CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Differential Unit

The differential unit is a part of the power transmission device. When a four-
wheel car takes a turn, the outer wheel turns faster than inner wheel. Thus, there is
relative movement between inner and outer wheel. The function of the differential
unit is to permit the relative movement a relative movement between inner and outer
wheels when vehicle negotiates (takes) a turn. The torque transmitted to each rear
wheel is equal in this case, although their speed is different.
The differential is made up of a system of gears which connect the propeller
shaft and rear axles. It is a part of inner axle housing assembly. The assembly consists
of differential, rear axles, wheels and bearings.

2.2. History of Differential unit

The are many claims to the invention of the differential gear but it is likely
that it was known, at least in some places, in ancient times. Some historical
milestones of the differential include:
c. 250 AD: Chinese engineer Ma Jun creates the first well-documented south
pointing chariot, a precursor to the compass that uses differential gears to discern
direction rather than a magnet. In 1720, Joseph Williamson uses a differential gear in
a clock. In 1810 Rudolph Ackermann of Germany invents a four-wheel steering
system for carriages, which some later writers mistakenly repot as a differential. By
the year 1827 Model automotive differential patented by watchmaker Onésiphore
Pecquer (1792-1852) of the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers in France for
uses on a steam cart.
In 1832 Richard Roberts of England patents “gear of compensation”, a
differential for road locomotives. In 1874 Aveling and Porter of Rochester, Kent list a
crane locomotive in their catalogue fitted with their patent differential gear on the
axle. In 1876 James Starley of Coventry invents chain-drive differential for uses on
bicycles; invention later used on automobiles by Karl Benz. In 1897 First use of
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differential on an Australian steam car by David Shearer. In 1913 Packard introduces

the spiral-ger differential, which cuts gear noise. In 1926 Packard introduces the
hypoid differential, which enables the propeller shaft and its hump in the interior of
the car to be lowered. In 1958 Vernon Gleasman patents the Torsen dual-drive
differential, a type of limited-slip differential that relies solely on the action of
gearing, instead of a combination of clutches and gear.

2.3. Literature Review of Differential Gear

Author Utkarsh Patil et al. discussed the transmission system of the vehicle
but they mainly focused on the different type of the differential gearboxes. As the
vehicle gets stucked in the potholes, mud, slippery road, snow etc. the torque provided
to the stucked wheel is more and vehicles tyre rotate on the same place and does not
moved forward so to minimize this limitation the authors discussed various
modification in the differential gearbox such as helical gear driven differential,
limited slip differential, clutch pack differential, locking differential by centrifugal
force etc. this special purposes operations and these are unable to eliminate all the
limitations, so this can be used the combination of it and eliminate the limitation and
use in the vehicle for required operation.
Author Nitin Kapoor et al. design and developed a model of differential
gearbox with a material of glass filled polyamide composite material by using
CATIA-V5 under the different speed and static loading condition. The stress and
strains result of glass filled polyamide have the better tensile strength, recyclability,
low density, high creep resistance fatigue strength, low von-misses stress, less friction
and low cost by relating composite material different gearbox with conventional it is
found to be stress and strain are lower for the composite material which increases
mechanical efficiency.
Author Chandrakant Singh et al. gives the information about vehicle
differential system. When one wheel of the vehicle is stucked in the snow and mud
does not have enough traction i.e. stationary then the other wheel rotates twice its
normal speed, so the author studied and gave the solution of it by introducing
differential locking system which is sensor based. Sensor senses the difference in
speed of the vehicles wheels and locks the differential so that the wheels have same
traction. This mechanism produces a stabilization force acting through the rear axle,
that resist a vehicle rotation. The differential is going to locked and the shifter
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mechanism used to move dog ring engage both wheels shaft with drive and equal
power is given to the both.
The author Amir Khan et al. discussed about the four-wheel drive. It cannot
work without central differential. The author studied the phenomenon of windup
which is there in small difference in between front and rear wheel produce extra
torque applied across the transmission. This case study is for Maruti Suzuki Zypsy. It
transfers torque ratio 50:50 for front and rear axle but the torque develop by engine
should ratio 60:40 which is deal ratio for better handling. So, it needs to replace
gearbox to modified central differential having two different side gears. FEM method
is uses for analysis and creo-2 is used for calculating design. They concluded that
modified central differential is better is better is better than transfer gearbox.
Author G. Shrikant Reddy et al. designed and analyzed the gear assembly in
the differential gearbox. The problem of the failure at the contact regions minimized
by modifying gear material in static and dynamic condition. This modification was
done by using stresses and displacement at the point the material used by them are Ni-
Cr steel and steel and compared it in the ANSYS workbench. So, the author got that
Ni-Cr steel is the best material in differential gearbox manufacturing as it gives high
strength also the material Ni-Cr has long life compared to steel.
Author Joseph Gerald et al. give the idea about the light weight spur gear
differential system by introducing a spur gear at half shaft of the vehicle which
transmit the power to the wheel. The carrier is mounted on the propeller shafts which
rotates the pinion in opposite direction. This pinion is connected to the half shaft of
the vehicle which rotate in the same direction as propeller shaft. These differential
claims 30% lighter than the bevel gear differential and 70% free space available
because of its slim design for this reason it increases efficiency and reducing the cost
compared with others conventional differential. This is used for light duty and
commercial vehicles.

