اساسيات كهرباء

Electrical Circuit Analysis
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1 class Lecturer: Mohammed Arif
Basic Concepts and Basic Laws

1.1 Basic Concepts:
1.1.1 System of Units:
The Basic SI Units
Quantity Basic Unit Symbol

Length Meter L
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Electric current Ampere A
Thermodynamic Kelvin K
Temperature
Luminous intensity Candela cd
********
The SI Prefixes
Multiplier Prefix Symbol

1018 Exa E
1015 Peta P
1012 Tera T
109 Giga G
106 Mega M
103 Kilo K
10 Deca Da
10-1 Deci d
10-2 Centi c
10-3 Milli m
10-6 Micro µ
10-9 Nano n
10-12 Pico p
10-15 Femto f
10-18 Atto a
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Examples:
10Hz → 10 x 106 Hz
2mA = 2 x 10-3 = 0.002 A
5µs = 5x 10-6 s
1.1.2 Charge and Current
The electrical charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of

which matter consists, measured in coulombs (C). The charge of an electron
is (-1.602 x 10-19 C).
Electrical current: is the rate of change charge, measured in amperes (A).

The current (I) is defined mathematically as:
i
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑖𝑖 = I
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 t
d.c current
𝑡𝑡 2 i
∴ 𝑞𝑞 = � 𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡 1 Im
0 t
a.c current
• A direct current (dc) is current that remains constant with time. The
symbol (I) is usually used to represent such a constant current.
• An alternating current (ac) is a current that varying sinusoidally with
time. A time varying current is represented by the symbol (i).
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Example:
Determine the total charge entering a terminal between t=1s and t=2 s, if the
current passing the terminal is i= (3 t2-t) A.
Solution:
𝑡𝑡 2
𝑞𝑞 = � 𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡 1
2 2
2
𝑡𝑡 2
3
= � (3 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (𝑡𝑡 − �
1 2 1
1
= (8 − 2) − �1 − � = 5.5 𝐶𝐶
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1.1.3 Voltage
The voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit
charge an element, measured in volts (V).
-a
+a +a
+
+ +
Vab 9V Vab
-b -b +b
• For the voltage Vab, this means that the polarity of point a is higher
than that of points b.
Vab = Va-Vb
1.1.4 Power and Energy:
Power is the time rate of expanding or absorbing energy, measured in watts

(W).
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𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑝𝑝 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
When p is the power in watts (W), w is the energy in joules (J), and t is the
time in seconds (s).
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
We have; 𝑝𝑝 = → 𝑝𝑝 = .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= . = 𝑣𝑣. 𝑖𝑖
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
∴ 𝑝𝑝 = 𝑣𝑣. 𝑖𝑖
The energy absorbed or supplied be an element from to to time t is:

𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
𝑤𝑤 = � 𝑝𝑝 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑣𝑣 𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡 𝑜𝑜
Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).
• the electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hour

(Wh) where:
1Wh= 3.600 J
Example:
How much energy does a 100 w electric bulb consume in 2 hours.
Solution:
W= pt = 100 x 2 = 200 wh
Or
W=pt= (100 w) (2 x 60 x 60)
=720 000J
=720 kJ
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1.1.5 Circuit Elements:
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elementic.
• Circuit analysis is the process of determining voltage across (or the

current through) the element of the circuit.
Passive elements
Resistors, Capacitors, and
( cannot generate energy) inductors
Circuit Elements
Active Elements
Generators, batteries,
(can generate energy) operational amplifiers
• The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that
generally deliver power to the circuit connected to them.
Independent sources
Circuit Elements
Dependent sources
• An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a

specified voltage or current that is completely independent of other
circuit variables.
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• Dependent sources (or controlled sources) are active elements in

which the sources quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.
1.2 Basic Laws:
1.2.1 Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law states that the voltage V across a resistor is directly proportional
to the current I flowing through the resistor.
I
𝑉𝑉 ∝ 𝐼𝐼
𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅 V R Vo
Where R is the resistance. The resistance R denotes the ability of an element

to resist the flow of electric current, it is measured in ohms (Ω).
For any material, the resistance R depends on its physical dimensions as

follows:
𝑙𝑙
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑝𝑝
𝐴𝐴
Where p is the resistivity of material.
R is the resistance in Ω
l is the length of the conductor
A is the cross section area in m2
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 Good conductors have low resistivities (such as copper, aluminum)

 Insulators have high resistivities (such as mica, paper, etc)
Example:
Determine the resistance of 100 ft of a copper wire if the diameter is 0.0126

in, given that the resistivity of copper 1.724 x10-6 Ω.cm.
Solution:
𝑙𝑙
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑝𝑝
𝐴𝐴
(1.724𝑥𝑥10−6 )(3048)
∴ 𝑅𝑅 =
8.04 𝑥𝑥 10−4
= 6.5 Ω
𝜋𝜋 𝑑𝑑 2
Where 𝐴𝐴 = = 8.04𝑥𝑥10−4 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2
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Temperature effects on resistance:
The effect of rise of temperature is:
- To increase the resistance of pure metals.

- To increase the resistance of alloys
- To decrease R of insulators and partial, conductors such as carbon.
Typical variation of R with temperature is shown below (for copper).
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R2
R1
Absolute Zero
y
x
-273.15 -234.5 0 t1 t2 Temp. oC
From the graph:

𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦
=
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
or
𝑡𝑡1 + 234.5 𝑡𝑡2 + 234.5
=
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
In gerenral, for any material

|𝑇𝑇| + 𝑡𝑡1 |𝑇𝑇| + 𝑡𝑡2
=
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
Where |𝑇𝑇| is the inferred absolute zero of the material (oC).
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Example: if the resistance of a copper wire is 50Ω at 20 oC?
Solution:
20 + 234.5 100 + 234.5
=
50 𝑅𝑅2
R2 = 65.72Ω
Another relation for the temperature effect on R is given as
𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑅1 [1 +∝1 (𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡1 )]
Where ∝1 is the temperature coefficient of resistance.
Resistivity of common materials
Material Resistivity (Ω.m) Usage

Sliver 1.64 x 10-8 Conductor
Copper 1.72 x 10-8 Conductor
Aluminum 2.80 x 10-8 Conductor
Gold 2.45 x 10-8 Conductor
Carbon 4.00 x 10-5 Semiconductor
Germanium 47.0 x 10-2 Semiconductor
Silicon 6.4 x 10-2 Semiconductor
Paper 1010 Insulator
Mica 5 x 1011 Insulator
Glass 1012 Insulator
Teflon 3 x 1012 Insulator
 The resistance of a short circuit element is approaching Zero.

