with the increase of its velocity.
22
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
The process involving this device is called throttling process and is a constant
enthalpy process or isenthalpic process.
A typical example of this device is a throttling valve or expansion valve in a vapor-
compression refrigeration system; or a capillary tube in a household refrigerator.
Mixing Chambers
A Mixing Chamber is basically defined as a section where the mixing process takes
place. The mixing chamber does not have to be a distinct “chamber”. An ordinary T-
elbow or Y-elbow as a shower, for example, serves as the mixing chamber for the
cold-and hot-water streams.
A Mixing Chamber, for example, is a furnace wherein air and fuel are mixed for
combustion process.
Mixing chamber is considered as a steady flow open system because the conservation
of mass and conservation of energy are also applied.
Unsteady flow or transient flow open system is an open system in which mass entering
the system is not equal to the mass leaving the system. Thus, change of stored mass in the
system is not zero.
This system is the one in which energy entering the system is not equal to the energy
leaving the system. Thus, change of stored energy of the system is not zero.
23
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
Enthalpies and internal energy are properties of the fluid, which means that each
would have a single value at any given state of the fluid.
A closed system is the one in which only energy, and not mass, may cross the
boundaries.
Isolated system is the one in which neither mass or energy cross the boundaries but in
which energy transformations may take place within the boundaries.
A sub-cooled liquid is one at a temperature below the saturation temperature at the
given pressure.
Compressed liquid, synonymous with sub-cooled liquid, is the one in which the
pressure is higher than the saturation pressure at a given temperature.
Heat transfer in any of its forms, conduction, convection, or radiation, occurs from a
higher temperature to a lower temperature body.
Heat transfer causes a loss of availability because no work is done between the high-
and low-temperature bodies. It follows that the larger the temperature-difference
between two bodies, the larger the low availability, and the larger the irreversibility.
Throttling is an uncontrolled expansion process of a fluid from a high-pressure region
to a low-pressure region. It is irreversible because flow cannot be reversed from the
low-pressure region to the high-pressure region.
Throttling process, a form of fluid friction, is one in which the enthalpy is constant.
The process is also called a “Joule-Thomson Expansion”.
Mixing is an irreversible process that results in the loss of availability of the
constituent fluids. Mixing is unavoidable in many cases, such as when fluids and air
are prepared for combustion or when steam and colder water mix in certain devices,
such as open feed-water heaters.
Vapor is a substance existing in the gaseous phase but relatively near its saturation
temperature.
State properties are the ones defining the physical condition of the fluid.
Thermodynamic properties are the ones defining the thermal and energy conditions of
the fluid.
Transport properties are the ones that measure the diffusion within the fluid resulting
from molecular activity.
Examples of state properties are pressure, density, and temperature.
Examples of thermodynamic properties are internal energy, displacement energy,
enthalpy, entropy, constant volume specific heat, and constant pressure specific heat.
Examples of transport properties are viscosity and thermal conductivity.
The internal kinetic energy is commonly termed sensible heat because it increases in
relation to the absolute temperature of the body.
The internal potential energy is commonly termed latent heat, as it is evidenced only
during changes of phase and therefore is unaccompanied by any changes in
temperature.
The quantity pv represents energy, known as displacement energy or flow work,
associated by a unit mass of fluid by virtue of the displacement of its boundaries from
one position to another at constant pressure.
Enthalpy is an arbitrary composite energy term defined as the sum of the internal
energy plus the displacement energy or flow work.
The First law of thermodynamics states that heat and mechanical energy are inter-
convertible and neither can be created nor destroyed.
The second law of thermodynamics, according to Clausius, states that it is impossible
for a self-acting machine unaided by any external agency to transfer heat from one
body to another at higher temperature.
The Nerst Heat Theory, referred to as the third law of thermodynamics, states that it
is impossible by any procedure, no matter how idealized, to reduce any system to
absolute zero of temperature in finite number of operations.
When there is no transfer of the working substance during the process, it is termed
non-flow.
24
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
When there is continuous and steady flow of the working medium, it is termed steady
flow.
Steady-flow or general energy equation is a mathematical statement of the energy
conservation law including all flow process terms normally encountered in heat
engineering.
Non-flow or general energy equation is a simplified mathematical statement of the
general energy equation eliminating all terms not involved in a non-flow process as
well as those that are usually negligible.
