MBA-III- Investment Management Notes

Financial Accounting And Auditing VII - Financial Accounting (University of Mumbai)

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Investment Management 14MBAFM303

Subject Code : 14MBA FM303

Subject : Investment Management
IA Marks 50
No. of Lecture Hours / Week 04
Exam Hours 03
Total Number of Lecture Hours : 56 Exam
Marks 100
Practical Component : 01 Hour / Week

Objectives:
• To develop a thorough understanding of process of investments.
• To familiarize the students with the stock markets in India and abroad.
• To provide conceptual insights into the valuation of securities.
• To provide insight about the relationship of the risk and return and how risk should be
measured to bring about a return according to the expectations of the investors.
• To familiarise the students with the fundamental and technical analysis of the diverse
investment avenues

Module 1: (Theory) (6 Hours)

Investment: Attributes, Economic vs. Financial Investment, Investment and speculation,
Features of a good investment, Investment Process.
Financial Instruments: Money Market Instruments, Capital Market Instruments, Derivatives.

Module 2: (Theory) (6 Hours)

Securities Market: Primary Market - Factors to be considered to enter the primary market,
Modes of raising funds, Secondary Market- Major Players in the secondary market,
Functioning of Stock Exchanges, Trading and Settlement Procedures, Leading Stock
Exchanges in India.
Stock Market Indicators- Types of stock market Indices, Indices of Indian Stock Exchanges.

Module 3: (Theory & Problems) (8 Hours)

Risk and Return Concepts: Concept of Risk, Types of Risk- Systematic risk, Unsystematic
risk, Calculation of Risk and returns.
Portfolio Risk and Return: Expected returns of a portfolio, Calculation of Portfolio Risk and
Return, Portfolio with 2 assets, Portfolio with more than 2 assets.

Module 4: (Theory & Problems) (8 Hours)

Valuation of securities: Bond- Bond features, Types of Bonds, Determinants of interest rates,
Bond Management Strategies, Bond Valuation, Bond Duration.
PREFERENCE Shares- Concept, Features, Yields.
Equity shares- Concept, Valuation, Dividend Valuation models.

Module 5: (10 Hours).

Macro-Economic and Industry Analysis: Fundamental analysis-EIC Frame Work, Global
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Economy, Domestic Economy, Business Cycles, Industry Analysis. Company Analysis-
Financial Statement Analysis, Ratio Analysis.
Technical Analysis – Concept, Theories- Dow Theory, Eliot wave theory. Charts-Types,
Trend and Trend Reversal Patterns. Mathematical Indicators – Moving averages, ROC, RSI,
and Market Indicators. (Problems in company analysis & Technical analysis)
Market Efficiency and Behavioural Finance: Random walk and Efficient Market Hypothesis,
Forms of Market Efficiency, Empiricial test for different forms of market efficiency.
Behavioural Finance – Interpretation, Biases and critiques. (Theory only)

Module 6: (Theory & Problems) (10 Hours)

Modern Portfolio Theory: Markowitz Model -Portfolio Selection, Opportunity set, Efficient
Frontier. Beta Measurement and Sharpe Single Index Model
Capital Asset pricing model: Basic Assumptions, CAPM Equation, Security Market line,
Extension of Capital Asset pricing Model - Capital market line, SML VS CML.
Arbitrage Pricing Theory: Arbitrage, Equation, Assumption, Equilibrium, APT and CAPM.

Module 7: (Theory & Problems) (8 Hours)

Portfolio Management: Diversification- Investment objectives, Risk Assessment, Selection of
asset mix, Risk, Return and benefits from diversification.
Mutual Funds:, Mutual Fund types, Performance of Mutual Funds-NAV. Performance
evaluation of Managed Portfolios- Treynor, Sharpe and Jensen Measures
Portfolio Management Strategies: Active and Passive Portfolio Management strategy.
Portfolio Revision: – Formula Plans-Rupee Cost Averaging
(QUESTION PAPER- 50% Problems, 50% Theory)

Practical Components:

• A Student is expected to trade in stocks. It involves an investment of a virtual amount of

Rs.10 lakhs in a diversified portfolio and manage the portfolio. At the end of the Semester the
Net worth is to be assessed and marks may be given (to beat an index).
• Students should study the functioning of stock exchange.
• Students should study of the stock market pages from business press and present their
observations • Students can do
• Macro Economic Analysis for the Indian economy.
• Industry Analysis for Specific Sectors.
• Company Analysis for select companies.
• Practice Technical Analysis
• Students can study the mutual funds schemes available in the market and do their
Performance evaluation.

RECOMMENDED BOOKS:

• Investment Analysis and Portfolio management – Prasanna Chandra, 3/e, TMH, 2010.
• Investments – ZviBodie, Kane, Marcus & Mohanty, 8/e, TMH, 2010.
• Investment Management – Bhalla V. K, 17/e, S.Chand, 2011.
• Security Analysis & Portfolio Management – Fisher and Jordan, 6/e, Pearson, 2011.
• Security Analysis & Portfolio Management – Punithavathy Pandian, 2/e, Vikas, 2005.
• Investment Management – Preethi Singh, 17/e, Himalaya Publishing House 2010.
• Security Analysis & Portfolio Management- Kevin S, PHI, 2011.
• Investments: Principles and Concepts – Charles P. Jones, 11/e, Wiley, 2010.
• Security Analysis & Portfolio Management – Falguni H. Pandya, Jaico Publishing, 2013.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

• Fundamentals of Investment – Alexander, Sharpe, Bailey, 3/e, PHI, 2001.

• Security Analysis & Portfolio Management – Nagarajan K & Jayabal G , 1st Edition, New
Age international, 2011.
• Investment – An A to Z Guide, Philip Ryland, 1st Edition, Viva Publishers, 2010.
• Guide to Investment Strategy-Peter Stanyer, 2nd Edition, Viva Publishers, 2010.
• Security Analysis & Portfolio Management – Sayesh N. Bhat, 1st Edition, Biztantra, 2011.
• Security Analysis & Portfolio Management– Dhanesh Khatri, 1st Edition, Macmillan, 2010.
• Security Analysis & Portfolio Management – Avadhani V. A, HPH.
• Investment Analysis & Portfolio Management– Reilly, 8/e, Cengage Learning.
INDEX

Module No. Contents Page Number

Module 1 Investment 5

Module 2 Securities Market 29

Module 3 Risk and Return Concepts 47

Module 4 Valuation of securities 63

Module 5 Macro-Economic and Industry Analysis 87

Module 6 Modern Portfolio Theory 95

Module 7 Portfolio Management 98

 Module I

Investment
Attributes, Economic vs. Financial Investment, Investment and speculation, Features of
a good investment, Investment Process.
Financial Instruments: Money Market Instruments, Capital Market Instruments,
Derivatives.

Investment Attributes
Every investor has certain specific objectives to achieve through his long term/short term
investment. Such objectives may be monetary/financial or personal in character. The
objectives include safety and security of the funds invested (principal amount), profitability
(through interest, dividend and capital appreciation) and liquidity (convertibility into cash as
and when required). These objectives are universal in character as every investor will like to
have a fair balance of these three financial objectives. An investor will not like to take undue
risk about his principal amount even when the interest rate offered is extremely attractive.
These objectives or factors are known as investment attributes.