2.4. Necessarily for the Differential Unit

Both right and left wheels are always rotated at the same speed when the
vehicle is running on flat roads. But when the vehicle travels on curved road during
turning the inner wheels need to run slower than the outer wheel as it is required to
travel less distance. So, the wheels are in such a way that they rotate at different
speeds.
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The path of the inside wheel (A) and the path of the outside wheel (B) of a
vehicle when it turns along a curve are shown in Figure 2.1 for comparison. The
outside wheel (B) draws an arc with the radius of distance OB and the inside wheel
(A) draws an arc with radius of distance OA. Therefore, the distance travelled by the
outside wheel is more than the inside wheel.

O A B

Figure 2.1. Cornering Condition of Vehicle

If one of the wheels is a flat surface and the other on a rough surface, as
illustrated in Figure 2.2, the wheel (A) on the rough surface naturally must run at a
higher rpm than the other wheel (B) on the flat surface. This is not necessarily so,
however, if both wheels are on equal rough surfaces.

B
A

Figure 2.2. Rough Surface Condition

Furthermore, it is extremely rare for both wheels to run at an identical rpm
even on ordinary roads, because the two wheels contact the road surface differently
even if the road appears to be flat. Another reason for this difference in rpm between
the right and left wheels is the difference in the amounts of tire inflation and wear.
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In most cases, therefore, if both wheels were forced to run at the same rpm,
one of them would slip. Tires would, therefore wear faster, and the driving
performance of the vehicles would be affected as a result. To solve these problems,
there is needed a differential device that allows differences in rpm to occur while
transmitting equal torque.

2.5. The Main Components of the Differential

The main components of differential are shown in Figure 2.3;

Drive pinion
Spider gear
Crown wheel or ring
gear
Differential case

Side gear or sun gear

Axle shaft half

shaft

Spider gear
Axle shaft or half shaft

side gear or sun gear

Propeller shaft

Figure 2.3. Components of differential

1. Drive pinion
2. Crown wheel or ring gear
3. Differential case
4. Spider gears
5. Side gear or sun gears
6. Axle shaft or half shafts

2.5.1 Drive Pinion

The drive pinion as shown in Figure 2.4, turns the ring gear when the
drive shaft is rotating. The outer end of the pinion gear is splined to the rear U-joint
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companion flange or yoke. The inner end of the pinion gear meshes with the teeth on
the ring gear. The drive pinion gear id mounted on tapered roller bearing that allows
the drive pinion to move freely on the carrier.