 The resistance of an open circuit is approaching Infinity.
Power Power
supply supply
Vsc =0 Rsc=0 Voc Roc=∞
Short circuit Open circuit

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 Conductance (G)
A useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance (R) is

called conductance (G);
1 𝑖𝑖
𝐺𝐺 = =
𝑅𝑅 𝑣𝑣
The conductance can be explained as the ablility of an element to conduct
electric current; it is measured in mhos (ᶷ) or in Siemens (S).
∴ 𝑖𝑖 = 𝐺𝐺 𝑣𝑣
And;
2
𝑣𝑣 2
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 (𝑊𝑊)
𝑅𝑅
Or
2
𝑖𝑖 2
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑣𝑣 𝐺𝐺 =
𝐺𝐺
Example:
in the circuit shown, calculate the current I, the conductance G, and the
power P.
30 V 5 KΩ
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Solution:
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 30
 The current 𝐼𝐼 = = = 6 𝑥𝑥 10−3 = 6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅 5 𝑥𝑥 10 3
1 1
 The conductance 𝐺𝐺 = = = 0.2𝑥𝑥 10−3 = 0.2 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅 5 𝑥𝑥 10 3
 The power 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝐼 = 30(6 𝑥𝑥 10−3 ) = 180 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
or
 The power 𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅 = (6 𝑥𝑥 10−3 )2 (5 𝑥𝑥 103 ) = 180 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
or
 The power 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 𝐺𝐺 = 30 (0.2 𝑥𝑥 10−3 ) = 180 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
1.2.2 Nodes, Branches and Loops

 A branch represents a single elements in the electric circuit, such as a
voltage source or a resistors etc…..
 A node represents the point connection between two or more
branches.
 A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
Example:
For the circuit shown, determine the number of branches, nodes and
independent loops.
5Ω
2Ω 3Ω
10 V 2A
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Solution:
Since there are 5 elements
So, number of branches = 5 (10V, 5Ω, 2 Ω, 3 Ω, and 2A)
Number of nodes =3
In another word, there are 3 node : a, b, and c
The number of independent loops=3.
 Loop 1 or loop abc : contains ( 10V, 5 Ω, 2 Ω)

 Loop 2 or loop bcd: contains (2 Ω, 3 Ω)
 Loop 3 or loop bcb: contains (3 Ω, 2A)
Notes: there are more than 3 (dependent) loops in this example, we had only
calculated the INDEPENDENT loops which are only 3.
IN GENERAL; any circuit with b branches, n nodes and l independents

loops, the following fundamentals theorem of network topology.
𝑏𝑏 = 𝑙𝑙 + 𝑛𝑛 − 1
 Two or more elements are in SERIES if they are cascaded

sequentially and consequently carry the SAME current.
 Two or more elements are in PARALLEL if they are connected to the
same two nodes and have consequently the same VOLTAGE across
them.
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1.2.3 Krichoff’s Law
There are two general approaches for Krichoff’s Law:
1- Krichoff’s Current Law (KCL); state that the algebraic sum of all
current entering a node is ZERO, or : the sum of the currents entering
a node is equal to the sum of currents leaving that node.
𝑀𝑀
� 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛 = 0
𝑛𝑛=1
Or
𝑀𝑀 𝑁𝑁
� 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = � 𝐼𝐼𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑚𝑚 =1 𝑛𝑛 =1
Where Imi are the currents are entering the node and Ino are the currents
leaving the node.
Example:
For the network shown, calculate the total current IT.
I1 I2 I3
2A 1A 3A
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Solution:
According to KCL,
IT = I1- I2+I3
=2-1+3= 4 A
So, the equivalent circuit for the network can be as shown
2- Kirchoff Voltage Law (KVL); states that the algebraic sum of all
voltages around a closed path (or loop) is ZERO.
 Mathematically, KVL states that:
𝑀𝑀
� 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = 0
𝑚𝑚 =1
Where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in
the loop), and Vm is the mth voltage.
Example:
For the circuit shown, find the voltage V1 and V2
2Ω
3Ω
20 V
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Solution:
V1= 2 I
V2 = 3 I
For KVL:
� 𝑉𝑉 = 0 → 20 − 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 = 0
So,
20=3 I +2I
Then, 5I=20
I= 4A
So, V1= 2I =8V and V2=3 I= 12V.
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2. Circuit Transformations
2.1 Series Circuits:
Two elements are in series if they have the only one point in common that is
not connected to other current carrying elements of other network.
For the series circuit. Shown, using KVL, we have:
R1 R2
R3
E
E=V1 +V2+ V3
=I R1 + I R2 + I R3
= I (R1 + R2 + R3) RT= R1 + R2 + R3
= I RT
𝐸𝐸
∴ 𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
In general, for a series cct. Consisting N resistors, then the total resistance of
such circuit RT is given as:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3+ ………….RN
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R1= 2Ω
Example: for the circuit shown, find:
a. The total resistance R2= 1Ω
E= 20V
b. The current I
c. The voltage V1, V2, and V3
Solution:
R3 = 5Ω
a- RT = R1+R2 +R3
= 2+1+5= 8Ω
𝐸𝐸 20
b- 𝐼𝐼 = = = 2.5 𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 8
c- V1 = I R1 = (2.5) (2)= 5V
V2= I R2 = (2.5) (1) = 2.5 V
V3 = I R3 = (2.5) (5) = 12.5 V
2.1.1 Voltage Sources in Series:
The net voltage will be the algebraic sum of all sources that are connected in
series.
Example:
2V E= 18 V
10 V 6V
ET = E1 + E2 + E3
= 10 +6 + 2 = 18 V
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2.1.2 Voltage Divider Rule
Consider the circuit shown. We have:
RT = R1 + R2
and
𝐸𝐸
𝐼𝐼 = R1 V1
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
𝐸𝐸
V1= I R1 = � � . 𝑅𝑅1
𝑅𝑅 𝑇𝑇 E
𝑅𝑅1 .𝐸𝐸 R2 V2
=� � RT
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
Similarly,
𝐸𝐸
V2= I R2 = � � . 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅 𝑇𝑇
𝑅𝑅2 .𝐸𝐸
=� �
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
Hence, we can write:

𝐸𝐸. 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥
𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
This means that “the voltage divider rule” can be understood to state that:
The voltage across a resistor in a series circuit is equal to the value of that
resistor times the total applied voltage across the series element divided by
the total resistance of the series elements.
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Example: determine the voltage V1, V3, and V’ for the circuit shown:
R1=2KΩ V1
Solution: R2=5KΩ
E
𝐸𝐸. 𝑅𝑅1 RT
𝑉𝑉1 =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 R1=8K Ω V3
(45). (1 𝑥𝑥 103 )
= = 6 𝑉𝑉
(2 + 5 + 8)𝑥𝑥103
𝐸𝐸. 𝑅𝑅3
𝑉𝑉3 =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
(45). (8 𝑥𝑥 103 )
= = 24 𝑉𝑉
(2 + 5 + 8)𝑥𝑥103
′
𝐸𝐸. 𝑅𝑅′
𝑉𝑉 =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
∴ 𝑅𝑅′ = (2 + 5)𝑥𝑥 103 = 7 𝑥𝑥103 Ω
′
(45). (7𝑥𝑥 103 )
𝑉𝑉 = = 21 𝑉𝑉
(2 + 5 + 8)𝑥𝑥103
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Notes:
Ground Potential
It is common, for safety, purpose and as a reference to ground electric and

electronic systems. The symbol for the ground connection is:
0V
With it is defined potential level (zero volts). As a consequence, the circuit

might need to be redrawn in the ordinary form in order to analyzed it.
Example: for the circuit shown, with ground potentials connected for the
sources and to elements; this circuit can be redrawn to make it easier to
analyze.
R1 V1
RT R2 V2
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Example: using the voltage divider rule, determine the voltage V1 and V2 fo
the circuit shown:
E= +24 V
R1= 4Ω V1
R1= 2Ω V2
Solution:
Redrawing the circuit with the standard battery symbol, then the circuit will
be shown as below:
𝑅𝑅1 .𝐸𝐸 (4).(24)
V1= I R1 = �
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
�= 4+2
= 16 𝑉𝑉
and,
𝑅𝑅 .𝐸𝐸 (4).(24)
V2= I R2 = � 2 � = = 8𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅 𝑇𝑇 4+2
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Example: for the circuit shown, determine Vab, Vcb and Vb.
E= +24 V
a
R1= 25Ω
Vab
R2= 20Ω
Solution:
c
The circuit is redrawn as shown;
E = -19 V
𝐸𝐸1 + 𝐸𝐸2 19 + 35
∴ 𝐼𝐼 = = = 1.2 𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 20 + 25
and
Vab= I R2= (1.2) (25)= 30 V
And Vcb= - Vbc= -(1.2) (25)= - 24 V
Vc= - E1= -19V
Internal Resistance of Voltage Sources:

Rin R in
RL E RL
E E
Ideal voltage source Actual Voltage Source Actual Voltage Source

(At no load) Connected to load
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Applying KVL on figure 3:
E- IL Rin – VL= 0
Applying KVL on figure 2:
E= VNL
Substituting, then:
VNL - IL Rin – VL= 0
So, VL= VNL -IL Rin
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2.2 Parallel Circuits:

Two branches or two elements or networks for the parallel if they have two
points in common.
For the parallel cct. Shown; using KCL, we have:
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐼3

𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉3
= + +
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3
R1 R2 R3
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉3 = 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑉𝑉 10 V E
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉
∴ 𝐼𝐼 = + +
𝑉𝑉 1 1 1
∴ = 𝑉𝑉( + + ) 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑉3 = 𝐸𝐸
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3
1 1 1 1 𝐸𝐸 𝑉𝑉
∴ = + + 𝐼𝐼 = =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
In general, for N resistors connected in parallel, then:

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯……………
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
Conductance G:
For parallel networks, it is common to use the idea of conductance in the

circuit analysis. The conductance (G) is defined as:
1
𝐺𝐺 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (𝑆𝑆)
𝑅𝑅
So, we can write the total conductance GT for the parallel circuit shown; as:
𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇 = 𝐺𝐺1 + 𝐺𝐺2 + 𝐺𝐺3

G1 G2 G3
1
→ 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 = GT
𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇
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NOTE: the total resistance RT of parallel resistors is always less than the
value of the smallest resistor.
Special Cases:
The general relation for the total resistance of parallel resistors :

1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯……………
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
Case1: for the equal resistors in parallel, i.e, when
R1=R2=R3………………………..RN=R
Then;
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ⋯……………
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅
1 1 𝑅𝑅
∴ = 𝑁𝑁 � � 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅 𝑁𝑁
Case 2: for two resistors in parallel, the RT is given as:

𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 =
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
This means that, the total resistance of the two parallel resistors is the
product of the two divided by their sum.
Case 3: for three resistors in parallel, then RT is given as:

𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 =
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3
Example: determine the total resistance for the network shown:
2Ω
4Ω 5Ω
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Solution: Redraw the circuit to be as shown:
1 1 1 1
= + +
1 1 1
= + +
2 4 5
=0.5+0.25+0.2
=0.95
1
∴ 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 = = 1.053 Ω
0.95
Example: for the parallel network shown;

R1 =9Ω R2 =18Ω
a. Calculate RT. E = 27 V
b. Determine IT.
c. Calculate I1 and I2.
d. Determine the power to each resistive load.
e. Determine the power delivered by the source and compare it with the
total power dissipated by the resistive elements.
Solution:
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 (9)(18) 162
a. 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 = = = =6Ω
𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2 9+18 27
𝐸𝐸 27
b. 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 = = = 4.5 𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 6
𝑉𝑉1 𝐸𝐸 27
c. 𝐼𝐼1 = = = = 3 𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅1 6
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And
𝑉𝑉2 𝐸𝐸 27
𝐼𝐼2 = = = = 1.5 𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅2 18
d. P1=I1 V1= E I1 = (27) (3) = 81 W

P2= I2 V2= E I2= (27) (1.5) = 40.5 W
e. Ps= E IT = (27) (4.5) = 121.5 W
Ps= P1+P2 = 81+40.5= 121.5 W
2.2.1 Current Divider Rule: consider the parallel cct. Shown; we have;
𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 R1 R2
V
→ 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
∴ 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 =
𝑅𝑅 1 𝑅𝑅 2
𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝐼𝐼
𝑅𝑅 1 +𝑅𝑅 2
But 𝐼𝐼1 = = =
𝑅𝑅2
∴ 𝐼𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐼 .
Similarly, for I2, we have:

𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
𝑉𝑉 𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2
𝐼𝐼2 = = =
𝑅𝑅1
∴ 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐼 .
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Example: determine the current I2 for the network shown:
R1=4 KΩ R2 =8 KΩ
V
Solution:
𝑅𝑅1
𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐼 .
4 𝑥𝑥 10 3 4
= 6 (4+8)𝑥𝑥 = 6. = 2 𝐴𝐴
10 3 12
Example: find the current I1 for the network;
Solution:
R1 = 6Ω R2 = 24Ω R3= 24Ω
𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
𝐼𝐼1 =
𝑅𝑅1
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 =
Or
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + = + +
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 6 24 24
RT = 4 Ω
4
∴ 𝐼𝐼1 = 42 𝑥𝑥 10−3
6
= 28 x 10-3 = 28 mA
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2.2.2 Voltage Source in Parallel:
E1 = 12 V E2= 12 V E = 12 V
E1 = E2 = E and Is = I1 +I2
To increase the current rating of the source, two or more batteries in parallel
of the same terminal voltage would be used.
2.3 Open and Short Circuits:
We often need to apply the open and the short circuits in the analysis of
electric networks.
 Open circuit: an open circuit is simply two isolated terminals not

connected by an element of any kind.
Consider the circuit shown; with open circuit terminals a and b.
Vopen circuit = Voc = Vab= E
since I (in the open circuit) = 0.
R
a
E
Vab =E
In general: an open circuit CAN HAVE a potential difference

(voltage) across its terminals but the current is always zero.
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 Short Circuit: A short circuit is a direct connection of zero Ohms

across an element or combination of elements.
Consider the circuit shown; with a short circuit across the resistor R2
R1
R2
E
𝐸𝐸
ISC = IT = since IR2 =0.
𝑅𝑅1
Vshort circuit = VSC = 0

In general: A short circuit CAN CARRY a current of any level but the
potential difference (voltage) across its terminals is always ZERO.
Example: (a). for the network shown, determine Vab.
a
R1= 2KΩ R2= 4KΩ
E= 20V
Vab
Solution: we have an open circuit across the terminal a and b, the

I=0 → V1 =0 and V2 = 0
- Applying KVL → Vab = E = 20 V.
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(b). calculate I and V for the network shown;
R1= 5KΩ R2= 10KΩ
E= 18V
Solution: we have a short circuit across R2
∴ No current through R2
𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸 18
I= = = = 3.6 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅1 +0 5 𝐾𝐾Ω
Note : the circuit can be redrawn to be as shown
∴ V =I R1 = E = 18 V
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2.4 Source Transformation:

It is often necessary or convenient to have a voltage source rather than a
current source or a current source rather than a voltage source.
In the cct. Shown; we have a voltage source connected to a load resistance
RL.
We have:
𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸
IL = =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
By multiplying the numerator by (RS/ RS=1), we have:
𝑅𝑅 𝐸𝐸
� 𝑆𝑆 �𝐸𝐸 𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 � �
𝑅𝑅 𝑆𝑆 𝑅𝑅 𝑆𝑆
IL= =
𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 .𝐼𝐼
IL =
𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
RS
E RL
Voltage Source
This is a current divider equation, which can be represented by the circuit

below, which is the equivalent circuit of the voltage source.
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𝐸𝐸
I= 𝑅𝑅
𝑆𝑆
RS RL
Current Source
In General:
A voltage source with voltage E and series resistor RS can be replaced by a
current source with a current I and a parallel resistors RS shown:
a
a
RS
𝐸𝐸
E = I RS I=
𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆
E RS
b b
Current to Voltage Source

Voltage Source to current source
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Example: convert the voltage source, in the circuit below, to a current

source, and then calculate the current through the load for each source.
RS= 2Ω
E= 6V RL = 4 Ω
Solution: for the voltage source circuit:

𝐸𝐸 (3)(2)
IL = =
𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 2+4
=1A
Example: convert the current source in the circuit shown, to a voltage source
and determine IL for each source.
I= 9 mA
RS= 3 KΩ RS= 6 KΩ
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Solution:
For the current source cct;
𝐼𝐼. 𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 (9𝑥𝑥10−3 )(3𝑥𝑥103 )

𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = =
𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 + 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 (3 + 6)𝑥𝑥103
= 3mA
2.5 Series- Parallel Circuits.

Example: for the circuit shown,
R1= 4Ω
E=10 V 2Ω R4= 0.5Ω

R3= 4Ω R3= 4Ω
R5= 1.5Ω
Solution:
R1=RA=4Ω
𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 4
RB = R2 // R3 = = =2Ω
𝑁𝑁 2
RC = R4 + R5 = 0.5 + 1.5 = 2Ω
𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 2
R B//C = = =1Ω
𝑁𝑁 2
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From fig. 3
∴ RT = RA + RB//C =4+1= 5Ω
𝐸𝐸 10
∴ 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 = = = 2𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 5
From fig. 2
𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴 2
IB = I C = = = 1 𝐴𝐴
2 2
From fig. 1
IR4 =IR5 =IC = 1A
From fig. 2
VA = IA RA = (2) (4) = 8 V
VB = IB RB = (1) (2) = 2 V
VC = IC RC = (1) (2) = 2V
For check:
� 𝑉𝑉 = 0 → 𝐸𝐸 − 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 − 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 = 0
0
10 = 8+2
∴ 10 𝑉𝑉 = 10 𝑉𝑉
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Wye – Delta Transformation:

There are some cases often arises in the circuit analysis, when the resistors
are neither in parallel nor in series. For example, consider the circuit shown:
R1
R3
R2
E R4
R5 R6
In the circuit shown, R1 , R2 , R3 …..R6 are neither in series nor in parallel.
 Wye (Y or star) connection:
1 3
R2 R1 R2
R1 1 3
R3 R3
4
2
2
T- connection
Y or star Connection
Y and T connections
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 Delta (∆ 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝝅𝝅 )circuit connection
Rc R1 Rc
1 1 3
3
Ra
Rb
Rb
Ra
2 4
4
2
(∆) (𝜋𝜋)
Delta circuit and its equivalent 𝜋𝜋 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
 Delta to Wye Transformation:

- We have ∆ and want to get its equivalent star circuit.
- Consider the ∆ circuit shown; to be transformed into its equivalent
start shown below: Rc
1
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 ( 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 +𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 ) 3
𝑅𝑅12 =
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 +𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 +𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐
𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 ( 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 +𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 ) Rb