There are personal objectives which are given due consideration by every investor while
selecting suitable avenues for investment. Personal objectives may be like provision for old
age and sickness, provision for house construction, provision for education and marriage of
children and finally provision for dependents including wife, parents or physically
handicapped member of the family.Investment avenue selected should be suitable for
achieving both the objectives (financial and personal) decided. Merits and demerits of various
investment avenues need to be considered in the context of such investment objectives.

(1) Period of Investment (2) Risk in Investment

To enable the evaluation and a reasonable comparison of various investment
avenues, the investor should study the following attributes:
1. Rate of return
2. Risk
3. Marketability
4. Taxes
5. Convenience
6. Safety
7. Liquidity
8.Duration

Each of these attributes of investment avenues is briefly described and explained below.

 Rate of return:
The rate of return on any investment comprises of 2 parts, namely the annual income and the
capital gain or loss. To simplify it further look below:
Rate of return = Annual income + (Ending price - Beginning price) / Beginning price
The rate of return on various investment avenues would vary widely.

2. Risk:
The risk of an investment refers to the variability of the rate of return. To explain further, it is
the deviation of the outcome of an investment from its expected value. A further study can be
done with the help of variance, standard deviation and beta. Risk is another factor which
needs careful consideration while selecting the avenue for investment. Risk is a normal
feature of every investment as an investor has to part with his money immediately and has to
collect it back with some benefit in due course. The risk may be more in some investment
avenues and less in others.
The risk in the investment may be related to non-payment of principal amount or interest
thereon. In addition, liquidity risk, inflation risk, market risk, business risk, political risk, etc.
are some more risks connected with the investment made. The risk in investment depends on
various factors. For example, the risk is more, if the period of maturity is longer. Similarly,
the risk is less in the case of debt instrument (e.g., debenture) and more in the case of
ownership instrument (e.g., equity share). In addition, the risk is less if the borrower is
creditworthy or the agency issuing security is creditworthy. It is always desirable to select an
investment avenue where the risk involved is minimum/comparatively less. Thus, the
objective of an investor should be to minimize the risk and to maximize the return out of the
investment made.

3. Marketability: It is desirable that an investment instrument be marketable, the higher the

marketability the better it is for the investor. An investment instrument is considered to be
highly marketable when:
 It can be transacted quickly.
 The transaction cost (including brokerage and other charges) is low.
 The price change between 2 transactions is negligible.
 Shares of large, well-established companies in the equity market are highly
marketable. While shares of small and unknown companies have low marketability.
To gauge the marketability of other financial instruments like provident fund (which in itself
is non-marketable). Then we would consider other factors like, can we make a substantial
withdrawal without much penalty, or can we take a loan against the accumulated balance at
an interest rate not much higher than our earning rate of interest on the provident fund
account.

4. Taxes: Some of our investments would provide us with tax benefits while other would not.
This would also be kept in mind when choosing the investment avenue. Tax benefits are
mainly of 3 types:
 Initial tax benefits. This is the tax gain at the time of making the investment, like life
insurance.
 Continuing tax benefit. Is the tax benefit gained on the periodic return from the
investment, such as dividends.
 Terminal tax benefit. This is the tax relief the investor gains when he liquidates the
 investment. For example, a withdrawal from a provident fund account is not taxable.

5. Convenience:
Here we are talking about the ease with which an investment can be made and managed. The
degree of convenience would vary from one investment instrument to the other.

6.Safety
Although the degree of risk varies across investment types, all investments bear risk.
Therefore, it is important to determine how much risk is involved in an investment. The
average performance of an investment normally provides a good indicator. However, past
performance is merely a guide to future performance - not a guarantee. Some investments,
like variable annuities, may have a safety net while others expose the investor to
comprehensive losses in the event of failure. Investors should also consider whether they
could manage the safety risk associated with an investment - financially and psychologically.

7.Liquidity
A liquid investment is one you can easily convert to cash or cash equivalents. In other words,
a liquid investment is tradable- there are ample buyers and sellers on the market for a liquid
investment. An example of a liquid investment is currency trading. When you trade
currencies, there is always someone willing to buy when you want to sell and vice versa.
With other investments, like stock options, you may hold an illiquid asset at various points in
your investment horizon.

8. Duration
Investments typically have a longer horizon than cash and income options. The duration of an
investment-, particularly how long it may take to generate a healthy rate of return- is a vital
consideration for an investor. The investment horizon should match the period that your
funds must be invested for or how long it would take to generate a desired return.
A good investment has a good risk-return trade-off and provides a good return-duration trade-
off as well. Given that there are several risks that an investment faces, it is important to use
these attributes to assess the suitability of a financial instrument or option. A good investment
is one that suits your investment objectives. To do that, it must have a combination of
investment attributes that satisfy you.

Economic v/s Financial Investment

Financial Investment
A financial investment allocates resources into a financial asset, such as a bank account,
stocks, mutual funds, foreign currency and derivatives. Ambika Prasad Dash, author of
"Security Analysis and Portfolio Management" explains financial investments are purchases
of financial claims. This type of investment may or may not yield a return. However,
businesses gain from placing money into financial investments because many safe assets,
such as an interest-bearing savings account, may yield enough of a return to protect it from
inflation. Essentially, some financial investments offer protection against rising prices.
Economic Investment
An economic investment puts resources in something that may yield benefits in excess of its
initial cost. Though these resources still include money, investments can also be made in time,
assistance and mentoring. Likewise, assets are not limited to financial instruments. Mike
Stabler, author of "The Economics of Tourism" explains economic growth arises from a
broader definition of an investment, such as an investment in knowledge. An economic
investment may include buying or upgrading machinery and equipment or adding to a labor
force. For example, an economic investment could be a tuition reimbursement program for
employees. The expectation is the company's expense will lead to an employee who will use
the education in ways to benefit the company. Furthermore, offering this benefit may attract a
wider, more-skilled pool of applicants from which the company can choose. States also
engage in economic investments. Art Rolnick of the Minneapolis Federal Reserve explains
that every dollar invested in early education yields $8 worth of benefits in economic growth.

Similarities
In both cases, a company undergoes a cost-benefit analysis to deem the potential return of the
investment. Financial and economic investments also carry risk. Just as a stock may tumble
and cost the business money, investing in training programs could cost the business money if
the employee resigns one month later. Thus, both types of investment require risk assessment.
For financial investments, risk assessment includes analyzing the previous performance of
stock and evaluating its ratios. Studying the risk of an economic investment includes
reviewing resumes and performing reference checks, following up on the credibility of
vendors and reviewing customer reviews on machinery and other costly purchases.

Considerations
Measuring the return of an economic investment is not as straightforward as a financial
investment. While a financial investment provides concrete data regarding the asset's past
performance and its day-to-day growth or decline, assessing economic investments is not as
direct because the return of an economic investment is not always apparent. Using the college
tuition reimbursement example, if an employee performs her work faster as a result of her
accounting class, managers typically attribute a more direct reason such as becoming familiar
with the job or enforcing the new rule of not listening to music while working.

Investment and speculation

Definition of 'Investment'
An asset or item that is purchased with the hope that it will generate income or appreciate in
the future. In an economic sense, an investment is the purchase of goods that are not
consumed today but are used in the future to create wealth. In finance, an investment is a
monetary asset purchased with the idea that the asset will provide income in the future or
appreciate and be sold at a higher price.
'Investment' in Economic and Financial sense.
The building of a factory used to produce goods and the investment one makes by going to
college or university are both examples of investments in the economic sense.
In the financial sense investments include the purchase of bonds, stocks or real estate
property.

