Ochrophyte Lab
Ochrophyte Lab
(Stramenopiles)
Introduction
Ochrophytes are the algal members of a larger group of
organisms known as the heterokonts (different flagella), which
are also called the stramenopiles (Gr. stramen = straw, pila =
hair). In this course, I will use heterokonts to describe any
member of this large group of organisms, whereas ochrophytes
refer to the subset of heterokonts that have a chloroplast. The
more common groups of ochrophytes include the diatoms,
raphidophyceans, chrysophyceans, synurophyceans,
eustigmatophyceans, pelagophyceans, silicoflagellates,
pedinellids, sarcinochrysidaleans, phaeothamkniophyceans,
tribophyceans (xanthophyceans), and phaeophyceans (brown
algae). All ochrophyte chloroplasts have basically the same
chloroplast ultrastructure along with chlorophylls a and c and
often β‐carotene and/or fucoxanthin. We will only look at a few
of the ochrophyte groups in this course! But what are the
unifying features of all heterokonts?
The heterokonts contain groups of organisms that have
traditionally been classified as protozoa (e.g. Cafeteria), fungi
(e.g. Labryrinthula, Phytophthora) and algae (e.g. diatoms, brown
algae). The use of more recently obtained ultrastructural data,
along with comparisons of gene sequences, supports the
hypothesis that all these organisms belong together in one
large monophyletic group. This group, the heterokonts, is so‐ A chrysophyte representing the bauplan for
named because all the members have at least zoids with the heterokonts. (C = chloroplast, CE =
heterokont flagella. This term means that there are two flagella chloroplast envelope, CER = chloroplast
of different structure and that each flagellum has a different endoplasmic reticulum – 3rd and 4th
function. The longer forward flagellum is called the membranes, CV = contractile vacuole, E =
pleuronematic flagellum and pairs of tripartite hairs cover it eyespot, F = flagellar swelling, G = Golgi
whereas the trailing flagellum, called the short flagellum, is body, H = tripartite hairs, N = nucleus, MB =
both short and smooth (i.e. lacking hairs). The pleuronematic muciferous body, MR = microtubular root of
flagellum pulls the cell through the water and may assist with flagellum). From Lee (1989).
prey capture during phagocytosis whereas the short flagellum
acts as a rudder and its base is light sensitive.
The heterokonts, in turn, occur within an even larger clade of eukaryotes called chromealveolates by some people.
This imperfect name is in reference to the gold photosynthetic pigmentation that ochrophytes and dinoflagellates
possess and the cortical alveoli that are found only in the clade formed by ciliates, dinoflagellates and
apicomplexans.
There is strong support for the hypotheses that the ochrophyte chloroplast and the peridinin chloroplast of
dinoflagellates (they have other chloroplast types as well) is in fact a red algal chloroplast. Initially, it was posited
that the different photoautotrophic chromealveolates received their chloroplasts from independent secondary
endosymbiotic events. More recent analyses support a different model of evolution for chromealveolates though,
which is that there was one ancestral chromealveolate that phagocytized a red alga and that the chromealveolates
lineages that are 100% heterotrophic today lost their chloroplast.
Ecologically, most heterotrophic heterokonts are the same as fungi in that they are saprophytes or parasites. Thus
these heterotrophs can be critical to ecosystem function because they are one of the main groups of organisms
responsible for breaking down organic matter into simpler molecules. Algal classes of ochrophytes can also be
extremely important to both freshwater and marine ecosystems and this is particularly true for the diatoms and
brown algae. In this course you will focus on three small groups that are primarily freshwater in their present day
distribution ‐ the chrysophyceans, synurophyceans, and the tribophyceans (xanthophyceans). You will also spend a
lot of time with the diatoms that occur in freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems. The last group that you
will study will be the brown algae, or phaeophyceans, which are completely marine in distribution.