Figure 2.4. Drive pinion

2.5.2 Crown Wheel or Ring Gear

Ring gear transfer power from pinion gear to the differential case assembly.
Ring gear reduces the gear ratio that helps in increasing the torque value. Crown
wheel and pinion gear are meshes with hypoid gear orientation. A hypoid gear is a
style of spiral bevel gear whose main variance is that the mating gears’ axles do not
intersect. The hypoid gear is offset from the gear center, allowing unique
configurations and a large diameter shaft. The teeth on a hypoid gear are helical, and
the pitch surface is best described as a hyperboloid. Figure 2.5 show the ring gear.

Figure 2.5. Crown wheel or ring gear

2.5.3 Differential Case

The differential case as shown in Figure 2.6, holds the ring gear, the spider
gears, and the inner ends of the axles. It mounts and rotates in the carrier. Case
bearing fit between the outer ends of the differential case and the carrier.
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Figure 2.6. Differential case

2.5.4. Spider Gears

Spider gears are connected at the end of the cross-pin that transfer power from
ring gear to side gear. The spider gear lies at the heart of the differential, and special
mention should be made about its rotation. The spider gear is free to make two kinds
of rotations: one along with the ring gear(rotation) and the second on its own axis
(spin). Figure 2.7 shows the spider gear.

Figure 2.7. Spider gear

2.5.5. Side Gear or Sun Gear

Side gear or sun gear transfers power from spider gear to the rear axles and
help both wheels to turn independently when turning. The side gear is shown in
Figure in 2.8.
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Figure 2.8. Side gear or sun gear

2.5.6. Axle Shaft or Half Shaft

The half shafts as shown in Figure 2.9, is a rotating member usually of circular
cross-section (solid or hollow), which is used to transmit power and rotational motion
in machinery and mechanical equipment in various applications. An axle is a central
shaft for a rotating wheel. The wheel may be fixed to the axle, with bearings or
bushings provided at the mounting points where the axle is supported. The axles
maintain the position of the wheels relative to each other and to the vehicle body. It is
subjected to torsion, and bending.

Figure 2.9. Axle shaft or half shaft

2.6. Construction of Differential Gear

Figure 2.10 shows the basic parts of the type of differential used in rear-wheel-
drive cars. On the inner ends of each axle a smaller bevel gear called differential side
gear is mounted. Two bevel gears are put together to mesh both driving and driven
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shafts at an angle of 90°. The differential case is mounted with two-wheel axles and
differential side gears. The differential case has bearing which rotate two axle shafts.
Then, the two pinion gears and their supporting shaft, called pinion shafts, are fitted
into the differential case. Then, the pinion shaft is meshed with the two differential
side gears connected to inner ends of the axle shafts.

Drive pinion
Ring gear
Differential pinion shaft

Differential case

Axle shaft
Differential side gear or
sun gear
Differential pinion or planer gear

Figure 2.10. Rear wheel drive differential

The ring gear is bolted to a flange on the differential case. The ring gear
rotates the differentia case. Finally, the drive pinion is mounted. The drive pinion is
assembled with the differential housing called differential case or carrier. The driver
shaft is connected with the drive pinion by a universal joint and it is meshed with the
ring gear. So, the drive pinion is rotated when the driver shaft turns. Thus, the ring
gear is rotated.

2.7. Working Principle of Differential

This unit includes straight ahead travel and turning.
(1) Straight Ahead Travel
The rolling resistances of the two drive wheels are almost identical when the
vehicle is travelling straight ahead on a level road. Therefore, both side gears move
equally with the revolution of the differential pinions, and all components rotating as
one unit. When resistance is equal in both rear axle shafts, as illustrated in Figure
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2.11, the differential pinions themselves do not rotate but turn as a unit with the ring
gear, differential case and pinion shafts.