Be sure not to get 'making an investment' and 'speculating' confused. Investing usually
involves the creation of wealth whereas speculating is often a zero-sum game; wealth is not
created. Although speculators are often making informed decisions, speculation cannot
usually be categorized as traditional investing.

 Investment involves making a sacrifice of in the present with the hope of deriving
future benefits.
 Postponed consumption
The two important features are :
 Current Sacrifice.
 Future Benefits.
 It also involves putting money into an asset which is not necessarily marketable in the
short run in order to enjoy the series of returns the investment is expected to yield.
 People who make fortunes in stock market and they are called investors.
 Decision making is a well thought process.
 Key determinant of investment process:
 Risk
 Expected Return

Speculation
Speculation is the practice of engaging in risky financial transactions in an attempt to profit
from short or medium term fluctuations in the market value of a tradable good such as
a financial instrument, rather than attempting to profit from the underlying financial attributes
embodied in the instrument such as capital gains, interest, or dividends. Many speculators pay
little attention to the fundamental value of a security and instead focus purely on price
movements. Speculation can in principle involve any tradable good or financial instrument.
Speculators are particularly common in the markets for stocks, bonds, commodity
futures, currencies, fine art, collectibles, real estate, and derivatives.
Speculators play one of four primary roles in financial markets, along with hedgers who
engage in transactions to offset some other pre-existing risk,arbitrageurs who seek to profit
from situations where fungible instruments trade at different prices in different market
segments, and investors who seek profit through long-term ownership of an instrument's
underlying attributes. The role of speculators is to absorb excess risk that other participants
do not want, and to provide liquidity in the marketplace by buying or selling when no
participants from the other categories are available. Successful speculation entails collecting
an adequate level of monetary compensation in return for providing immediate liquidity and
assuming additional risk so that, over time, the inevitable losses are offset by larger profits.

 Speculation is a financial action that does not promise safety of the initial investment
along with the return on the principal sum.
  Its is usually short run phenomenon.
 Speculator the person tend to buy the assets with the expectation that a profit cane
earned from subsequent price change and sale.
PROCESS OF INVESTMENT AND SPECULATION

INVESTMENT V/S SPECULATION

Basis Investment Speculation

1. Basis of acquisition Usually by outright Often on Margin

purchase
 2.Marketable Asset Not necessary Necessary

3.Quantity of risk Small Large

i. Trading currencies: Investment or speculation?

In the case of the Forex market, currency trading is almost always speculation. I often like to
think of the Forex market as the world's largest poker game. Occasionally large corporations
and financial institutions buy currencies to hedge and protect themselves, or because they
need a large amount of foreign currency to pay a foreign bill or make a foreign purchase, but
as currency trading goes, it's almost always just pure speculation. Almost no FX trader buys a
currency to collect interest payments and such like. To be sure, many traders do engage in the
carry trade but such trades are usually highly leveraged and the trader is therefore first and
foremost betting that the currency they have bought won't fall in value against the currency
they used to buy it. FX traders are speculators and speculation is essentially gambling, albeit
a form of gambling that involves calculated risk and educated guesses rather than sticking the
lot on red number 7.

ii. Buying shares: Investment or speculation?

Shares are one of those assets classes that are bought both for speculative and investment
purposes, although there are no doubt a lot of small equity traders who confuse their
speculative bets for real investments. Whether one is investing or speculating when they buy
shares really depends upon why they are buying them. If you buy shares because you believe
that the companies future earnings per share justifies the price you are paying for the shares
then you're probably an investor. If however, you are buying shares in the belief that the price
will soon rise and you hope to sell them for more than you paid for them in the near future
then you're essentially speculating; you're really just hoping that someone will pay you more
tomorrow than you paid today. Investors who buy shares will therefore care a lot about the
fundamentals: things like the company's earnings, the net cash position on the company
balance sheet and the value of the company's tangible assets minus its debts and liabilities
etc... Speculators on the other hand will be primarily concerned with whether or not the price
of a share is rising or whether it's likely to jump in the near future.

iii. Trading commodities: Investment or speculation?

Like Forex traders, commodity traders are almost always just speculators. In fact, the
commodities futures market was originally setup so that farmers and other commodity
producers could guarantee the price they would receive for their goods in the future by
shifting the risk onto speculators. Commodities aren't investments as they generate no
revenue, traders can't buy commodities for their yields or their intrinsic value as there is none.
Commodities are therefore usually just purchased for either their usefulness or for speculative
purposes.

iv. Buying property: Investment or speculation?

Like shares, property is one of those classes of assets that are bought by both investors and
speculators alike. And again, whether one is an investor or a speculator will depend upon why
they buy the property. If someone buys a property because they believe that the returns the
property can generate in the form of rents justifies the price tag then they are an investor and
even if the property falls in value it shouldn't matter to much to them as the property was
bought for its rental yield, not its expect future resale value. Property speculators on the other
hand are more concerned with what they believe their properties will be worth in the future as
they are essentially gambling that whatever they pay for it today, someone else will pay them
more for it in the future.
Features of a good investment

a. Objective fulfillment
An investment should fulfil the objective of the savers. Every individual has a definite
objective in making an investment. When the investment objective is contrasted with the
uncertainty involved with investments, the fulfilment of the objectives through the chosen
investment avenue could become complex.
b. Safety
The first and foremost concern of any ordinary investor is that his investment should be safe.
That is he should get back the principal at the end of the maturity period of the investment.
There is no absolute safety in any investment, except probably with investment in
government securities or such instruments where the repayment of interest and principal is
guaranteed by the government.
c. Return
The return from any investment is expectedly consistent with the extent of risk assumed by
the investor. Risk and return go together. Higher the risk, higher the chances of getting higher
return. An investment in a low risk - high safety investment such as investment in
government securities will obviously get the investor only low returns.
d. Liquidity
Given a choice, investors would prefer a liquid investment than a higher return investment.
Because the investment climate and market conditions may change or investor may be
confronted by an urgent unforeseen commitment for which he might need funds, and if he
can dispose of his investment without suffering unduly in terms of loss of returns, he would
prefer the liquid investment.
e. Hedge against inflation
The purchasing power of money deteriorates heavily in a country which is not efficient or not
well endowed, in relation to another country. Investors who save for the long term, look for
hedge against inflation so that their investments are not unduly eroded; rather they look for a
capital gain which neutralises the erosion in purchasing power and still gives a return.
f. Concealabilty
If not from the taxman, investors would like to keep their investments rather confidential
from their own kith and kin so that the investments made for their old age/ uncertain future
does not become a hunting ground for their own lives. Safeguarding of financial instruments
representing the investments may be easier than investment made in real estate. Moreover,
the real estate may be prone to encroachment and other such hazards.
h. Tax shield
Investment decisions are highly influenced by the tax system in the country. Investors look
for front-end tax incentives while making an investment and also rear-end tax reliefs while
reaping the benefit of their investments. As against tax incentives and reliefs, if investors
were to pay taxes on the income earned from investments, they look for higher return in such
investments so that their after tax income is comparable to the pre-tax equivalent level with
some other income which is free of tax, but is more risky.
Investment Process

The process of investment includes five stages:

1. Investment Policy: The policy is formulated on the basis of investible funds,
objectives and knowledge about investment sources.
2. Security Analyses: Economic, industry and company analyses are carried out for the
purchase of securities.
3. Valuation: Intrinsic value of the share is measured through book value of the share
and P/E ratio.
4. Portfolio Construction: Portfolio is diversified to maximise return and minimise
risk.
5. Portfolio Evaluation: The performance of the portfolio is appraised and revised.