Heterokont characters (* synapomorphy):
Heterokont flagella
o Pleuronematic flagellum of tripartite hairs*
o Short, smooth trailing flagellum with a flagellar swelling*
The transition region between flagellum and basal body has helical microtubules.* (Note: Green algae have
a stellate transition region.)
Heterokont taxa with chloroplasts (ochrophytes):
o 4 membranes, outer one continuous with nuclear envelope
o Thylakoids in stacks of three
o Pigments: the combination of chlorophylls a, c, and ß‐carotene*; other pigments (e.g. fucoxanthin) are
particular to specific clades
o Photosynthate stored as chrysolaminaran*
o Stigma inside the chloroplast
Objectives for the Chrysophyceans, Synurophyceans, and Tribophyceans (=
Xanthophyceans)
1. To be able to recognize members of these groups and to understand their organization and types of
reproduction,
2. To be able to explain and/or identify the terms for these groups.
Background for these Three Groups
The chrysophyceans and synurophyceans (golden algae), as well as the tribophyceans (yellow‐green
algae) are relatively small groups of ochrophytes with about 1000 and 600 species, respectively. Fossilized
statospores from both groups indicate that they originated in the marine environment. Today, almost all of these
ochrophytes are found in freshwater environments. Some of the chrysophytes are good indicators of low pH (i.e.
5.0), oligotrophic habitats whereas tribophytes like Tribonema and Vaucheria are ecologically important for their
formation of extensive filamentous mats in ponds and on marine mudflats.
Exercises for the Chrysophyceans & Synurophyceans
Study the benchtop image of Ochromonas and note the heterokont flagella construction, the 4 membrane
chloroplast that is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane (= chloroplast endoplasmic reticulum; CER),
the pyrenoid, and the pointed posterior end of the cell that should not be confused with the flagellum on the
anterior end.
Examine the cultured material of Ochromonas and locate the stigma and flagellum.
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Study the benchtop images of the colonial Synura and its siliceous scales.
Examine the cultured material of Synura, which is an example of a colony of monads. Scales and flagella may
also be visible, but a stigma is absent.
See the benchtop image of the siliceous scales of Mallomonas. There is no culture of this alga but you will see it
in our wild collections.
See the benchtop image of Dinobryon. Be able to recognize the lorica and statospores. The lorica is made of
cellulose, protein and is impregnated with some silica. This taxon is very delicate and will eventually show up
in one of our plankton tows.
Statospores, which also have a large silica component, can be made as a result of sexual or asexual
reproduction. See the below diagrams for Ochromonas and then Dinobryon. Also see the benchtop images of
fossil statospores and be able to recognize them by their pores through which the germinating cells emanate.
Development of an Ochromonas statospore (statocyst); A‐C. A mature statospore of Ochromonas – D. Co = collar of
statospore, P = plug in pore of statospore, S = statospore wall, SDV = silica deposition vesicle. From Lee, 1989.
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Sexual and asexual reproduction in the chrysophyte Dinobryon (note formation of statocysts, = statospores).
From Lee (1989).
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Exercises for the Tribophyceans (Xanthophyceans)
Examine the fresh material of Tribonema that will be mixed up in a general collection of green to yellow‐green
looking filaments. Xanthophytes have been renamed the Tribophyceae because Tribonema is the type genus
for the group.
Broken filaments will have cells on the end of the filament that have ‘H‐pieces’ cell walls. Tribonema also has
many discoid yellow‐green chloroplasts. The only other filament with H‐pieces when broken is the green alga
Microspora but its cells are much wider and the chloroplasts are larger. Tribonema, along with Microspora and
several conjugate green filaments like Zygnema, Mougeotia, and Spirogyra, is a very common member of
greenish filamentous mats that occur in slow moving streams, ponds, marshes, or sidewalks!
Examine the fresh material of the coenocytic Vaucheria. Note its coenocytic organization and look for the
presence of sexual (gametangia) and asexual (synzoospores) structures. Vaucheria is one of the few marine
tribophytes you will see and it is often found on salt marsh mudflats; however, it also occurs on wet terrestrial
habitats.
