2019/2020 MECH2414 Thermofluids PART 2 - Fluids Yuguo Li: Chapter 1 Introduction To Fluid Mechanics
2019/2020 MECH2414 Thermofluids PART 2 - Fluids Yuguo Li: Chapter 1 Introduction To Fluid Mechanics
2019/2020 MECH2414 Thermofluids PART 2 - Fluids Yuguo Li: Chapter 1 Introduction To Fluid Mechanics
MECH2414
Thermofluids
PART 2 - fluids
Fluid flow is life
Yuguo Li
OF 56 2`
Key topics
Key concepts: fluids, shear stress, continuum hypothesis, pressure,
dynamic viscosity, kinematic viscosity, Newtonian fluids, steady flow,
ideal flow, viscous flow, streamline
𝑑𝑢
Key formulas: 𝜏 = −𝜇 , which is the Newton’s law of viscosity
𝑑𝑦
𝐷 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= +𝑢 +𝑣 + 𝑤
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
OF 56 3`
Fluids and forces - First question first: what is fluid?
Things that flow, or tends to flow only when we interact with them, e.g. when we stir
coffee.
The air we breathe and water we drink - air (100%) and water (71%) covering the
earth surface
Milk, oil, pure oxygen, methane, gasoline etc.
∆𝐹𝜏
This is where continuum hypothesis works. 𝜏 = lim , where 𝜀 is
∆𝐴→𝜀,𝜀>0 ∆𝐴
sufficiently small to be negligible in comparison with macroscopic
length scales squared, but still sufficiently large to contain enough
molecules to permit calculation of averaged properties and
“construction” of fluid parcels.
Table 1. Dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity of fluids at 1 atm and 20 oC.
Example 1. Suppose the fluid being sheared in Figure 1 is SAE 30 oil at
20 oC. Compute the shear stress in the oil if the upper plate V = 3 m/s
and H = 2 cm
Note that although oil is very viscous, this is a modest shear stress, about 2,400 times less than
atmospheric pressure. Viscous stresses in gases and thin liquids are even smaller.
Continuum hypothesis – the most fundamental idea
In fluid mechanics, the total mass of fluid is usually irrelevant, normally use mass per
𝑀
unit volume instead, i.e. density; 𝜌 = 𝑉 . The reciprocal of density is called specific
1
volume; 𝑣 = 𝜌 .
Specific weight - The weight of a fluid per unit volume in Earth’s gravity field; 𝛾 =
𝑊 𝑀𝑔
= = 𝜌𝑔
𝑉 𝑉
Specific gravity - The ratio of a fluid’s density to that of a standard reference fluid
(water for liquids, air for gases) at STP (standard temperature and pressure).
liquid gas
sg (liquid ) ; sg (gas )
water air
Note, the symbol for volume is generally V, however, the symbol V is exclusively used
as mean velocity in this lecture. Hence for volume, we use the symbol with stroke
through it, i.e. V.
Example 2. What is the specific gravity of methane (CH4) at STP?
𝜌 𝑚𝑒𝑡 ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑒 0.72 kg/m3
Solution: sg(methane)= 𝜌 𝑎𝑖𝑟
= 1.23 kg/m3 = 0.59
Example 3. A tank of water having a total mass of 36 kg rests on the floor of an
elevator. Determine the force (in Newtons) that the tank exerts on the floor when
the elevator is accelerating upward at 7 ft/s2.
Stress is the result of applied force per unit area (surface forces).
1. one normal to the surface, i.e. pressure and the normal stress (𝑝 =
𝜎
2. the other parallel or tangent to the surface. A shear stress (𝜏) is
developed due to the action of the tangential component on a
surface.
𝐹
Pressure is thus a normal force per unit area (𝑝 = 𝐴𝑛 : exists in fluids at rest
or in motion (always compressive, i.e. into the surface, which can be solid
or imaginary surface in fluid). Shear stress is a tangential (shear) force
per unit area: exists only for fluids in motion
• The most often used pressure is referred to as absolute pressure.