SELF-TEST
25
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
11. The one in which neither mass or energy cross the boundaries but in which energy
transformations may take place within the boundaries is a system known as:
a) Open system b) Closed system
c) Isolated system d) Steady flow open system
12. Heat transfer in any of its forms, conduction, convection, or radiation, occurs:
a) From a higher temperature to a lower temperature body
b) From a lower temperature to a higher temperature body
c) When the body is at normal temperature
d) When the body is at higher temperature
13. This is an uncontrolled expansion process of a fluid from a high-pressure region to a low-
pressure region. It is irreversible because flow cannot be reversed from the low-pressure
region to the high-pressure region.
a) Adiabatic process b) Throttling process
c) Expansion process d) Compression process
14. Throttling process, a form of fluid friction, is one in which the enthalpy is constant. This
process is also known as:
a) Gay-Lusac Expansion process b) Joule-Thomson Expansion
process
c) Joule-Thomson Compression process d) Gay-Lusac Expansion process
15. A substance existing in the gaseous phase but relatively near its saturation temperature is
known as:
a) Gas b) Water
c) Steam d) Vapor
16. The ones defining the physical condition of the fluid are called:
a) Thermodynamics properties b) State properties
c) Cycle properties d) Substance properties
17. The ones defining the thermal and energy conditions of the fluid are known as:
a) Thermodynamics properties b) State properties
c) Cycle properties d) Transport properties
18. The ones that measure the diffusion within the fluid resulting from molecular activity are
called:
a) Thermodynamics properties b) State properties
c) Cycle properties d) Transport properties
19. Pressure, density, and temperature are examples of:
a) Thermodynamics properties b) State properties
c) Cycle properties d) Transport properties
20. Internal energy, displacement energy, enthalpy, entropy, constant volume specific heat,
and constant pressure specific heat are examples of:
a) Thermodynamics properties b) State properties
c) Cycle properties d) Transport properties
21. Viscosity and thermal conductivity are examples of:
a) Thermodynamics properties b) State properties
c) Cycle properties d) Transport properties
22. Energy commonly termed sensible heat because it increases in relation to the absolute
temperature of the body.
a) Internal kinetic energy b) Internal potential energy
c) Molecular energy d) None of the above
23. It is commonly termed latent heat, as it is evidenced only during changes of phase and
therefore is unaccompanied by any changes in temperature.
a) Internal kinetic energy b) Internal potential energy
c) Molecular energy d) None of the above
24. An arbitrary composite energy term defined as the sum of the internal energy plus the
displacement energy or flow work.
a) Internal energy b) Entropy
c) Enthalpy d) Heat energy
26
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
25. A thermodynamics law stating that heat and mechanical energy are inter-convertible and
neither can be created nor destroyed.
a) Zeroth law of thermodynamics b) First law of thermodynamics
c) Second law of thermodynamics d) Third law of thermodynamics
26. The second law of thermodynamics states that it is impossible for a self-acting machine
unaided by any external agency to transfer heat from one body to another at higher
temperature. This statement is known as:
a) Kelvin-Plank Statement b) Plank statement
c) Kelvin statement d) Clausius statement
27. A theory stating that it is impossible by any procedure, no matter how idealized, to reduce
any system to absolute zero of temperature in finite number of operations.
a) Nerst heat theory b) Kinetic heat theory
c) Kelvin-Plank theory d) Clausius theory
28. When there is no transfer of the working substance during the process, it is termed as:
a) Transient flow b) Steady flow
c) Non-flow d) Continuous flow
29. When there is continuous and steady flow of the working medium, it is termed as:
a) Transient flow b) Steady flow
c) Non-flow d) Continuous flow
30. A mathematical statement of the energy conservation law including all flow process terms
normally encountered in heat engineering.
a) Steady flow general equation b) Non-flow general energy equation
c) Flow energy equation d) None of the above
31. A simplified mathematical statement of the general energy equation eliminating all terms
not involved in a non-flow process as well as those that are usually negligible
a) Steady flow general equation b) Non-flow general energy equation
c) Flow energy equation d) None of the above
32. An apparatus in which by an obstruction in its through-flow reduces the pressure of the
flow; or it is a device that is used to reduce the pressure of the fluid with the increase of
its velocity.
a) Condenser b) Throttling device
c) Nozzle d) Diffuser
33. An apparatus that condenses a substance from its vapor phase to its liquid phase by
extracting heat from the substance.
a) Condenser b) Boiler
c) Nozzle d) Diffuser
34. A boiler is also called as:
a) Pressure vessel b) Hot water vessel
c) Steam generator
35. An engine, equipment, or prime mover that convert enthalpic energy into mechanical
energy.
a) Fan b) Pump
c) Adiabatic turbine d) Boiler
ANSWERS
1. b
2. d
3. a
4. b
5. c
6. c
7. a
8. a
27
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
9. b
10. b
11. c
12. a
13. b
14. b
15. d
16. b
17. a
18. d
19. b
20. a
21. d
22. a
23. b
24. c
25. b
26. d
27. a
28. c
29. b
30. a
31. b
32. b
33. a
34. c
35. b
1. Whenever energy is transferred, the level of energy cannot be conserved and some
energy must be permanently reduced to a lower level (Burghardt & Harbach, 1993).