𝑅𝑅13 = Ra
Delta
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 ( 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 +𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 ) 2
𝑅𝑅23 =
1 3
R12 = R1 + R3
R2
R13 = R1 + R2 R1
R23 = R2 + R3
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 ( 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 +𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 )
R3
∴ R1 + R3 = ………… (1)
2
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𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 ( 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 +𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 )

∴ R1 + R2 = …………….. (2)
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 ( 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 +𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 )

∴ R2 + R3 = ……………(3)
Subtraction Eq. (3) from Eq. (1) and adding the result to Eq. (1) result in:
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐
𝑅𝑅1 =
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 + 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 + 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐
Similarly;
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐
𝑅𝑅2 =
and;
𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏
𝑅𝑅3 =
IN GENERAL
Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in the two
adjacent ∆ braches, divided by the sum of the three resistors.
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 Wye to Delta transformation

- We have Y connected circuit and we want to get its equivalent ∆
- Consider the Y circuit shown, its equivalent ∆ is shown below.
Using the previous sets of equations, then we have:

𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 =
𝑅𝑅1
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 =
𝑅𝑅3
𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 =
𝑅𝑅2
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IN GENERAL
Each resistor in the ∆ network is the sum of all possible product of Y

resistors network taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.
Notes:
- The Y and ∆ networks are said to be balanced when:
R1 =R2 =R3
and
Ra = Rb = Rc
- Under balance condition, the conversion equations become:

𝑅𝑅∆
𝑅𝑅𝑌𝑌 =
3
or
𝑅𝑅∆ = 3 𝑅𝑅𝑌𝑌
Example: obtain the equivalent resistance of Rab for the circuit shown and
use it to find the current I
12.5Ω 10Ω
E=12 V 5Ω
30Ω
15Ω 20 Ω
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Solution:
 We can’t use the relation of series connected or parallel connected

resistors to obtain Rab.
 We try to use ∆ − 𝑌𝑌 transformation or 𝑌𝑌 − ∆ to get Rab.
 If we transform the Y consisting of:
R1=10 Ω
R2=20 Ω
R3=5 Ω
So, the equivalent ∆ circuit contains:

𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 =
𝑅𝑅1
10 𝑥𝑥 20 + 20 𝑥𝑥 5 + 5 𝑥𝑥 10 350
= = = 35Ω
10 10
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅3 350
𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 = = = 17.5 Ω
20 20
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅3 350
𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 = = = 70Ω
5 5
∴Rab=(7.3 +10.5)// 30
17.8 𝑥𝑥 21
= = 9.632Ω
17.8+21
𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸 12
∴ 𝐼𝐼 = = =
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 9.632
I= 1.246 A
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3. Techniques of Circuit Analysis

3.1 Determinants:
Consider the two simultaneous equations
a1 x + b1 y = C1
and
a2 x + b2 y = C2
where x and y are the unknowns variables, and a1 , a2, b1 , b2 , C1 and C2 are
constants.
Using the determinants, the following format are obtained for each of the
variables; x and y :
𝐶𝐶1 𝑏𝑏1
∆1 � �
𝐶𝐶 𝑏𝑏2
𝑥𝑥 = = 2
∆ 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏1
� 1 �
𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2
Where; ∆1 = 𝑐𝑐1 𝑏𝑏2 − 𝑐𝑐2 𝑏𝑏1
∆ = 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏2 − 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏1
𝑎𝑎1 𝑐𝑐1
∆2 �𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐2 �
𝑦𝑦 = = 2
∆ 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏1
� 1 �
𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2
Where; ∆2 = 𝑎𝑎1 𝑐𝑐2 − 𝑎𝑎2 𝑐𝑐1
∆ , ∆1 , 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∆2 are called second order determinants linear two rows and two
columns.
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Third order determinants are used to solve the simultaneous linear equations.
Consider, the following three simultaneous equations:
a 1 x + b 1 y + c1 z = d 1
a 2 x + b 2 y + c2 z = d 2
a 3 x + b 3 y + c3 z = d 3
The unknown variables, x , y, and z are determined as follows:

𝑑𝑑1 𝑏𝑏1 𝑐𝑐1
�𝑑𝑑2 𝑏𝑏2 𝑐𝑐2 �
∆1 𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏3 𝑐𝑐3
𝑥𝑥 = = 3
∆ 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 𝑐𝑐1
�𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 𝑐𝑐2 �
𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3 𝑐𝑐3
𝑎𝑎1 𝑑𝑑1 𝑐𝑐1
�𝑎𝑎2 𝑑𝑑2 𝑐𝑐2 �
∆2 𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑3 𝑐𝑐3
𝑦𝑦 = = 3
𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 𝑑𝑑1

�𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 𝑑𝑑2 �
∆3 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏3 𝑑𝑑3
𝑧𝑧 = = 3
The third order determinant can be evaluated as:
𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 𝑐𝑐1 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1 𝑐𝑐1 𝑎𝑎1 𝑏𝑏1

∆= �𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 𝑐𝑐2 � → �𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2 𝑐𝑐2 � 𝑎𝑎2 𝑏𝑏2
𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3 𝑐𝑐3 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3 𝑐𝑐3 𝑎𝑎3 𝑏𝑏3
∆=a1 b2 c3 + b1 c2 a3 + c1 a2 b3 – a3 b2 c1 – b3 c2 a1 – c3 a2 b1
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Example: find x and y :
-x + 2y = 3
3x – 2y = -2
Solution:
3 2
� �
𝑥𝑥 = −2 −2 = (3)(−2)— (−2)(2) = −2 = 1
−1 2
� � (−1)(−2) − (3)(2) −4 2
3 −2
−1 3
� � (−1)(−2)— (3)(3) −7 7
𝑥𝑥 = 3 −2 = = =
−1 2 (−1)(−2) − (3)(2) −4 4
� �
3 −2
Example: find x , y, and y , for the following simultaneous equations:
x- 2z = -1
3y+z =2
x+ 2y + 3z =0
Solution: arrange the equations to be as:
1x +0 y – 2z = -1
0x +3 y + 1z =2
1x + 2y +3z = 0
Then
−1 0 −2 −1 0
�2 2 1� 2 2
∆1 0 2 3 0 2
𝑥𝑥 = =
∆ 1 0 −2 1 0
�0 3 1 �0 3
1 2 3 1 2
(−1)(3)(3) + (0)(1)(0) + (−2)(2)(2) − [ (0)(3)(−2) + (2)(1)(−1) + (3)(2)(0)
∴ 𝑥𝑥 =
(1)(3)(3) + (0)(1)(1) + (−2)(0)(2) − [ (1)(3)(−2) + (2)(1)(1) + (3)(0)(0)
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− 15 15
= = −
13 13
And
1 −1 −2 1 −1
�0 2 1 �0 2
∆2 1 0 3 1 0
𝑥𝑥 = =
∆ 13
(1)(2)(3) + (−1)(1)(1)(1) + (−2)(0)(0) − [(1)(2)(−2) + (0)(1)(1) + (3)(0)(−1)
=
13
5+4 9
= =
13 13
The same we find:
−1
𝑧𝑧 =
13
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3.2 Loop (Mesh) Current Method