Financial Instruments

Definition of 'Financial Instrument'

A real or virtual document representing a legal agreement involving some sort of monetary
value. In today's financial marketplace, financial instruments can be classified generally as
equity based, representing ownership of the asset, or debt based, representing a loan made by
an investor to the owner of the asset. Foreign exchange instruments comprise a third, unique
type of instrument. Different subcategories of each instrument type exist, such as preferred
share equity and common share equity, for example.
Financial instruments can be thought of as easily tradeable packages of capital, each having
their own unique characteristics and structure. The wide array of financial instruments in
today's marketplace allows for the efficient flow of capital amongst the world's investors.
A financial instrument is a tradeable asset of any kind; either cash, evidence of an
ownership interest in an entity, or a contractual right to receive or deliver cash or another
financial instrument.
According to IAS 32 and 39, it is defined as "any contract that gives rise to a financial asset
of one entity and a financial liability or equity instrument of another entity
Financial instruments can be categorized by form depending on whether they are cash
instruments or derivative instruments:
 Cash instruments are financial instruments whose value is determined directly by the
markets. They can be divided into securities, which are readily transferable, and other
cash instruments such as loans and deposits, where both borrower and lender have to
agree on a transfer.
 Derivative instruments are financial instruments which derive their value from the
value and characteristics of one or more underlying entities such as an asset, index, or
interest rate. They can be divided into exchange-traded derivatives and over-the-
counter (OTC) derivatives.
Alternatively, financial instruments can be categorized by "asset class" depending on whether
they are equity based (reflecting ownership of the issuing entity) or debt based (reflecting a
loan the investor has made to the issuing entity). If it is debt, it can be further categorised into
short term (less than one year) or long term.
Foreign Exchange instruments and transactions are neither debt nor equity based and belong
in their own category.

Money Market is the part of financial market where instruments with high liquidity and very
short-term maturities are traded. It's the place where large financial institutions, dealers and
government participate and meet out their short-term cash needs. They usually borrow and
lend money with the help of instruments or securities to generate liquidity. Due to highly
liquid nature of securities and their short-term maturities, money market is treated as safe
place. Money market means market where money or its equivalent can be traded.

Money is synonym of liquidity. Money market consists of financial institutions and dealers in
money or credit who wish to generate liquidity. It is better known as a place where large
institutions and government manage their short term cash needs. For generation of liquidity,
short term borrowing and lending is done by these financial institutions and dealers. Money
Market is part of financial market where instruments with high liquidity and very short term
maturities are traded. Due to highly liquid nature of securities and their short term maturities,
money market is treated as a safe place. Hence, money market is a market where short term
obligations such as treasury bills, commercial papers and banker’s acceptances are bought
and sold.

Benefits and functions of Money Market:

Money markets exist to facilitate efficient transfer of short-term funds between holders and
borrowers of cash assets. For the lender/investor, it provides a good return on their funds. For
the borrower, it enables rapid and relatively inexpensive acquisition of cash to cover short-
term liabilities. One of the primary functions of money market is to provide focal point for
RBI’s intervention for influencing liquidity and general levels of interest rates in the
economy. RBI being the main constituent in the money market aims at ensuring that liquidity
and short term interest rates are consistent with the monetary policy objectives.

Money Market & Capital Market:

Money Market is a place for short term lending and borrowing, typically within a year. It
deals in short term debt financing and investments. On the other hand, Capital Market refers
to stock market, which refers to trading in shares and bonds of companies on recognized
stock exchanges. Individual players cannot invest in money market as the value of
investments is large, on the other hand, in capital market, anybody can make investments
through a broker. Stock Market is associated with high risk and high return as against money
market which is more secure. Further, in case of money market, deals are transacted on phone
or through electronic systems as against capital market where trading is through recognized
stock exchanges.

Money Market Futures and Options:

Active trading in money market futures and options occurs on number of commodity
exchanges. They function in the similar manner like any other futures and options
Role of Reserve Bank of India:
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) plays a key role of regulator and controller of money
market. The intervention of RBI is varied – curbing crisis situations by reducing key policy
rates or curbing inflationary situations by rising key policy rates such as Repo, Reverse Repo,
CRR etc.

Money Market Instruments:

Money Market Instruments provide the tools by which one can operate in the money market.
Money market instrument meets short term requirements of the borrowers and provides
liquidity to the lenders. The most common money market instruments are Treasury Bills,
Certificate of Deposits, Commercial Papers, Repurchase Agreements and Banker's
Acceptance.

 Treasury Bills (T-Bills):

Treasury Bills are one of the safest money market instruments as they are issued by Central
Government. They are zero-risk instruments, and hence returns are not that attractive. T-Bills
are circulated by both primary as well as the secondary markets. They come with the
maturities of 3-month, 6-month and 1-year.
The Central Government issues T-Bills at a price less than their face value and the difference
between the buy price and the maturity value is the interest earned by the buyer of the
instrument. The buy value of the T-Bill is determined by the bidding process through
auctions.
At present, the Government of India issues three types of treasury bills through auctions,
namely, 91-day, 182-day and 364-day.

 Certificate of Deposits (CDs):

Certificate of Deposit is like a promissory note issued by a bank in form of a Certificate
entitling the bearer to receive interest. It is similar to bank term deposit account. The
certificate bears the maturity date, fixed rate of interest and the value. These certificates are
available in the tenure of 3 months to 5 years. The returns on certificate of deposits are higher
than T-Bills because they carry higher level of risk.

 Commercial Papers (CPs):

Commercial Paper is the short term unsecured promissory note issued by corporates and
financial institutions at a discounted value on face value. They come with fixed maturity
period ranging from 1 day to 270 days. These are issued for the purpose of financing of
accounts receivables, inventories and meeting short term liabilities.
The return on commercial papers is is higher as compared to T-Bills so as the risk as they are
less secure in comparison to these bills. It is easy to find buyers for the firms with high credit
ratings. These securities are actively traded in secondary market.

 Repurchase Agreements (Repo):

Repurchase Agreements which are also called as Repo or Reverse Repo are short term loans
that buyers and sellers agree upon for selling and repurchasing. Repo or Reverse Repo
transactions can be done only between the parties approved by RBI and allowed only
between RBI-approved securities such as state and central government securities, T-Bills,
PSU bonds and corporate bonds. They are usually used for overnight borrowing.
Repurchase agreements are sold by sellers with a promise of purchasing them back at a given
price and on a given date in future. On the flip side, the buyer will also purchase the securities
and other instruments with a promise of selling them back to the seller.

 Banker's Acceptance:
Banker's Acceptance is like a short term investment plan created by non-financial firm,
backed by a guarantee from the bank. It's like a bill of exchange stating a buyer's promise to
pay to the seller a certain specified amount at a certain date. And, the bank guarantees that the
buyer will pay the seller at a future date. Firm with strong credit rating can draw such bill.
These securities come with the maturities between 30 and 180 days and the most common
term for these instruments is 90 days. Companies use these negotiable time drafts to finance
imports, exports and other trade.

 Federal Agency Notes

Some agencies of the federal government issue both short-term and long-term obligations,
including the loan agencies Fannie Mae and Sallie Mae. These obligations are not generally
backed by the government, so they offer a slightly higher yield than T-bills, but the risk of
default is still very small. Agency securities are actively traded, but are not quite as
marketable as T-bills. Corporations are major purchasers of this type of money market
instrument.