2. Whenever energy is transferred, energy must be conserved, but the level of energy
cannot be conserved and some energy must be permanently reduced to a lower level
(Burghardt & Harbach, 1993).
The energy level is a function of all the thermodynamic forces in a system that will
cause energy transfer from the system. The energy level of the system is lowered
when the values of these thermodynamic forces within the system decrease. The
direction of energy transport is from a high energy level to a low energy level.
The first law gives techniques for energy analysis, but it does not describe how the
energy will flow. The second law of thermodynamics gives direction to the energy
flow.
28
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
Kelvin-Planck Statement:
“No cyclic process is possible whose sole result is the flow of heat from a single heat
reservoir and the performance of an equivalent amount of work.”
DEFINITIONS
Thermal Reservoir is a body with large heat capacity such that when heat is removed
or added to the reservoir, the temperature of the reservoir does not change (Faires,
1978).
Heat Engine is a device that operates in a cycle in which the main function is to
convert heat input into positive network output.
Power Cycles are cycles used to produce work output.
Refrigeration Cycles are cycles used to pump heat from low to high-temperature
regions.
Heat Pump and Refrigerator are devices that operate in a cycle and transfer heat from
a low-temperature region to a high-temperature region with work input to the system.
CARNOT CYCLE/ENGINE
Carnot Engine/cycle is the most efficient engine/cycle that operates between two
temperature levels.
CLAUSIUS STATEMENT
It is impossible to construct a cyclic device that will cause heat to be transferred from
a low-temperature reservoir to a high-temperature reservoir without the input of work.
Carnot Heat Pump or Refrigerator is the only ideal machine with a highest
coefficient of performance, COP.
Coefficient of Performance, COP, is a parameter that measures the performance of
the reversed engine or Carnot engine. For Carnot heat pump, Coefficient of
Performance is the ratio of the heat rejected to the high-temperature heat reservoir tot
that of the work input. For Carnot Refrigerator, Coefficient of performance is the
ratio of the heat input from the low-temperature heat reservoir to that of the work
input to the engine.
EQUILIBRIUM STATE
29
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
Available energy is that portion of the thermal energy that can be used for work
The availability of a closed system in a particular state is the maximum work that the
system could conceivably deliver to some thing other than the surroundings as its
state changes to the dead state (a stable thermodynamics equilibrium with the
environment), exchanging heat only with the environment (Faires, 1978).
Reversible process is a process that can be reversed and leave no resultant change in
either the system or the surroundings.
When a fluid undergoes a reversible process, both the fluid and its surroundings can
always be restored to their original states.
Irreversible process is a process that cannot be reversed because of friction, heat
transfer across a finite temperature difference, non-equilibrium expansion of gases,
etc.
Some examples of irreversibility
Process with friction, reversal in this process is impossible because the
energy loss during the process because of friction cannot be recovered in the
reversed process.
Heat transfer through finite temperature difference, reversal for this process is
impossible without external machinery.
Non-equilibrium expansion of gases (in a piston-cylinder device), to reverse
the process an external force must push down on the piston and compress
back to its initial pressure but more work must be done during the reverse
process than was done originally.
Cycle is a series of processes in which a system starts at a given thermodynamic state
and is returned to that exact the same state.
Power cycles are cycles that function to produce work output.
Refrigeration cycles are cycles that function from low- to high-temperature regions.
Heat engine is a device that operates in a cycle in order to convert heat inti positive
network output.
30
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
SELF-TEST
Direction: Select the correct answer from each of the following questions.
1. What is the kinetic energy of a jet of steam whose mass is 1.5 kg traveling at a speed of
1200 m/s?
a) 1 080 kJ b) 1023.7 Btu
c) 796 438.6 ft-lb d) All of these
2. What is the potential energy of 2 kg of steam at an elevation of 5 m above a datum line or
reference plane?
a) 98.066 kN-m b) 98.066 Joules
31
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
32
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
ANSWERS
1. d
2. b
3. a
4. c
5. a
6. d
7. c
8. c
9. a
10. b
11. a
12. c
13. b
14. d
15. a
16. c
17. a
18. b
19. a
20. c
33
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
Ideal gas or perfect gas is a substance in a gaseous phase whose molecules are linked
only by collision forces and not distorted by collision.
Ideal gas is a gas that remains gas with its existence at any given pressure and
temperature conditions.
Ideal gas is a perfect or theoretical gas that follows Boyle’s and Charles’s laws of
ideal gas.
If the ideal-gas laws yield sufficiently accurate results for the purpose, the substance
is considered as an ideal or perfect gas; otherwise it is an imperfect gas (Faires,
1978).
The kinetic theory of gases explains the properties of temperature and pressure, and
develops the gas constant.