Consider the circuit shown below:
2Ω
4Ω 1Ω
2V
6V
To analyze this circuit using the loop (mesh) method, the following steps
must be followed.
Step1: assign a distinct current in the clockwise direction to each

independent loop of the network.
2Ω
4Ω 1Ω
2V
6V
Note: there are only two independent loops.
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Step2: indicate the polarities within each loop for each resistor as determined
by the assumed direction of loop current for
2Ω
4Ω 1Ω
2V
6V
Step3: apply (KVL) around each closed loop in the clockwise direction.
For Loop 1 E1 – V1 –V3 = 0
E1 – I1 R1 – (I1 –I2) R3 = 0
2 – 2 I1 – 4(I1 – I2) = 0
For Loop2
-E2 –V3 – V2 = 0
- E2 – R3 (I2 – I1) – I2 R2 =0
-6 -4 (I2 – I1) – 1 I2 = 0
Notes:
- If a resistor has two or assumed currents through it, the total current
must be taken into account.
- The polarity of the voltage source is unaffected by the loop currnet
passing through it.
Step 4 : solve the resulting simulataneous equations for the assumed loop
currents.
The equations for Loop1 and Loop2 are written to be as:
48
st
Loop1 2 = 6 I1 – 4 I2
Loop 2 -6 = -4 I1 + 5 I2
Solving by determents, then:
2 −4
� � (2)(5) − (6)(4) −14
𝐼𝐼1 = −6 5 = = = −1 𝐴𝐴
6 −4
� � (6)(5) − (−4)(−4) 14
−4 5
And
6 2
� � (6)(−6) − (−4)(2) −28
𝐼𝐼1 = −4 −6 = = = −2 𝐴𝐴
6 −4 (6)(5) − (−4)(−4) 14
� �
−4 5
∴ I4Ω = I1 – I 2 = -1 –(2) = 1 A in the direction of I1
Special Cases for Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
Case 1:
When a current mesh exit only in one mesh. This will simplify the analysis.
49
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Example:
Calculate the circuit currents in the circuit shown, using mesh analysis.
Solution: 4Ω 3Ω
I2 is known
10 V 6Ω
I2 = - 5A
5A
So, we need ONE equation.
10 =I1 (4+6) – I2 (6)
10 = 10 I1 +30
4Ω 3Ω
10 − 30
𝐼𝐼1 = = −2 𝐴𝐴
10
10 V 6Ω
5A
CASE 2:
When a current source exit between TWO meshes. In this case a supermesh
is created.
Example:
Calculate all branch currents in the circuit shown, using mesh current
method.
6Ω 10Ω
6Ω
20 V 4Ω
2Ω
50
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Solution:
In the circuit , we have a supermesh
 To solve for the branch currents, both KVL and KCL must be applied.
Applying KCL ;
I2 = I1 + 6 …………………(1)
To apply KVL to the supermesh; see the equivalent circuit below.
20 = 6 I1 + (10+ 4) I2
6 I1 + 14 I2 = 20 …………(2)
From equation (1) and eq. (2)
I1 = -3.2 A
And
I2 = 2.8 A
Summary
The supermesh has the following proprieties:
1. The current source in the supermesh is not completely ignored.

2. It provides the constrain equation necessary to solve for mesh
currents.
3. A supermesh has no current of its own.
4. A supermesh requires the application of both KCL & KVL.
51
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3.3 Nodal Voltage Method

To analyze a given circuit using this technique. The following steps have to
be followed:
1- Convert all voltage sources to current sources.

2- Determine the number of nodes within the network.
3- Pick a reference node and label the remaining as V1 , V2 , and so on.
4- Apply (KCL) at each node except the reference.
5- Solve the resulting equations for the nodal voltages.
Example:
Using the nodal voltage method, determine the currents in R1 , R2 , and R3,
in the circuit shown.
R3 = 12Ω
R1 = 2Ω R2= 6Ω
2A
4A
Solution:
There are 3 nodes, V1 , V2 and the reference node (ground).

R3 = 12Ω
R1 = 2Ω R2= 6Ω
2A
4A
52
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For node 1:
4 – I1 – I3 = 0
𝑉𝑉1 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2
4− −
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅3
For node 2:
I3 – I2 – 2 = 0
𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉2
− − 2=0
𝑅𝑅3 𝑅𝑅2
Rearrange, then:
1 1 1
𝑉𝑉1 � + � − 𝑉𝑉2 � � = +4
2 12 12
1 1 1
𝑉𝑉2 � + � − 𝑉𝑉1 � � = −2
12 6 12
Which produce:
1 1
𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉 = +4 → 7 V1 – V2 =48
2 12 2
1 3
− 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉 = −2 → -1 V1 – 3 V2 = - 24
12 12 2
48 −1
� � 120
∴ 𝑉𝑉1 = −24 3 = = 6 𝑉𝑉
7 −1 20
� �
−1 3
53
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7 48
� � −120
𝑉𝑉1 = −1 −24 = = − 6 𝑉𝑉
7 −1 20
� �
−1 3
Since V1 is greater than V2 , the assumed direction of I3 is correct.
𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 6 − (−6) 12
∴ 𝐼𝐼3 = = = = 1𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅3 12 12
𝑉𝑉1 6
𝐼𝐼1 = = = 3𝐴𝐴
2 2
And
𝑉𝑉2 −6
𝐼𝐼2 = = = −1𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅2 6
The negative sign mean that the current in the circuit has opposite direction.
Special Cases for Nodal Analysis With Voltage Sources
CASE 1:
When voltage source is connected between the reference node and a non-
reference node.
As shown in the figure below
In this circuit, we have 3 node voltages: V1 and V2 , and V3
But V1 = 10 V
4Ω
2Ω 6Ω
V1 V2 V3
10 V 8Ω 8Ω
54
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Thus, our analysis is somewhat amplified by this knowledge of the voltage