Figure 8. (a) Absolute versus gage •Body forces consist of all forces that are developed in
pressure; (b) manometer; (c) the fluid without physical contact. Body forces are
manometer with comparable distributed over the volume of the fluid.
Electromagnetic and gravitational forces are examples
densities
of body forces arising in a fluid. A body force therefore
is proportional to the volume or mass.
•Surface forces such as shear and normal stresses on
the other hand act on the boundaries of a fluid through
direct contact. Surface forces, such as pressure and
shear stress, are proportional to the area.
Example 4: Robert Fulton’s steamboat the Clermont was
powered by a steam-driven piston engine. The net steam
pressure acting on the piston was about 70 kPa and the piston
surface was circular, with a diameter of 0.6 m. What was the
magnitude of the force applied by the steam to the piston in
this engineering system?
Solution:
The normal force is the product of the pressure in the fluid and
the area of contact, thus:
𝜋𝐷2 3.14×0.62
𝐹𝑁 = 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝 = 70,000 × = 19,782 N
4 4
1.2 Other basic variables for fluid motion – mostly related to velocity
Velocity = distance/time. Velocity is the most important kinematic variable of a flow field. It is a
vector function of space and time. [m/s]
𝐕 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝐢 + 𝑣 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝐣 + 𝑤 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 𝐤
𝑑𝑽
Acceleration = distance/time2=velocity/time; 𝒂 = (local acceleration) [m/s2]
𝑑𝑡
velocity 𝑑𝑽
Or Acceleration = velocity × ; 𝒂 = 𝑉 (convective acceleration)
length 𝑑𝑥
volume length×area
Discharge or volume flow rate = = =velocity×area; 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴 [m3/s]
time time
mass mass volume
Mass flow rate = = × =density×discharge; 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑄 = 𝜌𝑉𝐴 [kg/s]
time volume time
Force =
momentum mass×velocity mass volume
= = × ×velocity=density×discharge×velocity; 𝐹 =
time time volume time
𝜌𝑄∆𝑉 [N]
Power =
work done force×distance pressure×area×distance pressure×volume
= = = =pressure×discharge
time time time time
; [W, J/s]
3 𝑦 2
𝑢 = 𝑉 1− , where V is the mean velocity and V=3 m/s, and ℎ = 0.1 m. The fluid viscosity
2 ℎ
is 1.0×10-3 kg/(m.s).
Calculate
(a) The shearing stress acting on the bottom wall, and
(b) The shearing stress acting on the plan through the midplane, i.e. parallel to the walls and
pass through the centerline.
𝑑𝑢 3𝑉
Solution: 𝜏 = 𝜇 =𝜇 − 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 ℎ2
3𝑉 −3 3×3
At 𝑦 = −ℎ, 𝜏 =𝜇 = 1 × 10 × = 9 × 10−2 N/m2
ℎ 0.1
This stress along the lower wall, together with the same along the upper wall, creates a drag on
the wall.
At the mid plane, as y = 0, the sheering stress is zero. The above equation also shows that the
shearing stress varies linearly from the wall to the mid-plane.
Description of velocity field
Consider an observer fixed in space watching a fluid particle moving around, 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
As 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 , acceleration vector field is obtained as (using chain rule)
𝑑𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑎= = + + + = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝐷 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Define material derivative /substantial derivative = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 = +𝑉∙∇
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑡
Eulerian method of description - Fluid properties as a function of position and time, e.g.
𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 – the pressure field of the flow.
Lagrangian method of description - Fluid properties follow an individual particle moving
through the flow, e.g. application of Newton’s 2nd law to a particle of fixed mass
𝑑𝑉 𝑑2 𝑟
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 =𝑚 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
When a pressure probe is introduced into a laboratory flow, it is fixed at a specific position
(x,y,z). Its output thus contributes to the description of the Eulerian pressure field p(x,y,z,t).
𝜕𝑇
When = 0, the field is steady, otherwise unsteady.
𝜕𝑡
𝐷 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= +𝑢 +𝑣 + 𝑤
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
OF 56 22 `