Bevel gear
Crown wheel Housing
Axle shaft

Bevel pinion

Figure 2.11. Function on Straight Ahead Travel

In this case, the differential pinions only function to connect the right and left
side gears. As a result, the two side gears rotate as a unit with the revolution of the
differential pinions, causing both drive wheels to turn at an equal rpm.

(2) Turning
When the vehicle is turning, however, the inside wheel travels less distance
(i.e., in a shorter arc) than the outside wheel in comparison with when the vehicle is
travelling in a straight line. Since a resistance is therefore applied to the left-hand side
gear, as illustrated in Figure 2.12, each differential pinion rotates around its own shaft
and also revolves around the rear axle. The rpm of the right-hand side gear increases
as a result.

Crown wheel
Bevel gear
Slow turning Housing
Fast turning
Axle shaft

Bevel pinion

Figure 2.12. Function on Turning

In other words, since the differential pinion rotates around the pinion shaft, the
pinion increases the rpm of one side gear, while reducing the rpm of the other side
gear (depending on the resistance which is applied to the wheel), the sum of the rpm
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of the two is twice as much as the rpm of the ring gear. That is to say, the average rpm
of the two is equal to the rpm of the ring gear.
2.8. Types of Differential
Types of differential are;
1. Conventional or Open differential
2. Non-slip or self-locking differential
3. Limited slip differential (LSD)
i. Clutch-type limited slip differential
ii. Cone-type limited slip differential
iii. Viscous limited slip differential
iv. Torsen and Helical limited slip differential
4. Torque-vectoring differential
5. Double reduction differential

2.8.1 Conventional or Open Differential

Conventional or open differential is the most basic form of a differential. It
allows the vehicle to go around corners without dragging the outside wheel. However,
power is transferred to the wheel with the least amount of traction (grip on the road).
If that wheel is on ice or other slippery surface, the vehicle will not move forward and
the wheel with the power will simply spin. In vehicle with two-wheel drive, if they
have an open differential in effect, they have only a single drive wheel. In four-wheel
drive vehicles using open differentials (usually standard from the factory), only one
wheel on each axle powers the vehicles. Advantages include seldom breaking an axle,
less tire wear, and they are free as most new vehicles come open differentials. Figure
2.13 show the conventional or open differential.

Ring gear
Bevel gear

Bevel pinion
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Figure 2.13. Conventional or open differential

2.8.2 Non-slip or Power Locking Differential

A locking differential, differential lock, diff lock or locker is a variation on the
standard automotive differential. A locking differential may provide increased traction
compared to a standard or open differential by restricting each of the wheels on an
axle to the same rotation speed without regard to available traction or differences in
resistance seen at each wheel.
A locking differential is designed to overcome the chief limitation of a
standard open differential by essentially locking both wheels on an axle together as if
on a common shaft. This force both wheels to turn in unison, regardless of the
available to either wheel individually.
When the differential is unlocked (open differential), it allows each wheel to
rotate at different speeds when negotiating a turn, thus avoiding tire scuffing. An open
differential always provides the same torque (rotational force) to each of the two
wheels, on that axle. So although the wheels can rotate at different speeds, they apply
the same rotational force, even if one is entirely stationary, and the other spinning.
(Equal torque, unequal rotational speed).By contrast, a locked differential forces both
left and right wheels on the same axle to rotate at the same speed under nearly all
circumstances, without regard to tractional differences seen at either wheel.
Therefore, each wheel can apply as much rotational forces as the traction under it will
allow, and torques on each side-shaft will be unequal. Figure 2.14 show the locking
differential.

Figure 2.14. Non-slip or power locking differential

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2.8.3 Limited Slip Differential (LSD)

Limited slip differential marries the concepts of open and locked differentials,
working like an open differential the majority of the time, then automatically
beginning to lock as slip occurs. Lock-up can be achieved via a clutch pack, a cone
cone-clutch, viscous fluid, or a complex gear train.