 Short-Term Tax Exempts

These instruments are short-term notes issued by state and municipal governments. Although
they carry somewhat more risk than T-bills and tend to be less negotiable, they feature the
added benefit that the interest is not subject to federal income tax. For this reason,
corporations find that the lower yield is worthwhile on this type of short-term investment.
 Repurchase Agreements/ REPOs
Repurchase agreements—also known as repos or buybacks—are Treasury securities that are
purchased from a dealer with the agreement that they will be sold back at a future date for a
higher price. These agreements are the most liquid of all money market investments, ranging
from 24 hours to several months. In fact, they are very similar to bank deposit accounts, and
many corporations arrange for their banks to transfer excess cash to such funds automatically.

MONEY MARKET AT CALL AND SHORT NOTICE

Next in liquidity after cash, money at call is a loan that is repayable on demand, and money at
short notice is repayable within 14 days of serving a notice. The participants are banks & all
other Indian Financial Institutions as permitted by RBI.
The market is over the telephone market, non bank participants act as lender only. Banks
borrow for a variety of reasons to maintain their CRR, to meet their heavy payments, to
adjust their maturity mismatch etc.
MONEY MARKET MUTUAL FUNDS(MMMFs)
A money market fund is a mutual fund that invests solely in money market instruments.
Money market instruments are forms of debt that mature in less than one year and are very
liquid.
Treasury bills make up the bulk of the money market instruments. Securities in the money
market are relatively risk-free. Money market funds are generally the safest and most secure
of mutual fund investments. The goal of a money-market fund is to preserve principal while
yielding a modest return by investing in safe and stable instruments issued by governments,
banks and corporations etc.

GOVERNMENT SECURITIES(G- Secs)

Government Securities are securities issued by the Government for raising a public loan or as
notified in the official Gazette. G-secs are sovereign securities mostly interest bearing dated
securities which are issued by RBI on behalf of Govt. of India(GOI). GOI uses these
borrowed funds to meet its fiscal deficit, while temporary cash mismatches are met through
treasury bills of 91 days.
G-secs consist of Government Promissory Notes, Bearer Bonds, Stocks or Bonds, Treasury
Bills or Dated Government Securities. Government bonds are theoretically risk free bonds,
because governments can, up to a point, raise taxes, reduce spending, and take various
measures to redeem the bond at maturity.

Features of Government Securities

◦ Usually issued and redeemed at face value
◦ No default risk as the securities carry sovereign guarantee.
◦ Ample liquidity as the investor can sell the security in the secondary market
◦ Interest payment on a half yearly basis on face value
◦ No tax deducted at source
◦ Can be held in D-mat form
◦ Rate of interest and tenor of the security is fixed at the time of issuance and is not subject to
change (unless intrinsic to the security like FRBs).
◦ Redeemed at face value on maturity
◦ Maturity ranges from of 2-30 years.

CALL MONEY MARKET AND SHORT TERM DEPOSIT MARKET

The borrowers are essentially the banks. DFHI plays a vital role in stabilizing the call and
short term deposit rates through larger turnover and smaller spread. It ascertains the
prospective lenders and borrowers, the money available and needed and exchanges a deal
settlement advice with them indicating the negotiated interest rates applicable to them. When
DFHI borrows, a call deposit receipt is issued to the lender against a cheque drawn on RBI
for the amount lent. If DFHI lends it issues to the RBI a cheque representing the amount lent
to the borrower against the call deposit receipt.

INTER BANK PARTICIPATION CERTIFICATES

With a view for providing an additional instrument for evening out short-term liquidity within
the banking system, two types of Inter-Bank Participations (IBPs) were introduced, one on
risk sharing basis and the other without risk sharing. These are strictly inter-bank instruments
confined to scheduled commercial banks excluding regional rural banks. The IBP with risk
sharing can be issued for 91-180 days. Under the uniform grading system introduced by
Reserve Bank for application by banks to measure the health of bank advances portfolio, a
borrower account considered satisfactory if the one in which the conduct of account is
satisfactory, the safety of advance is not in doubt, all the terms and conditions are complied
with, and all the accounts of the borrower are in order. The IBP risk sharing provides
flexibility in the credit portfolio of banks. The rate of interest is left free to be determined
between the issuing bank and the participating bank subject to a minimum 14.0 per cent per
annum. The aggregate amount of such IBPs under any loan account at the time of issue is not
to exceed 40 per cent of the outstanding in the account.
The IBP without risk sharing is a money market instrument with a tenure not exceeding 90
days and the interest rate on such IBPs is left to be determined by the two concerned banks
without any ceiling on interest rate.

BILLS REDISCOUNTING
It is an important segment of money market and the bill as an instrument provides short term
liquidity to the suppliers in need of funds. Bill financing seller drawing a bill of exchange &
the buyer accepting it, thereafter the seller discounting it, say with a bank. Hundies, an
indigenous form of bill of exchange, have been popular in India, but there has been a general
reluctance on the part of the buyers to commit themselves to payments on maturity. Hence the
Bills have been not so popular.

GILT EDGED GOVERNMENT SECURITIES

These are issued by governments such as Central Government, State Government, Semi
Government authorities, City Corporations, Municipalities, Port trust, State Electricity Board,
Housing boards etc.
The gilt-edged market refers to the market for Government and semi-government securities,
backed by the Reserve Bank of India(RBI). Government securities are tradable debt
instruments issued by the Government for meeting its financial requirements. The term gilt-
edged means 'of the best quality'. This is because the Government securities do not suffer
from risk of default and are highly liquid (as they can be easily sold in the market at their
current price). The open market operations of the RBI are also conducted in such securities.
Common money market instruments
 Certificate of deposit - Time deposit, commonly offered to consumers by banks, thrift
institutions, and credit unions.
 Repurchase agreements - Short-term loans—normally for less than two weeks and
frequently for one day—arranged by selling securities to an investor with an
agreement to repurchase them at a fixed price on a fixed date.
 Commercial paper - short term usanse promissory notes issued by company at
discount to face value and redeemed at face value
 Eurodollar deposit - Deposits made in U.S. dollars at a bank or bank branch located
 outside the United States.
 Federal agency short-term securities - (in the U.S.). Short-term securities issued by
government sponsored enterprises such as the Farm Credit System, the Federal Home
Loan Banks and the Federal National Mortgage Association.
 Federal funds - (in the U.S.). Interest-bearing deposits held by banks and other
depository institutions at the Federal Reserve; these are immediately available funds
that institutions borrow or lend, usually on an overnight basis. They are lent for the
federal funds rate.
 Municipal notes - (in the U.S.). Short-term notes issued by municipalities in
anticipation of tax receipts or other revenues.
 Treasury bills - Short-term debt obligations of a national government that are issued
to mature in three to twelve months.
 Money funds - Pooled short maturity, high quality investments which buy money
market securities on behalf of retail or institutional investors.
 Foreign Exchange Swaps - Exchanging a set of currencies in spot date and the
reversal of the exchange of currencies at a predetermined time in the future.
 Short-lived mortgage- and asset-backed securities

Capital market
The capital market (securities markets) is the market for securities, where companies and the
government can raise long-term funds. The capital market includes the stock market and the
bond market. Financial regulators, oversee the capital markets in their respective countries to
ensure that investors are protected against fraud. The capital markets consist of the primary
market, where new issues are distributed to investors, and the secondary market, where
existing securities are traded.