Boyle’s Law
“If the temperature of a given quantity of gas is held constant, the volume of gas
varies inversely with the absolute pressure during a quasi-static or reversible change
of state.”
Charles’ Law or Gay-Lussac’s Law
If the pressure of a given quantity of gas is held constant, the volume of gas varies
proportionately with the absolute temperature during the change of state.
Avogadro’s Law
Avogadro’s law states that in an “equal volumes of all ideal gases at a particular
pressure and temperature contain the same number of molecules”. The number of
molecules is known as the Avogadro’s number.
Joule’s Law
Joule’s Law of an ideal gas states that “the change of internal energy of an ideal gas is
a function of only the change of temperature, U = U (T)”.
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
The total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressure that each gas would
exert where it to occupy the vessel alone at the volume, V m, and the temperature, Tm,
of the mixture (Faires, 1978).
Specific heat ratio is the ratio of constant pressure specific heat to that of constant
volume specific heat.
COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR
pv
Z
RT
34
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
In actual gasses the molecular collisions are inelastic and there are intermolecular forces
that cannot be considered or determined by the equation of state for ideal gases.
The following equations are some of the proposed equations that are used to
approximate the behavior of real gases.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Instruction: Solve the following problems and determine the correct answer for each
question.
Prob. # 1] The temperature of an ideal gas remains constant at 320 oK while the absolute
pressure changes from 101 kPaa to 825 kPaa and the initial volume is 0.10 m 3.
35
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
Prob. # 5] Air is compressed into a 0.5-m3 rigid tank until the pressure is 928.675 kPag and
the temperature becomes 100 oC.
A. Determine the mass of the compressed air
a) 4.81 kg b) 4.18 kg
c) 8.14 kg d) 1.48 kg
B. If the air is allowed to cool to 27 oC, what is at gage pressure of the cooled air?
36
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
37
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
a) 2190 kJ b) 2091 kJ
c) 1460 kJ d) 1640 kJ
F. If the process is internally reversible nonflow at constant pressure, what is the work
done?
a) + 730.2 kJ b) + 720.3 kJ
c) – 730.2 kJ d) – 720.3 kJ
G. What is the work done if the process is at constant pressure, steady flow?
a) –730.2 kJ b) 0.00 kJ
c) + 720.3 kJ d) + 730.2 kJ
Prob. # 11] A certain gas initially at 103 kPaa and 58 liters undergoes a change of state to 620
kPaa and 18 liters, during which the enthalpy increases by 16.5 kJ. The specific heat at
constant volume is 0.216 kj/kg-oK.
A. Determine the specific heat at constant pressure
a) 0.31493 kJ/kg-oK b) 0.09893 kJ/kg-oK
o
c) 0.216 kJ/kg- K d) 0.41393 kJ/kg-oK
B. Find the value of gas constant
a) 0.216 kJ/kg-oK b) 0.41393 kJ/kg-oK
o
c) 0.09893 kJ/kg- K d) 0.31493 kJ/kg-oK
C. Determine the change of internal energy during the process
a) 11.314 kJ b) – 11.314 kJ
c) 16.5 kJ d) – 16.5 kJ
Prob. # 12] Helium is at 500 oK and with a specific volume of 5.2 m3/kg and M = 4 kg/kgmol.
A. Determine the pressure using ideal gas equation
a) 199.86 kPaa b) 200 kPaa
c) 189.96 kPaa d) 186.99 kPaa
B. Determine the pressure using van der Waals equation of state
a) 199 kPaa b) 150.55 kPaa
c) 200.08 kPaa d) 225.65 kPaa
C. Determine the pressure using the Redlich-Kwong equation of state
a) 200.08 kPaa b) 200.01 kPaa
c) 190 kPaa d) 201 kPaa
Prob. # 13] A nitrogen cylinder of 0.10 m 3 originally has a pressure of 17.25 MPaa and a
temperature of 27 oC. The nitrogen is gradually used until the pressure is 2.75 MPaa and the
temperature is 20 oC. For nitrogen: Tc = 126.2 oK, pc = 3.39 Mpaa, M = 28 kg/kgmol.
A. Determine the mass of nitrogen removed from the cylinder, using the ideal gas
equation of state.
a) 19.36 kg b) 16.2 kg
c) 13.96 kg d) 3.16 kg
B. Determine the mass of nitrogen removed from the cylinder using the van der Waals
equation of state.
a) 3.155 kg b) 15.856 kg
c) 13.96 kg d) 19.011 kg
Prob. 14] A 2-kg nitrogen gaseous in a piston-cylinder receives heat at a constant pressure
of 350 kPaa. The gas temperature increases from 320 oK to 1420 oK and the specific heat
287.9 5.35 x 10 4
during the process is not constant. For nitrogen: c p 1.415 , R = 0.2968
T T2
kJ/kg-oK.