2.8.3.1. Clutch-plate limited slip differential

The clutch-plate differential uses several friction discs which are similar to
small manual clutch discs. The main difference between this limited slip differential
and a standard differential is the clutch packs placed between side gears and
differential case as shown in Figure 2.15. The clutch friction discs are made of steel
covered with a friction material. The clutch plates are made of steel. The discs and
plates are alternately splined to the side gear and dogged (meaning tabs fit into
grooves) to the differential case. Grooves in discs or plates are for better grabbing
power.
The pinion gears, side gears and other parts are similar to a standard
differential. The differential case of the limited-slip differential is made in two parts to
allow for clutch pack removal. The discs and plates are applied by the preload springs
and by the mechanical pressure of the pinion gears on the side gears. Since, the pinion
and side gears are bevel gears, their teeth try to come out of engagement when the
differential is transmitting engine torque. It creates a pushing action on the side gears
and forces them outward against the differential case. The outward pressure of the
side gears presses the friction discs and steel plates together between side gears and
case. Whenever the discs and plates are pressed together, the splined and dogged
connections ensure the side gear and differential case are locked together.
When the vehicle is moving straight ahead, the clutch-plate differential
operates similar to a standard differential. The rear wheels and the differential case
tum at the same speed. The clutch packs are applied but they are not needed.
When the vehicle is making a tum, a high torque caused by the outer wheel
rotating faster than the case and it causes the clutch pack to slip. It allows the
differential to operate similar to a standard differential when making turns. The discs
and plates slide against each other discs turn with side gears, plates turning with case
allowing different rotating speeds between case and side gears. Therefore, rear wheels
rotate at different speeds.
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Ring gear

Friction plate

Figure 2.15. Clutch plate limited slip differential

2.8.3.2. Cone clutch limited slip differential

It is next version of the limited slip differential. In place of clutch packs, the
friction lined cones are used. The cone differential uses a cone-shaped clutch which
engages a matching cone-shaped receptacle. The operation is similar to the clutch-
plate differential. Preload spring and side gear pressures force the cone into a dished
depression in the differential case. Friction tries to lock the cone. Therefore, the side
gear sends power to the wheel with the most traction. Both clutch-plate and cone
differentials require a special limited slip gear oil. Using ordinary gear oil in limited-
slip differentials, it will cause the discs and plates or cones to slip and vibrate during
turns. Figure 2.16 show the cone clutch limited slip differential.

Differential case Pinion gear

Thrust
Spring retainer
washer

Slide gear &

Preload
cone clutch
spring Lockscrew
assembly
Pinion shaft

Figure 2.16. Cone clutch limited slip differential

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2.8.3.3. Viscous limited slip differential

The viscous limited slip differential is generally simpler because it relies on
hydrodynamic friction from fluids with high viscosity. Silicone based oils are often
used. A cylindrical chamber of fluid filled with a stack of perforated discs rotates with
the normal motion of the output shafts. The inside surface of the chamber is coupled
to one of the driveshafts, and the outside coupled to the differential carrier. Half of the
discs are connected to the inner, the other half to the outer, alternating inner or outer
in the stack. Differential motion forces the interleaved discs to move through the fluid
against each other.
When one wheel is on an ice and one on pavement, the wheel on the ice will
begin to slip(spin). Since the wheel on pavement has more traction, it will not spin. As
the wheel on the ice begins spinning, the plates of the viscous coupling will begin to
rotate, while the friction discs connected to the left output shaft remain stationary or at
a lower rate of rotation. When this occurs, the fluid within the coupling begins to heat
up and rotate with the differential housing. Friction between this fluid and the
stationary or slower moving friction discs force the friction discs to rotate at a faster
rate. By bringing the rotational speed of the left output shaft closer to the right shaft,
the differential acts more like a locked differential, and thus more torque will be sent
to the wheel with more traction. Figure 2.17 is the viscous limited slip differential.