at this node. We, now, need 2 nodal equations.
CASE 2: (supernode)
When a voltage source is connected between two- refrence nodes. The two
non-refrence nodes form a supernode.
As shown in figure below:
4Ω
5V
2Ω
V1 V2 V3
10 V 8Ω 8Ω
The voltage source has been connected between the nodes V2 and V3. [ V2
and V3] is called supernode.
• To solve the circuit, KVL and KCL must be applied at supernode.
Applying KVL at the supernode results in:
5 = V2 – V3
Applying KCL at the supernode result in:
I1 + I4 = I2 + I3
𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉3 𝑉𝑉2 − 0 𝑉𝑉3 − 0
+ = +
2 4 8 6
55
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V1 = 10 Volts
10 − 𝑉𝑉2 10 − 𝑉𝑉3 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉3
+ = +
2 4 8 6
36= 3V2 + 2 V3
We have:
5 = V2 – V3
Solving for V2 and V3
So, V2 = 9.2 V
V3 = 4.2 V
Summary: the supernode has the following properties:
1- The voltage source inside the supernode provides a constraint

equation needed to solve for node voltage.
2- A supernode has no voltage of its own.
3- A supernode requires the application of both KCL and KVL.
56
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4. Circuit Theorems
4.1 Superposition Theorem
The Theorem states that: “the current through (or the voltage across) an
element in a linear bilateral network is equal to the algebraic sum of the
currents (or voltages) produced independently by each source.
 To apply this theorem to find the current (or voltage) in a certain part
of a network, remove the sources of the network and find the current
(or voltage) in the existence of only one source each time. The
resultant current (or voltage) will be the algebraic sum of currents (or
voltages) due to all sources when acting independently once a time.
 Removing the sources means: SHORT CIRCUITING the voltage
sources and OPEN CIRCUITING the current source.
Example:
Using the superposition theorem, determine V1 for the network shown.
15 Ω
I= 2𝐴𝐴
E= 40 V
57
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Solution:
 Due to the current source:
V1 = I R1
= (2) (15) = 30 V
 Due to the voltage source:
V1 = I1 R1
= (0) (15)
=0V
∴ 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑉1′ + 𝑉𝑉1′′
= 30+0 = 30V
Example:
Using superposition theorem, determine the current through 4 Ω resistor for

the network shown.
R1 = 24Ω
E1 = 54V R2 = 12Ω
E2 = 48 V
R3=4Ω
58
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Solution:
 Consider the effect of E1

𝐸𝐸1 54
𝐼𝐼 = = = 2 𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 27
Using the current rule

𝑅𝑅2 12
∴ 𝐼𝐼3′ = 𝐼𝐼 =2 = 1.5 𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑅3 12 + 4
 Consider the effect of E2

𝐸𝐸2
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼3′′ =
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
RT = (24 // 12) + 4 = 4 + 8 = 12 Ω
48
∴ 𝐼𝐼3′′ = = 4 𝐴𝐴
12
∴ 𝐼𝐼3 = 𝐼𝐼3′′ − 𝐼𝐼3′ = 4 − 1.5 = 2.5 𝐴𝐴 ( 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼3′′ )
59
st
Example:
Using superposition theorem, determine the current through 2 Ω resistor for

the network shown.
R1 = 2Ω
R2 = 4Ω
I= 3A
E2= 6 V
E1 = 12 V
Solution:
 The effect of E1:
Remove the voltage sources E2 (short circuit) and the current source I (
open circuit); then the network will be as shown:
𝐸𝐸1 12
∴ 𝐼𝐼1′ = = = 6 𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 2+4
 The effect of E2: removing E1 and I, the network will be as shown:
𝐸𝐸2 6
∴ 𝐼𝐼1′′ = = = 1 𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 2 + 4
 The effect of I:
Removing E1 and E2, the network will be as shown
60
st
𝑅𝑅2 4
∴ 𝐼𝐼1′′′ = 𝐼𝐼 = (3) = 2 𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 4+2
∴ 𝐼𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐼1′′ + 𝐼𝐼1′′′ − 𝐼𝐼1′ = 1 + 2 − 2 = 1𝐴𝐴
61
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3.2 Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s theorem state that “any two equivalent linear biletraral dc

network can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage
source and a series resistor.
Consider the network shown, it can be replaced by the voltage source Eth and
the series resistor Rth.
R3 RTH
E R4 RL ETH RL
R1 R2
- To find I through the resistance RL .

𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡ℎ
𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
 Steps to find Eth and Rth:
STEP 1: remove that portion of the network across which the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit to be found.
SETP 2: make the terminal of the remaining Two- terminals network.
STEP3: (RTH)
Calculate Rth by firest setting all sources to zero (voltage sources are
replaced by short circuits and current are replaced by open circuit), and
finding the resultant resistance between the two marked terminals.
62
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STEP 4: (ETH)
Calculate Eth by first returning all sources to their original positions and
finding the open circuit voltage between the marked terminals.
STEP 5:
Draw Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit previously
removed replaced between the terminals of the equivalent circuit.
Example: using Thevenin’s theorem, find the current in the RL = 10Ω of the
network shown.
R2 = 2Ω
I= 3A R1 = 4Ω RL = 10Ω
Solution:
Step 1 and 2:
63
st
Step 3: Rth=?
Remove the current source I, then calculate Rth between the terminals
a and b;
∴ Rth = R1 + R2 = 4 +2 = 6 Ω
Step 4: Eth
Return the current source to its original position then determine Eth across
the open circuit terminals a and b.
I2 = 0
Then I2 R2 =0
Hence,
Eth = I1 R1 – I2 R2
= I1 R1 = 12 (4) =48 V
Step 5:
Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit representing the network between

points a and b with RL added.
𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡ℎ 48
∴ 𝐼𝐼 = = = 3𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡ℎ + 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 6 + 10
64
st
3.3 Norton’s Theorem:

Norton’s theorem states that “any two terminal liner bilateral dc networks
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source and a
parallel resistor”.
Consider the network shown, it can be replaced by the by the current source
IN and the parallel resistor RN;
R4
R1
E RL RN RL
R2 R3 IN
R5
To find the current through RL

𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
So, 𝐼𝐼 =
𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
How to find IN and RN
Step 1:
Remove the portion of the network across which the Norton equivalent
circuit id found.
Step 2:
Make the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network.
Step 3: (RN)
Calculate RN by first removing all the sources (voltage sources replaced by a

short circuit and current sources replaced by open circuits) and then finding
the resultant resistance between the two marked terminals.
65
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Step 4: (IN)
Calculate IN by first returning all sources to their original position and then
finding the short circuit current between the two marked terminals.
Step 5:
Draw the Norton equivalent circuit the portion of the circuit previously
removed replace between the terminals of the equivalent circuit.
Relation between Norton equivalent circuit and Thevenin’s equlivalent

circuit
The Norton’s and Thevevnin’s equivalent circuits can also be found from
each other by using the source transformation previously discussed, as
shown.
RTH
RTH =RN
ETH RN =RTH
𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡ℎ
ETH =IN RN 𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 =
𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡ℎ
66
st
Example:
For the circuit shown, find the Norton’s equivalent circuit for the network to
the left of (a-b).
R1=3Ω
E1= 9V R2 =6Ω RL
Solution:
Step 1 and 2:
R1=3Ω
E1= 9V R2 =6Ω
Step 3: (RN=0)
RN = R1// R2
3 (6)
= =2Ω
3+6
Step 4: IN
67
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𝐸𝐸 9
IN =I = = = 3 𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅1 3
Step 5:
RN=2Ω RL
IN=3A
Which is the Norton equivalent circuit of the network.
Note: Thevenin’s theorem can be determined by Norton’s Theorem as

shown:
68
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Example:
Using Norton Theorem, find the current through the load resistor RL in the
network shown.
Solution:
Step 1 and 2:
Step 3: (RN=0)
RN = R1+ R2
=5+4=9Ω
Step 4: IN
𝑅𝑅1 5
IN =I = 10 = 5.556 𝐴𝐴
𝑅𝑅1 +𝑅𝑅2 5+4
69
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Step 5:
𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁
∴ 𝐼𝐼 = = 2.778 𝐴𝐴
2
Note: Thevenin’s theorem can be determined by Norton’s Theorem as
shown:
3.4 Maximum power Transfer Theorem:
The maximum Power transfer theorem states the following:
 A load will receive maximum power from a linear bilateral dc

network when its total resistive value is exactly equal to the Thevenin
resistance of the network as seen by the load.
70
st
For the maximum power transfer
Rth=RL
𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡ℎ
𝐼𝐼 =
𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = ( )2 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
∴ 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿 → 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿

2 2
𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡ℎ 2
𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡ℎ
𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =( ) 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡ℎ =
4 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡ℎ 4 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡ℎ
2
𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡ℎ
∴ 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 =
4 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡ℎ
 When dealing with Norton equivalent circuit maximum power transfer

takes place, when:
RN=RL
Max. power Transfer at

RN=RL
PL = I2 RL
𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
= �𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 � . 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
71
st
𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
∴ 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = (𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 . )2 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
2 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 2
∴ 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = (𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 . ) 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
2 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
Example:
For the network shown, determine the value RL for maximum power
transfer, and calculate the power delivered under these conditions.
Solution:
Rth = (R1// R2) + R3
6 (3)
= + 8 = 10Ω
6+3
∴ For max. power the value RL = Rth = 10 Ω
𝐸𝐸. 𝑅𝑅2 12 (3)

𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡ℎ = = = 4𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅2 6+3
2
𝐸𝐸𝑡𝑡ℎ (4)2
∴ 𝑃𝑃𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = = = 0.4 𝑤𝑤
4 𝑅𝑅𝑡𝑡ℎ 4 (10)
72

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Electrical Circuit Analysis

Basic Concepts and Basic Laws

The Basic SI Units

Quantity Basic Unit Symbol

Multiplier Prefix Symbol

2mA = 2 x 10-3 = 0.002 A

1.1.2 Charge and Current

The electrical charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of

Electrical current: is the rate of change charge, measured in amperes (A).

1.1.4 Power and Energy:

Power is the time rate of expanding or absorbing energy, measured in watts

The energy absorbed or supplied be an element from to to time t is:

Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).

• the electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hour

How much energy does a 100 w electric bulb consume in 2 hours.

W=pt= (100 w) (2 x 60 x 60)

1.1.5 Circuit Elements:

An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elementic.

• Circuit analysis is the process of determining voltage across (or the

• An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a

• Dependent sources (or controlled sources) are active elements in

1.2.1 Ohm’s Law

Where R is the resistance. The resistance R denotes the ability of an element

For any material, the resistance R depends on its physical dimensions as

l is the length of the conductor

A is the cross section area in m2

 Good conductors have low resistivities (such as copper, aluminum)

Determine the resistance of 100 ft of a copper wire if the diameter is 0.0126

Temperature effects on resistance:

The effect of rise of temperature is:

- To increase the resistance of pure metals.

Typical variation of R with temperature is shown below (for copper).

-273.15 -234.5 0 t1 t2 Temp. oC

From the graph:

In gerenral, for any material

Where |𝑇𝑇| is the inferred absolute zero of the material (oC).

Example: if the resistance of a copper wire is 50Ω at 20 oC?

Another relation for the temperature effect on R is given as

𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑅1 [1 +∝1 (𝑡𝑡2 − 𝑡𝑡1 )]

Where ∝1 is the temperature coefficient of resistance.

Resistivity of common materials

Material Resistivity (Ω.m) Usage

 The resistance of a short circuit element is approaching Zero.

Short circuit Open circuit

A useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance (R) is

 The power 𝑃𝑃 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅 = (6 𝑥𝑥 10−3 )2 (5 𝑥𝑥 103 ) = 180 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

 The power 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2 𝐺𝐺 = 30 (0.2 𝑥𝑥 10−3 ) = 180 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

1.2.2 Nodes, Branches and Loops

Since there are 5 elements

So, number of branches = 5 (10V, 5Ω, 2 Ω, 3 Ω, and 2A)

In another word, there are 3 node : a, b, and c

The number of independent loops=3.

 Loop 1 or loop abc : contains ( 10V, 5 Ω, 2 Ω)

IN GENERAL; any circuit with b branches, n nodes and l independents

 Two or more elements are in SERIES if they are cascaded

1.2.3 Krichoff’s Law

There are two general approaches for Krichoff’s Law:

For the network shown, calculate the total current IT.

So, the equivalent circuit for the network can be as shown