A. Determine the change in internal energy
a) 1861.07 kJ b) 2514.03 kJ
c) 652.96 kJ d) 1681.07 kJ
B. Find the heat transferred
a) 652.96 kJ b) 2514.03 kJ
c) 1681.07 kJ d) 1861.07 kJ
C. Determine the change of volume during the process
38
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
a) 1.8656 m3 b) 1.6865 m3
3
c) 1.5866 m d) 1.6685 m3
Prob. 15] 12 kg/min of air are isothermally compressed from 99 kPaa and specific volume
of 0.81 m3/kg to a final pressure of 600 kPaa.
A. Determine the work done to the air
a) + 28.9 kW b) – 28.9 kW
c) + 29.8 kW d) – 29.8 kW
B. What is the heat loss during compression
a) – 28.9 kW b) + 28.9 kW
c) + 29.8 kW d) – 29.8 kW
1. A.a, B.b
2. a
3. a
4. A.b, B.b, C.b, D.a, E.d, F.b, G.a, H.a, I.b
5. A.a, B.b
6. a
7. a
8. A.b, B.a, C.c
9. A.a, B.b, C.d, D.a
10. A.c, B.a, C.b, D.c, E.a, F.a, G.b
PROCESSES OF FLUIDS
DEFINITION
Process is the manner of changing the state of a fluid or changing the thermal
condition of a fluid or system.
ISOBARIC PROCESS
Isobaric process is an internally reversible change of state without changing the
pressure during the process.
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
Isothermal Process is an internally reversible change of state of the system or
substance without changing the temperature.
ISENTROPIC PROCESS
Isentropic Process is an adiabatic and internally reversible process or a constant
entropy change of state.
39
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
POLYTROPIC PROCESS
Polytropic Process is an internally reversible process in accordance with pV n = C,
where n is any constant other than 1, 0, , and k.
SUMMARY OF CURVES
pV n C ,
Let n = , pV n pV C
C C
V 1
C . That is an isometric process.
p p0
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
40
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
Prob. # 1] Assume 2 kg of a certain gas with R = 0.4305 kJ/kg-K undergo a process that
results in these changes: U = 1458.01 kJ, H = 2189.13 kJ.
A. Find the value of specific heat ratio, k.
a) 1.501 b) 1.401
c) 1.105 d) 1.104
B. What is the value of cp
a) 2.1898 kJ/kg-oK b) 1.2898 kJ/kg-oK
c) 2.9818 kJ/kg-oK d) 1.8928 kJ/kg-oK
C. Find the value of cv
a) 0.8593 kJ/kg-oK b) 0.8953 kJ/kg-oK
c) 0.5893 kJ/kg-oK d) 0.9583 kJ/kg-oK
D. Find the temperature change
a) 864.83 oK b) 648.83 oK
c) 884.63 oK d) 848.63 oK
E. If the process had been internally reversible with p = C, determine the work done
a) + 730.67 kJ b) – 730.67 kJ
c) – 630.77 kJ d) + 630.77 kJ
F. For steady flow (P = 0, K = 0), isobaric process, determine the work done
a) – 730.67 kJ b) 0.00 kJ
c) + 630.77 kJ d) + 730.67 kJ
Prob. # 2] Assume 0.9 kg of hydrogen simultaneously reject heat and receive paddle-work
input in a non-flow change of state at constant pressure from an initial temperature of 121 oC
to a final temperature of 32.2 oC. The heat rejected is thrice the paddle work. R = 4.125 kJ/kg-
K and k = 1.4
A. Determine the U
a) – 824.175 kJ b) + 824.175 kJ
c) – 857.241 kJ d) + 857.241 kJ
B. What is the change in enthalpy?
a) + 1153.845 kJ b) + 1135.845 kJ
c) – 1153.845 kJ d) – 1135.845 kJ
C. Determine the change of entropy during the process
a) – 3.3184 kJ/kg-oK b) + 3.8184 kJ/kg-oK
c) – 3.3184 kJ/kg-oK d) + 3.3184 kJ/kg-oK
D. What is the heat transfer during the process?
a) + 1730.8 kJ b) – 1830.7 kJ
c) – 1730.8 kJ d) + 1830.7 kJ
E. Determine the network of the system.
a) – 906.6 kJ b) + 906.6 kJ
c) – 576.93 kJ d) – 329.67 kJ
Prob. # 3] There are compressed isothermally 378 lps of air measured at 27 C and 1379 kPaa;
p = 4136 kPaa.