Figure 2.17. Viscous limited slip differential

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2.8.3.4. Torsen or helical limited slip differential

The torsen, geared or helical differential as shown in Figure 2.18, does not
contain spider gear and side gears like an open differential or plated LSD. Instead,
there are worm gears (one the driveshafts) and worm wheels, which are connected to
the differential casing. On the end of the worm wheel, there are spur gears which
connect the worm wheels together. When the car is driving straight, the worm wheels
just push against the worm gears and turn both wheels at the same speed. As both
wheels are travelling at the same speed, there is no need for the worm wheels to turn
around their own axis. If one axle spins faster, it turns the worm gear. This worm gear
is connected via the spur gears with the worm gear of the other axle and males it turns
in the opposite direction, therefore making it possible to have both wheels spin at a
different speed in corners. The inside wheel turns slower by the exact amount the
other wheel turns faster.

Figure 2.18. Torsen or helical limited slip differential

2.8.4 Torque-vectoring Differential

Torque-vectoring differentials are the most advanced and most complicated
types of car differential, accentuating the differences in wheel speed as a vehicle
corner. Using electronically actuated clutches and a separate controller, torque-
vectoring differentials forcibly slow the wheel on the inside of the turn, sending
torque to the outside wheel, powering the vehicle through the turn. Also referred to as
active differentials, they modulate torque delivery on demand, resulting in a dynamic
driving experience and better cornering performance. Torque-vectoring differentials
are usually found on rear-wheel-drive and all-wheel-drive performance vehicles, and
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some vehicles mimic this by modulating brakes on the inside wheel. Figure 2.19 is the
torque- vectoring differential.

Figure 2.19. Torque-vectoring differential

2.8.5 Double Reduction Differential

In final drives, there is a single fixed gear reduction. It is the only gear
reduction in most automobiles and some medium duty trucks between drive shaft and
wheels. Double reduction final drives are used for heavy-duty trucks. In this
arrangement, it is not necessary to have a large ring gear to get the necessary gear
reduction.
The first gear reduction is obtained through a pinion and ring gear as the single
fixed gear reduction final drive. The secondary pinion is mounted on the primary ring
gear shaft. The second gear reduction is the result of the secondary pinion which is
rigidly attached to the primary ring gear and driving a large helical gear which is
attached to the differential case.
Double reduction final drives may be found on military design vehicle such as
5-ton truck. Many commercially designed vehicles of this size use a single reduction
or double reduction. Double reduction differential is shown in Figure in 2.20.
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Differential Gear (Second Reduction Stage)

Spider gear
Differential
side gear Axle shaft
Differential
case half

Differential bearing Bevel pinion and bevel drive gear

(First reduction stage)

Figure 2.20. Double reduction differential

2.9. Functions of Differential

1. Further reduces the rotations coming from the gearbox before the same
is passed on the rear axle.
2. Changes the direction of the axis of rotation of the power by 90 degree.
3. To distribute power equally to both the rear driving axles when the
tractor is moving in straight-ahead direction.
4. To distribute the power as per the requirement to the driving axles
during turning i.e. more rotations are required by the outer wheel as
compared to the inner wheel during turns.
5. To avoid skidding of the rear wheels on a road while turning.

2.10. Applications of Differential Gear

Differentials are used in:
1. The rear drive axles of front engine, rear wheel drive vehicles.
2. The transaxles of front engine, front wheel drive and rear engine, rear
wheel drive vehicles.
3. The front drive axle and rear drive axle of four-wheel drive vehicles.
4. Some four-wheel drive vehicles have center differential in the transfer
case.
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2.11. Advantages and Disadvantages of Differential

The advantages of seed differential are shown in the following:
1. Both driving wheels can rotate in the same direction at the same speed.
2. Both driving wheels can rotate in the same direction at different speeds.
3. Both driving wheels can rotate in the opposite direction at the same speeds.
4. Both driving wheels can rotate in the opposite direction at a different speed.
5. Its construction is simple as compared to another part of the vehicle like as
engine, transmission system etc.

The disadvantages of differential are shown in the following:

1. The differential increases the weight.
2. Higher purchase price.