Vegetative and reproductive
structures of Vaucheria.
B & D. An asexual zoid –
called a synzoospore
because of all the pairs of
flagella.
E. Germinating synzoospore.
an = antheridium
oog = oogonium
From Scagel et al. (1984)
Vocabulary for Heterokonts and the Chrysophyceans, Synurophyceans, and
Tribophyceans (= Xanthophyceans)
Coenocytic Stigma
Heterokont flagella Stramenopiles
Lorica Synzoospore
Ochrophytes
Oligotrophic
Pleuronematic flagellum
Scales
Secondary endosymbiosis
Short flagellum
Statospore (statocyst)
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Objectives for the Diatoms (Bacillariophyceae)
1. Know the diatom morphology and ultrastructure background presented in this section.
2. Know the basic hypotheses about the evolutionary relationships of the major diatom clades.
3. Know and be able to recognize diatom asexual and sexual reproduction.
4. Be able to sight ID the diatoms indicated by your lab instructor in the plates at the end of this section.
Introduction to the Diatoms
The diatoms are a group of heterokonts with about 10,000‐12,000 described species, but the group may
actually have up to a million species (Graham and Wilcox 2000). All diatoms are coccoid unicells or coccoid
colonies. The heterokont flagellar
construction that is typical of the phylum is
only evident on reproductive zoids of centric
diatoms. Diatoms are an extremely important
group of organisms because of the huge
contribution they make to the earth’s primary
productivity. They occur in marine,
freshwater, and terrestrial environments. In
aquatic situations, they exploit planktonic or
benthic niches. They are also very common
photobionts within many protozoans like the
foraminifera as well as other invertebrates.
There are a number of synapomorphies that separate diatoms from other ochrophytes. These include the cell
covering called a frustule, diplontic (i.e. gametic) sexual reproduction, a reduced flagellum if one occurs at all, and
distinctive features of mitosis and cytokinesis. The frustule is composed of silica with an organic underlying layer.
There is always an upper half called the epitheca that fits over a lower half called the hypotheca. The top of the
epitheca is called the epivalve, and the series of girdle bands is called a cingulum. The collection of girdle bands
with the same diameter as the epivalve is called
the epicingulum. The hypotheca is similarly
comprised of the hypovalve and another set of
girdle bands that make up the hypocingulum.
Taxa differ in the number of cingula present. The
cells get longer by adding cingula.
A petri plate is a good starting place for
understanding the diatom frustule. In this
analogy, the top of the petri plate is the epitheca,
the top of the petri plate as well as the
downward curved edge is the epivalve and you
will have to imagine that the side of the petri
plate top is a series of cingula making up the Centric (a) and raphid
epicingulum. To continue with this analogy, if you are looking at the top of the pennate (b) diatoms.
petri plate, you are seeing the diatom in valve view. If you are seeing girdle bands E = Epitheca
then you are seeing the diatom in girdle view. H = Hypotheca
C = Cingulum
From Cox (1996).
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Summary of Diatom Characters:
The frustule as described above. There are no other algae with a frustule, but there are other ochrophytes
that use silica for scales (e.g. Synura), plates (parmaleans) or more continuous cell coverings (e.g. cysts of
synurophyceans and tribophyceans).
The way in which the diatom flagellum is reduced is also a synapomorphy. In oogamous diatoms, sperm
cells have only the one pleuronematic flagellum (the short and smooth flagellum is absent), the central
pair of microtubules in the flagellar axoneme is absent and the basal body has been reduced to nine
doublets rather than the normal nine triplets of microtubules.
With respect to mitosis and cytokinesis, diatom nuclear division is open and spindle microtubules are
persistent and the typical centrioles are replaced by microtubule organizing centers.
Special silica deposition vesicles accomplish cytokinesis.