A. Compute for the value pdV
a) – 572.5 kW b) + 572.5 kW
41
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
c) – 575.2 kW d) + 575.2 kW
B. Compute for the value of Vdp
a) –575.2 kW b) – 572.5 kW
c) + 575.2 kW d) + 572.5 kW
C. Determine the work done for nonflow
a) – 572.5 kW b) – 575.2 kW
c) + 572.5 kW d) + 575.2 kW
D. Determine the work done for steady flow where V 1 = 23 m/s, V2 = 46 m/s, P = 0
a) + 4.8 kW b) – 4.8 kW
c) + 572.5 kW d) – 572.5 kW
E. What is the change in entropy?
a) – 1.9085 kW/oK b) – 1.9085 kW/oK
o
c) + 1.9085 kW/ K d) + 1.9085 kW/oK
Prob. # 4] During a nonflow isentropic process of 1.36 kg/s of air, the temperature increases
from 5 C to 116 C.
A. Find the value of U
a) 108.33 kJ/kg b) 108.33 kJ/s
b) 108.33 kJ d) – 108.33 kJ/s
B. Determine the value of H
a) 151.67 kJ/s b) 151.67 kJ/kg
c) 151.67 kJ d) 161.57 kJ/s
C. Fins the change of entropy, S
a) 1.9085 kJ/kg-oK b) 1.5098 kJ/kg-oK
o
c) 1.8095 kJ/kg- K d) 0.00 kJ/kg-oK
D. Determine the work done during the process
a) – 108.3 kW b) – 108.3 kJ
c) + 108.3 kW d) + 108.3 kJ
E. For steady flow process, determine the work done
a) – 108.3 kW b) + 108.3 kW
c) – 151.67 kW d) + 151.67 kW
Prob. # 5] Five kg of air are compressed isentropically from 100 kPaa, 40 C to 200 kPaa. The
air is then expanded polytropically with n = 1.2 to the original pressure.
A. Determine the temperature after isentropic compression
a) 381.55 oK b) 581.35 oK
c) 339.92 oK d) 393.29 oK
B. What is the temperature after the polytropic expansion process?
a) 381.55 oK b) 581.35 oK
o
c) 339.92 K d) 393.29 oK
C. Determine the heat transferred
a) + 149.37 kJ b) + 139.47 kJ
c) – 149.37 kJ d) – 139.47 kJ
Prob. # 6] 1.25 kg/s of air initially at 101.325 kPaa and 27 oC are compressed polytropically
according to the process pV1.3 = C. Calculate the power necessary to compress the air to 1380
kPaa.. R for air is 0.287 kJ/kg-oK.
a) + 196.9 kW b) – 196.9 kW
c) – 196.9 kJ d) + 196.9 kJ
o
Prob. # 7] An ideal gas having mass of 1.5 kg at 192 C and 415 kPaa expands in a reversible
adiabatic process to 138 kPaa. The ideal gas constant is 242 J/kg- oK and k = 1.40.
A. Determine the final temperature
a) 339.5 oK b) 393.5 oK
o
c) 359.3 K d) 335.9 oK
B. What is the change in internal energy?
a) + 113.89 kJ b) – 131.98 kJ
c) – 113.89 kJ d) – 181.39 kJ
42
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
43
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
INSTRUCTION: Select the correct answer from each of the following questions.
44
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
45
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
ANSWERS TO THE
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
6. b
7. A.a, B.c, C.c, D.a, E.c
8. A.a, B.c, C.b
9. A.a, B.c, C.a
10. A.a, B.d
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE
CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. b
2. c
3. b
4. a
5. b
6. c
7. d
8. d
46
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
9. a
10. b
11. c
12. a
13. b
14. b
15. b
16. c
17. c
18. b
19. d
20. b
21. d
22. a
GAS CYCLES
DEFINITION
Power cycle is a cycle that operates for the purpose of producing work or power.
Gas cycles are power cycles in which the working substance is a gas.
The following items are important parameters in the analysis of power cycles:
The heat supplied to the cycle
The heat rejected
The net work
The efficiency
The mean effective pressure
Working Substance is a substance that receives heat, rejects heat, and does work.
Source of Heat (also called a hot body, a heat reservoir, or just source) – is a body
from which the working substance receives heat.
Heat Sink (also called receiver, a cold body, or just sink) – is a body to which the
working substance can reject heat.
Engine – is a component wherein the working substance may do work or have work
done on it; it converts heat energy into useful work.
o In steady-state operation, the energy and mass content of the closed system
remains constant and properties of the system at any stage of the cycle are
always the same a the system passes through this stage.
Carnot Cycle/engine is the most efficient cycle/engine that operates between two
temperature levels.
47
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
Internal combustion engines are engines that convert heat energy into useful work through the
combustion of fuel inside the cylinders.
Typical applications of internal combustion engines are gasoline and Diesel engines.
Thermodynamics cycles that are commonly used for internal combustion engines are Otto
cycle and Diesel cycle.
Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is a heat engine that is used to convert the
chemical energy of the fuel into mechanical energy as useful work by burning the fuel
inside the engine itself.
It is a heat engine deriving its power from the energy liberated by the explosion of a
mixture of some hydrocarbon, in gaseous or vaporized form, with atmospheric air.
Applications of ICE: Transportation, power generation and other applications, say,
agriculture.
ENGINE CLASSIFICATIONS
48
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
49
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
Advantages of SI Engines
Low first cost
Low specific weight
Low cranking effort required
Wide variation obtainable in speed and load
High mechanical efficiency
Fairly low specific fuel consumption at high compression ratios and wide open
throttle
Use liquids of low volatility varying from fuel oil and distillates to crude oil
Have compression ratios between 11.5:1 and 22:1
Have compression pressures from 400 psi (2760 kPa) to 700 psi (4830 kPa)
Operate on the Diesel or mixed cycle
Load and speed are controlled by varying the fuel quantity injected
Dual-Fuel Engine is a Diesel engine with a compression ratio which is too
low to result in ignition, at the desired time, of the gas/air mixture inducted
into the cylinder. A pilot (small) injection of liquid fuel with good ignition
quality is used to initiate the combustion process.
Advantages of CI Engines
Low specific fuel consumption
High thermal efficiency at partial loads
Possibly lower cost
No preignition
Low CO and hydrocarbon emission at low and moderate loads
Suitability for two-stroke
Excellent durability
Only air is compressed
Fuel, as a finely atomized liquid, is injected shortly before the piston reaches the dead
center
The temperature of the compressed air is higher than the ignition temperature of the
fuel
Fuel begins to burn without any outside means of igniting it.
The lower-compression engines are of simple construction (usually valveless
two-stroke cycle), are more lightweight, and have lower first cost, lower
operating expense, and higher mechanical efficiency than the higher-
compression engines.
Four-Stroke Cycle is one wherein four strokes of the piston, two revolutions, are
required to complete one cycle.
Four-Stroke Cycle is an engine in which two revolution of the crankshaft are required
to complete the sequence of events which produces one power stroke.
50
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
DIESEL ENGINES
Diesel engine is a prime mover actuated by the gases resulted from the combustion of
liquid or pulverized fuel, injected in a fine state of subdivision into the engine
cylinder at or about the conclusion of the compression stroke.
Diesel Engine is a heat engine whose purpose is to convert the combustion energy of
its fuel into mechanical energy.
Diesel is the generic name applied to all internal combustion engines in which the
fuel is ignited entirely by the heat resulting from combustion of air supplied for
combustion.
Hornsby-Akroyd (in Germany) was the most successful engine to use liquid
petroleum fuel.
In 1892 Rudolf Diesel (in Germany) patented his engine to operate on the Carnot
cycle. The original patent showed the use of powdered coal for fuel. The use of liquid
fuel was in the second patent.
In 1898 the first commercial engines were built in Germany and United States.
These were the four-cycle type and used compressed air for injection and
atomization of the fuel oil.
At the time of its invention, Diesel was the most efficient prime mover known, and
still today.
Brake thermal efficiency in smaller engine is about 30 %, in the medium sizes is
about 35 %, and as high as 41 % for large slow-speed engines.
Rudolf Diesel developed the idea for the diesel engine and obtained the German patent for it
in 1892. His goal was to create an engine with high efficiency. Gasoline engines had been
invented in 1876 and, especially at that time, were not very efficient.
51
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
combustion chambers or other devices to swirl the air in the combustion chamber
or otherwise improve the ignition and combustion process.
Actual indicator cards from both Otto and Diesel engines show a rounded top, with a
shape that suggests that some combustion at constant volume and some at constant
pressure would give an ideal cycle more closely resembling the actual events (Faires,
1978).
Heat addition occurs during constant pressure and constant volume processes.
Dual cycle is a constant volume and constant pressure combustion (heat addition)
cycle.
This cycle is also called as limited-pressure cycle.
This cycle has no particular standard application.
Carnot Cycle is reversible cycle defined by two isothermal processes and two
isentropic processes, in which the heat addition is at the constant high temperature
process and heat rejection is at constant low temperature process.
Otto Cycle is the model cycle for reciprocating spark-ignition engines.
In a compression-ignition engine, one of the methods to avoid detonation during
compression, with its limitation on the compression ratio, is to inject the fuel after the
compression process.
Diesel Cycle is the model cycle for reciprocating compression-ignition engines.
Supercharger is a common modification used with spark-ignition engines for aircraft
operation, which a steady-flow compressor used to compress the air before it enters the
reciprocating engine.
Heat Engine and thermal engine is a closed system that operates in cycles and
exchanges only heat and work with its surroundings.