Stock market
The term ‘the stock market’ is a concept for the mechanism that enables the trading of
company stocks (collective shares), other securities, and derivatives. Bonds are still
traditionally traded in an informal, over-the-counter market known as the bond market.
Commodities are traded in commodities markets, and derivatives are traded in a variety of
markets (but, like bonds, mostly ‘over-the-counter’).
The size of the worldwide ‘bond market’ is estimated at $45 trillion. The size of the ‘stock
market’ is estimated at about $51 trillion. The world derivatives market has been estimated at
about $300 trillion. It must be noted though that the derivatives market, because it is stated in
terms of notional outstanding amounts, cannot be directly compared to a stock or fixed
income market, which refers to actual value.
The stocks are listed and traded on stock exchanges which are entities (a corporation or
mutual organisation) specialised in the business of bringing buyers and sellers of stocks and
securities together.
Primary markets
The primary market is that part of the capital markets that deals with the issuance of new
securities. Companies, governments or public sector institutions can obtain funding through
the sale of a new stock or bond issue. This is typically done through a syndicate of securities
dealers. The process of selling new issues to investors is called underwriting. In the case of a
new stock issue, this sale is an initial public offering (IPO). Dealers earn a commission that is
built into the price of the security offering, though it can be found in the prospectus.

Features of a primary market are:

 This is the market for new long term capital. The primary market is the market where
the securities are sold for the first time. Therefore it is also called New Issue Market
(NIM)
 In a primary issue, the securities are issued by the company directly to investors
 The company receives the money and issue new security certificates to the investors
 Primary issues are used by companies for the purpose of setting up new business or
for expanding or modernizing the existing business
 The primary market performs the crucial function of facilitating capital formation in
the economy
 The new issue market does not include certain other sources of new long term
external finance, such as loans from financial institutions. Borrowers in the new issue
market may be raising capital for converting private capital into public capital; this is
known as ‘going public’

Secondary markets
The secondary market is the financial market for trading of securities that have already been
issued in an initial private or public offering. Alternatively, secondary market can refer to the
market for any kind of used goods. The market that exists in a new security just after the new
issue, is often referred to as the aftermarket. Once a newly issued stock is listed on a stock
exchange, investors and speculators can easily trade on the exchange, as market makers
provide bids and offers in the new stock.
In the secondary market, securities are sold by and transferred from one investor or
speculator to another. It is therefore important that the secondary market be highly liquid and
transparent. Before electronic means of communications, the only way to create this liquidity
was for investors and speculators to meet at a fixed place regularly. This is how stock
exchanges originated.

The rationale for secondary markets

Secondary marketing is vital to an efficient and modern capital market. Fundamentally,
secondary markets mesh the investor’s preference for liquidity (i.e. the investor’s desire not
to tie up his or her money for a long period of time, in case the investor needs it to deal with
unforeseen circumstances) with the capital user’s preference to be able to use the capital for
an extended period of time.
For example, a traditional loan allows the borrower to pay back the loan, with interest, over a
certain period. For the length of that period of time, the bulk of the lender’s investment is
inaccessible to the lender, even in cases of emergencies. Likewise, in an emergency, a partner
in a traditional partnership is only able to access his or her original investment if he or she
finds another investor willing to buy out his or her interest in the partnership. With a
securitised loan or equity interest (such as bonds) or tradable stocks, the investor can sell,
relatively easily, his or her interest in the investment, particularly if the loan or ownership
equity has been broken into relatively small parts. This selling and buying of small parts of a
larger loan or ownership interest in a venture is called secondary market trading.
Under traditional lending and partnership arrangements, investors may be less likely to put
their money into long-term investments, and more likely to charge a higher interest rate (or
demand a greater share of the profits) if they do. With secondary markets, however, investors
know that they can recoup some of their investment quickly, if their own circumstances
change.

Instruments traded in the capital market

The capital market, as it is known, is that segment of the financial market that deals with
the effective channeling of medium to long-term funds from the surplus to the deficit
unit. The process of transfer of funds is done through instruments, which are documents (or
certificates), showing evidence of investments. The instruments traded (media of exchange)
in the capital market are:
1. Debt Instruments

A debt instrument is used by either companies or governments to generate funds for capital-
intensive projects. It can obtained either through the primary or secondary market. The
relationship in this form of instrument ownership is that of a borrower – creditor and thus,
does not necessarily imply ownership in the business of the borrower. The contract is for a
specific duration and interest is paid at specified periods as stated in the trust deed * (contract
agreement). The principal sum invested, is therefore repaid at the expiration of the contract
period with interest either paid quarterly, semi-annually or annually. The interest stated in the
trust deed may be either fixed or flexible. The tenure of this category ranges from 3 to 25
years. Investment in this instrument is, most times, risk-free and therefore yields lower
returns when compared to other instruments traded in the capital market. Investors in this
category get top priority in the event of liquidation of a company.

When the instrument is issued by:

 The Federal Government, it is called a Sovereign Bond;

 A state government it is called a State Bond;

 A local government, it is called a Municipal Bond; and

 A corporate body (Company), it is called a Debenture, Industrial Loan or Corporate

Bond
2. Equities (also called Common Stock)
This instrument is issued by companies only and can also be obtained either in the primary
market or the secondary market. Investment in this form of business translates to ownership
of the business as the contract stands in perpetuity unless sold to another investor in the
secondary market. The investor therefore possesses certain rights and privileges (such as to
vote and hold position) in the company. Whereas the investor in debts may be entitled to
interest which must be paid, the equity holder receives dividends which may or may not be
declared.

The risk factor in this instrument is high and thus yields a higher return (when
successful). Holders of this instrument however rank bottom on the scale of preference in the
event of liquidation of a company as they are considered owners of the company.

3. Preference Shares

This instrument is issued by corporate bodies and the investors rank second (after bond
holders) on the scale of preference when a company goes under. The instrument possesses the
characteristics of equity in the sense that when the authorised share capital and paid up
capital are being calculated, they are added to equity capital to arrive at the total. Preference
shares can also be treated as a debt instrument as they do not confer voting rights on its
holders and have a dividend payment that is structured like interest (coupon) paid for bonds
issues.

Preference shares may be:

 Irredeemable, convertible: in this case, upon maturity of the instrument, the principal
sum being returned to the investor is converted to equities even though dividends
(interest) had earlier been paid.

 Irredeemable, non-convertible: here, the holder can only sell his holding in the
secondary market as the contract will always be rolled over upon maturity. The
instrument will also not be converted to equities.

 Redeemable: here the principal sum is repaid at the end of a specified period. In this
case it is treated strictly as a debt instrument.

Note: interest may be cumulative, flexible or fixed depending on the agreement in the
Trust Deed.

4. Derivatives

These are instruments that derive from other securities, which are referred to as underlying
assets (as the derivative is derived from them). The price, riskiness and function of the
derivative depend on the underlying assets since whatever affects the underlying asset must
affect the derivative. The derivative might be an asset, index or even situation. Derivatives
are mostly common in developed economies.
Some examples of derivatives are:

 Mortgage-Backed Securities (MBS)

 Asset-Backed Securities (ABS)
 Futures
 Options
 Swaps
 Rights
 Exchange Traded Funds or commodities

Of all the above stated derivatives, the common one in Nigeria is Rights where by the holder
of an existing security gets the opportunity to acquire additional quantity to his holding in an
allocated ratio.