With respect to nutrition, diatoms are photoautotrophic with the typical ochrophyte chloroplast structure. Their
brown color is due to fucoxanthin. However, diatoms are still mixotrophic and, while they cannot phagocytize due
to the frustule, they use osmotrophy extensively, sometimes to the point of shutting down the Calvin Cycle and
using all the energy from the light reactions to take up simple sugars. This historical hangover allows for nutritional
flexibility that is highly adaptive for surviving in both low and high light, as well as low and high nutrient
environments.
Diatoms are a monophyletic group of ochrophytes but in contrast to the traditional view that centric and pennate
diatoms form two natural groups, molecular data indicates that there are two clades, but clade I is composed of
centrics with rimoportula and clade two is comprised of centrics with fultoportula as well as pennate diatoms.
Centric diatoms are always radially symmetrical (i.e. the petri plate analogy) and they almost always have several
to many discoid chloroplasts. In contrast, pennate diatoms can be bilaterally symmetrical (i.e. shoebox analogy)
but a better characterization of this order is that they are longer than wide. Their chloroplasts are platelike. The
pennate diatoms within clade 2 form a monophyletic group and those pennate diatoms with a raphe (slit through
the frustule on at least one valve face for gliding) form a monophyletic subgroup within the pennate diatoms.
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After a diatom can be identified as being in one of these three large groups (rimoportula centrics, fultoportula
centrics, pennates) further classification relies on more detailed aspects of frustule architecture. Functionally and
taxonomically important features include the various types of areolae (= pores) and whether or not raphes are
present (raphid pennate) or absent (araphid pennates).
All diatoms need to have some kind of areolae through the frustule in order for gas exchange and nutrient uptake
to occur. Pores form species‐specific patterns across the frustule and lines of simple areolae, and lines of
depressions, are called stria (pl. striae). Other areolae form large chambers. The bottom of these chambers is
called the velum. If these chambers have a partial roof, then they are called loculate areolae, versus completely
open poroid areolae. In some taxa, particularly in centrics, these areolae are so big that they are easily seen with
the light microscope. Large chambered areolae are the most common in both groups of centric diatoms whereas
simple areolae are the most common type of pore in pennate diatoms.
Pennate diatoms with a raphe form a natural group. The function of a raphe is gliding motility. Thus it is not
surprisingly that those pennate diatoms with a raphe often live on or in a substratum (benthic habitats, epiphytic,
epizoic) and not in the water column. Raphes may occur on one or both valves and in the middle or edge of the
valve face. The raphe is a slit that runs all the way through the valve face. A thickening of the frustule called a
central nodule interrupts it, and the thickenings at each end of the cell are called polar nodules. Raphes may have
a naviculoid, nitzschioid, or surirelloid position on the valve face and the latter two raphe types are raised by a
keel.
Other features of the frustule that have structural as well as taxonomic significance are costae, which are
strengthening ribs that run along the inside of the frustule, and septa. In diatoms, a septum refers to an inward
growth of the frustule from the girdle face that is parallel to the valve faces (e.g. Diatoma).
The cellular contents of diatoms are phylogenetically important but they can also be used as key characters in
combination with frustule structure to identify diatoms. The freshwater diatom identification key by Cox (1996) is
an example of this type of key. In the following diagrams, be sure you can locate chloroplasts, the one nucleus per
cell, the vacuole, oil droplets (if visible), and pyrenoids (if conspicuous). Note that centric diatoms have only discoid
chloroplasts whereas pennate diatoms have one or two platelike chloroplasts.
Diatom Diplontic Sexual Reproduction
Pennate and centric diatoms both have diplontic sexual cycles but, whereas centric diatoms are
oogamous and produce an auxospore, since pennate diatoms have lost their flagella they undergo conjugation and
then form an auxospore. In both groups, sexual reproduction functions to restore cell size in addition to the typical
function of producing genetic variation. The following is a simplification of the steps to diplontic sexual
reproduction in each group:
Centrics (rimoportulate & fultoportulate) – see diagram on next page:
1. Several rapid mitotic divisions produce smaller diploid cells with thin frustules.
2. R! occurs in each of these cells and each cell produces 4 haploid spermatozoids.
3. In a separate line of vegetative cells that does not divide as fast, R! occurs to produce 4 haploid nuclei
3 of which die.