Working substance is a substance that receives and rejects heat, and does work.
Heat source or hot body is a source of heat from which the working substance receives
heat.
Heat sink or cold body is a heat receiver to which the working substance rejects heat.
Heat rate is the amount of heat added to the engine required to produce 1 kW or Hp
within one hour.
Regeneration is an important feature in Stirling cycle.
Ideal gas or perfect gas is a gas that obeys the relationship pv = RT and the other gas
laws exactly and has constants specific heat.
Vapor is a substance existing in the gaseous phase but relatively near its saturation
(evaporation or condensation) temperature.
State properties are properties that define the physical condition of the fluid.
52
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Prob. # 1] A Carnot power cycle operates on 0.5 kg of air between the limits of 27 oC and 270
o
C. The pressure at the beginning of isothermal expansion is 2 860 kPaa and at the end of
isothermal expansion is 1 400 kPaa.
A. Determine the volume at the end of the isothermal compression
a) 0.12 m3 b) 0.21 m3
3
c) 0.12 m /kg d) 0.21 m3/kg
B. Find the S during an isothermal process
a) 0.301 kJ/oK b) 0.103 kJ/oK
c) 0.301 kJ/kg-oK d) 0.103 kJ/oK
C. Calculate the heat added, QA
a) 55.66 kJ b) 55.66 kW
c) – 55.66 kJ d) – 55.66 kW
53
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
54
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
Instruction: Select the correct answer from each of the following questions.
55
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
4. A body from which the working substance of a cycle receives heat is called:
a) Heat source b) heat sink
c) Condenser d) Cooler
5. It is a regenerative thermodynamic power cycle using two isothermal and two constant
volume processes.
a) Ericson cycle b) Stirling cycle
b) Brayton cycle d) Carnot cycle
6. Stirling cycle is a regenerative thermodynamic power cycle, also known as:
a) Limited-pressure cycle b) Constant pressure regenerative cycle
c) Constant volume regenerative cycle d) Dual cycle
7. A constant-pressure regenerative power cycle is called:
a) Dual cycle b) Stirling cycle
c) Ericson cycle d) Otto cycle
8. It is the model cycle or the theoretical prototype cycle for reciprocating spark-ignition
engines.
a) Carnot cycle b) Otto cycle
c) Diesel cycle d) Dual cycle
9. In a compression-ignition engine, one of the methods to avoid detonation during
compression, with its limitation on the compression ratio, is:
a) To inject the fuel after the compression process or stroke
b) To inject the fuel before the end of compression process or stroke
c) To lower the compression ratio
d) To increase the cut off ratio
10. It is the model cycle or the theoretical prototype cycle for reciprocating compression-
ignition engines.
a) Carnot cycle b) Otto cycle
c) Diesel cycle d) Dual cycle
11. A common modification used with spark-ignition engines for aircraft operation, which a
steady-flow compressor used to compress the air before it enters the reciprocating engine.
a) Scavenger b) Supercharger
c) Radiator d) Spark plug
12. A closed system that operates in cycles and exchanges only heat and work with its
surroundings is known as:
a) Carnot engine b) Heat engine or thermal engine
c) Stirling engine d) Heat pump
13. A substance that receives and rejects heat, and does work is called as:
a) Working substance b) Gas
c) Steam d) Air
14. The amount of heat added to the engine required to produce 1 kW or Hp within one hour
is said to be:
a) Heat added b) Heat rate
c) Power output d) Heat rejected
15. It is an important feature in Stirling cycle.
a) Heat rejection b) Heat addition
c) Regeneration d) Heat recovery
16. A gas that obeys the relationship pv = RT and the other gas laws exactly and has
constants specific heat is known as:
a) Real gas b) Perfect gas
c) Air d) Argon
17. A substance existing in the gaseous phase but relatively near its saturation (evaporation or
condensation) temperature is called:
a) Steam b) Air
c) Vapor d) Oxygen
18. Properties that define the thermal and energy conditions of the fluid.
a) Specific properties b) State properties
56
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
ANSWERS
Practice Problems
# 1] A.a
B.b
57
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
C.a
D.c
E.a
F.b
G.a
# 2] A.a
B.b
C.a
D.a
E.b
F.a
G.b
# 3] A.a
B.b
# 4] a
# 5] A.a
B.b
C.b
D.a
E.b
F.c
# 6] A.a
B.c
C.d
D.a
E.b
1. c
2. a
3. b
4. a
5. b
6. c
7. c
8. b
9. a
10. c
11. b
12. b
13. a
14. b
15. c
16. b
17. c
18. d
19. b
20. a
21. d
58
JCSF Engineering Review Center BASIC PRINCIPLES & CONCEPTS
22. a
23. c
24. d
25. a
26. c
27. c
28. d
29. d
30. a
31. b
59