4. The surviving nucleus becomes the egg cell; gametes are oogamous.
5. Theca move apart and a zygote is formed when a spermatozoid (with its reduced heterokont
flagellum) completes karyogamy.
6. The zygote has a polysaccharide wall with silica scales and it swells to form an auxospore.
7. Normal vegetative cells are formed within the auxospore.
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Pennates:
1. Mitosis causes a decrease in cell size.
2. Two diploid cells line up next to each other for conjugation.
3. Each cell undergoes R! but only 1 haploid nucleus survives to become a gamete.
4. Theca move apart and a conjugation ‘tube’ is formed though which gametes move by amoeboid
movement.
5. A diploid zygote is formed which has a polysaccharide wall, not a frustule.
6. The zygote swells to form an auxospore that forms its own silica wall.
7. Normal vegetative cells are formed within the auxospore.
Diplontic sexual
reproduction in the
oogamous centric diatoms.
See the motile sperm (a)
and the large egg (b)
between the two frustules;
both are produced by R!.
The zygote (c) matures into
an auxospore (d) which
then forms more typical
cells within it (e, f, g). From
Round et al. (1990)
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Exercises for Learning Diatom Morphology & Frustule Architecture
Use the benchtop images to complete the following exercises:
1. Use the first diagram from the diatom background section of this lab and identify the epivalve, epicingulum,
epitheca and the hypovalve, hypocingulum and hypotheca. Be able to recognize a valve view versus a girdle
view.
2. Be able to distinguish between a centric and a pennate diatom.
3. Understand the different ways (mucilaginous tubes, spines) by which colonial diatoms are held together.
4. Be able to recognize rimoportula versus fultoportula.
5. Be able to distinguish between simple areolae versus poroid and loculate areolae.
6. Be able to recognize uni‐, bi‐ and multiseriate striae.
7. Be able to recognize and know the function of a raphe, and be able to identify the central and polar nodules
on raphid pennates. Be able to recognize a pseudoraphe.
8. Know the 3 different raphe positions and the structure of the 2 types of keels.
9. Be able to recognize and know the function of the different types of costae.
10. Within living diatom cells, be able to identify the plastid type (many & discoid in centrics, plate or band‐
like in pennates) and, if present, lipid droplets.
Demonstration microscopes:
Study the cleaned frustules in the demonstration microscopes and apply as much of the above terminology
from the benchtop images as possible.
Exercises for Learning Diatom Cell Division & Sexual Reproduction
Study the benchtop image demonstrating why diatom cells become smaller as they undergo cell division, which
in this case is the same thing as asexual reproduction.
See the demonstration microscope slide of Pinnularia cell division. Be able to point to which theca came from
the parent cell and which have just been formed.
Review the diagram of diplontic sexual reproduction in centric diatoms from this lab and then study the
benchtop image of Melosira auxospores.
See the demonstration microscope slide of Melosira auxospores.
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Represe
entative Frreshwaterr and Marin
ne Diatom
ms
FRESHWATER
F EPIPELIC (on ssediments)
12
FRESHWATER EPILITHIC (on hard surfaces)
Gomphonema
Diatoma
Meridion circulare
Tabellaria
Synedra
Cymbella
Melosira
13
FREESHWATER PLA
ANKTON (in w
water column)
Asterionella
Frag
gilaria croton
nensis Aulaccoseira italicca
Ste
ephanodiscus
s
neo
oastraea
Syn nedra
FR
RESHWATER EP
PIPHYTIC (on pplants, algae)
Ac
chnanthes Achnanth
hes Epithemia tturgida
Cocco
oneis placen
ntula
14
MAR
RINE EPIPELIC
15
Marine Epiphytic
Mucilagenous Tube with Berkeleya
Marine Epiphytic
Marine Planktonic with some Epiphytic & Epipelic Genera