DERIVATIVES
A derivative is a financial instrument which derives its value from the value of underlying
entities such as an asset, index, or interest rate—it has no intrinsic value in itself. Derivative
transactions include a variety of financial contracts, including structured debt obligations and
deposits, swaps, futures, options, caps, floors,collars, forwards, and various combinations of
these.
To give an idea of the size of the derivative market, The Economist magazine has reported
that as of June 2011, the over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives market amounted to
approximately $700 trillion, and the size of the market traded on exchanges totaled an
additional $83 trillion. However, these are “notional” values, and some economists say that
this value greatly exaggerates the market value and the true credit risk faced by the parties
involved. For example, in 2010, while the aggregate of OTC derivatives exceeded $600
trillion, the value of the market was estimated much lower at $21 trillion. The credit risk
equivalent of the derivative contracts was estimated at $3.3 trillion.
Still, even these scaled down figures represent huge amounts of money. For perspective, the
budget for total expenditure of the United States Government during 2012 was $3.5 trillion,
and the total current value of the US stock market is an estimated $23 trillion. The world
annual Gross Domestic Product is about $65 trillion.
And for one type of derivative at least, Credit Default Swaps (CDS), for which the inherent
risk is considered high, the higher, notional value, remains relevant. It was this type of
derivative that investment magnate Warren Buffet referred to in his famous 2002 speech in
which warned against “weapons of financial mass destruction.” CDS notional value in early
2012 amounted to $25.5 trillion,[8] down from $55 trillion in 2008.
In practice, derivatives are a contract between two parties that specify conditions (especially
the dates, resulting values and definitions of the underlying variables, the parties' contractual
obligations, and the notional amount) under which payments are to be made between the
parties. The most common underlying assets include commodities, stocks, bonds, interest
rates and currencies.
There are two groups of derivative contracts: the privately traded Over-the-counter (OTC)
derivatives such as swaps that do not go through an exchange or other intermediary, and
exchange-traded derivatives (ETD) that are traded through specialized derivatives exchanges
or other exchanges.
Derivatives are more common in the modern era, but their origins trace back several centuries.
One of the oldest derivatives is rice futures, which have been traded on the Dojima Rice
Exchange since the eighteenth century. Derivatives are broadly categorized by the
relationship between the underlying asset and the derivative (such as forward, option, swap);
the type of underlying asset (such as equity derivatives, foreign exchange derivatives, interest
rate derivatives, commodity derivatives, or credit derivatives); the market in which they trade
(such as exchange-traded or over-the-counter); and their pay-off profile.
Derivatives may broadly be categorized as "lock" or "option" products. Lock products (such
as swaps, futures, or forwards) obligate the contractual parties to the terms over the life of the
contract. Option products (such as interest rate caps) provide the buyer the right, but not the
obligation to enter the contract under the terms specified.
Derivatives can be used either for risk management (i.e. to "hedge" by providing offsetting
compensation in case of an undesired event, a kind of "insurance") or for speculation (i.e.
making a financial "bet"). This distinction is important because the former is a legitimate,
often prudent aspect of operations and financial management for many firms across many
industries; the latter offers managers and investors a seductive opportunity to increase profit,
but not without incurring additional risk that is often undisclosed to stakeholders.
Along with many other financial products and services, derivatives reform is an element of
the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010. The Act
delegated many rule-making details of regulatory oversight to the Commodity Futures
Trading Commission and those details are not finalized nor fully implemented as of late
2012.
Derivatives are used by investors for the following:
 hedge or mitigate risk in the underlying, by entering into a derivative contract whose
value moves in the opposite direction to their underlying position and cancels part or
all of it out;
 create option ability where the value of the derivative is linked to a specific condition
or event (e.g. the underlying reaching a specific price level);
 obtain exposure to the underlying where it is not possible to trade in the underlying
(e.g., weather derivatives);
 provide leverage (or gearing), such that a small movement in the underlying value can
cause a large difference in the value of the derivative;
 speculate and make a profit if the value of the underlying asset moves the way they
expect (e.g., moves in a given direction, stays in or out of a specified range, reaches a
certain level).
 Switch asset allocations between different asset classes without disturbing the
underlining assets, as part of transition management.
Common derivative contract types
Some of the common variants of derivative contracts are as follows:
1. Forwards: A tailored contract between two parties, where payment takes place at a
specific time in the future at today's pre-determined price.
2. Futures: are contracts to buy or sell an asset on or before a future date at a price
specified today. A futures contract differs from a forward contract in that the futures
contract is a standardized contract written by a clearing house that operates an
exchange where the contract can be bought and sold; the forward contract is a non-
standardized contract written by the parties themselves.
3. Options are contracts that give the owner the right, but not the obligation, to buy (in
the case of a call option) or sell (in the case of a put option) an asset. The price at
which the sale takes place is known as the strike price, and is specified at the time the
parties enter into the option. The option contract also specifies a maturity date. In the
case of a European option, the owner has the right to require the sale to take place on
(but not before) the maturity date; in the case of an American option, the owner can
require the sale to take place at any time up to the maturity date. If the owner of the
contract exercises this right, the counter-party has the obligation to carry out the
transaction. Options are of two types: call option and put option. The buyer of a Call
option has a right to buy a certain quantity of the underlying asset, at a specified price
on or before a given date in the future, he however has no obligation whatsoever to
carry out this right. Similarly, the buyer of a Put option has the right to sell a certain
quantity of an underlying asset, at a specified price on or before a given date in the
future, he however has no obligation whatsoever to carry out this right.
4. Binary options are contracts that provide the owner with an all-or-nothing profit
profile.
5. Warrants: Apart from the commonly used short-dated options which have a maximum
maturity period of 1 year, there exists certain long-dated options as well, known as
Warrant (finance). These are generally traded over-the-counter.
6. Swaps are contracts to exchange cash (flows) on or before a specified future date
based on the underlying value of currencies exchange rates, bonds/interest rates,
commodities exchange, stocks or other assets. Another term which is commonly
associated to Swap is Swaption which is basically an option on the forward Swap.
Similar to a Call and Put option, a Swaption is of two kinds: a receiver Swaption and
a payer Swaption. While on one hand, in case of a receiver Swaption there is an
option wherein you can receive fixed and pay floating, a payer swaption on the other
hand is an option to pay fixed and receive floating.
Swaps can basically be categorized into two types:
 Interest rate swap: These basically necessitate swapping only interest associated cash
flows in the same currency, between two parties.
 Currency swap: In this kind of swapping, the cash flow between the two parties
includes both principal and interest. Also, the money which is being swapped is in
different currency for both parties.
Some common examples of these derivatives are the following:

CONTRACT TYPES
UNDERLYING Exchange-trad Exchange-trade
OTC swap OTC forward OTC option
ed futures d options
Option
DJIA Index Stock option
on DJIA Index Back-to-back
future Warrant
Equity future Equity swap Repurchase ag
Single-stock fu Turbo warran
Single-share reement
ture t
option
Interest rate c
Option on
Eurodollar ap and floor
Eurodollar future Interest rate Forward rate a
Interest rate future Swaption
Option on swap greement
Euribor future Basis swap
Euribor future
Bond option
Credit defaul
Option on Bond t swap Repurchase ag Credit default
Credit Bond future
future Total return s reement option
wap
Foreign Currency futur Option on Currency sw Currency forw Currency opti
exchange e currency future ap ard on
Iron ore
WTI crude oil Weather derivativ Commodity
Commodity forward Gold option
futures e swap
contract
(Dow Jones Industrial Average-DJIA)
Economic function of the derivative market
Some of the salient economic functions of the derivative market include:
1. Prices in a structured derivative market not only replicate the discernment of the
market participants about the future but also lead the prices of underlying to the
professed future level. On the expiration of the derivative contract, the prices of
derivatives congregate with the prices of the underlying. Therefore, derivatives are
essential tools to determine both current and future prices.
2. The derivatives market relocates risk from the people who prefer risk aversion to the
people who have an appetite for risk.
3. The intrinsic nature of derivatives market associates them to the underlying Spot
market. Due to derivatives there is a considerable increase in trade volumes of the
underlying Spot market. The dominant factor behind such an escalation is increased
participation by additional players who would not have otherwise participated due to
 absence of any procedure to transfer risk.
4. As supervision, reconnaissance of the activities of various participants becomes
tremendously difficult in assorted markets; the establishment of an organized form of
market becomes all the more imperative. Therefore, in the presence of an organized
derivatives market, speculation can be controlled, resulting in a more meticulous
environment.
5. Third parties can use publicly available derivative prices as educated predictions of
uncertain future outcomes, for example, the likelihood that a corporation will default
on its debts.
In a nutshell, there is a substantial increase in savings and investment in the long run due to
augmented activities by derivative Market participant.
 Module II

Securities Market
Primary Market - Factors to be considered to enter the primary market, Modes of
raising funds.
Secondary Market- Major Players in the secondary market, Functioning of Stock
Exchanges, Trading and Settlement Procedures, Leading Stock Exchanges in India.
Stock Market Indicators- Types of stock market Indices, Indices of Indian Stock
Exchanges.

Primary Market
A market that issues new securities on an exchange. Companies, governments and other
groups obtain financing through debt or equity based securities. Primary markets are
facilitated by underwriting groups, which consist of investment banks that will set a
beginning price range for a given security and then oversee its sale directly to investors. Also
known as "new issue market" (NIM).

Primary market is a market wherein corporates issue new securities for raising funds
generally for long term capital requirement. The companies that issue their shares are called
issuers and the process of issuing shares to public is known as public issue. This entire
process involves various intermediaries like Merchant Banker, Bankers to the Issue,
Underwriters, and Registrars to the Issue etc .. All these intermediaries are registered with
SEBI and are required to abide by the prescribed norms to protect the investor.

The Primary Market is, hence, the market that provides a channel for the issuance of new
securities by issuers (Government companies or corporates) to raise capital. The securities
(financial instruments) may be issued at face value, or at a discount / premium in various
forms such as equity, debt etc. They may be issued in the domestic and / or international
market.
Features of primary markets include:
 the securities are issued by the company directly to the investors.
 The company receives the money and issues new securities to the investors.
 The primary markets are used by companies for the purpose of setting up new
ventures/ business or for expanding or modernizing the existing business
 Primary market performs the crucial function of facilitating capital formation in
the economy

Factors to be considered to enter the primary market

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BY THE INVESTORS

The number of stocks, which has remained inactive, increased steadily over the past few
years, irrespective of the overall market levels. Price rigging, indifferent usage of funds,
vanishing companies, lack of transparency, the notion that equity is a cheap source of fund
and the permitted free pricing of the issuers are leading to the prevailing primary market
conditions.

In this context, the investor has to be alert and careful in his investment. He has to analyze
several factors. They are given below:

Factors to be considered:

Promoter’s  Promoter’s past performance with reference to the companies

Credibility promoted by them earlier.
 The integrity of the promoters should be found out with
enquiries and from financial magazines and newspapers.
 Their knowledge and experience in the related field.

Efficiency of the  The managing director’s background and experience in the

Management field.
 The composition of the Board of Directors is to be studied to
find out whether it is broad based and professionals are
included.

Project Details  The credibility of the appraising institution or agency.

 The stake of the appraising agency in the forthcoming issue.

Product  Reliability of the demand and supply projections of the product.

 Competition faced in the market and the marketing strategy.
 If the product is export oriented, the tie-up with the foreign
collaborator or agency for the purchase of products.

Financial Data  Accounting policy.

 Revaluation of the assets, if any.
 Analysis of the data related to capital, reserves, turnover, profit,
dividend record and profitability ratio.

Litigation  Pending litigations and their effect on the profitability of the

company. Default in the payment of dues to the banks and
financial institutions.

Risk Factors  A careful study of the general and specific risk factors should be
carried out.

Auditor’s Report  A through reading of the auditor’s report is needed especially

with reference to significant notes to accounts, qualifying
 remarks and changes in the accounting policy. In the case of
letter of offer the investors have to look for the recently audited
working result at the end of letter of offer.

Statutory  Investor should find out whether all the required statutory
Clearance clearance has been obtained, if not, what is the current status.
The clearances used to have a bearing on the completion of the
project.

Investor Service  Promptness in replying to the enquiries of allocation of shares,

refund of money, annual reports, dividends and share transfer
should be assessed with the help of past record.

Modes of Raising Funds

A company may raise funds for different purposes depending on the time periods ranging
from very short to fairly long duration. The total amount of financial needs of a company
depends on the nature and size of the business. The scope of raising funds depends on the
sources from which funds may be available. The business forms of sole proprietor and
partnership have limited opportunities for raising funds. They can finance their business by
the following means :-
 Investment of own savings

 Raising loans from friends and relatives

 Arranging advances from commercial banks

 Borrowing from finance companies

Companies can Raise Finance by a Number of Methods. To Raise Long-Term and

Medium-Term Capital, they have the following options:-
I. Issue of Shares
It is the most important method. The liability of shareholders is limited to the face value of
shares, and they are also easily transferable. A private company cannot invite the general
public to subscribe for its share capital and its shares are also not freely transferable. But for
public limited companies there are no such restrictions. There are two types of shares :-
 Equity shares :- the rate of dividend on these shares depends on the profits available
and the discretion of directors. Hence, there is no fixed burden on the company. Each
share carries one vote.

 Preference shares :- dividend is payable on these shares at a fixed rate and is payable
only if there are profits. Hence, there is no compulsory burden on the company's
finances. Such shares do not give voting rights.
II. Issue of Debentures
Companies generally have powers to borrow and raise loans by issuing debentures. The rate
of interest payable on debentures is fixed at the time of issue and are recovered by a charge
on the property or assets of the company, which provide the necessary security for payment.
The company is liable to pay interest even if there are no profits. Debentures are mostly
issued to finance the long-term requirements of business and do not carry any voting rights.
III.Loans from Financial Institutions
Long-term and medium-term loans can be secured by companies from financial institutions
like the Industrial Finance Corporation of India, Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation
of India (ICICI) , State level Industrial Development Corporations, etc. These financial
institutions grant loans for a maximum period of 25 years against approved schemes or
projects. Loans agreed to be sanctioned must be covered by securities by way of mortgage of
the company's property or assignment of stocks, shares, gold, etc.
IV. Loans from Commercial Banks
Medium-term loans can be raised by companies from commercial banks against the security
of properties and assets. Funds required for modernisation and renovation of assets can be
borrowed from banks. This method of financing does not require any legal formality except
that of creating a mortgage on the assets.
V. Public Deposits
Companies often raise funds by inviting their shareholders, employees and the general public
to deposit their savings with the company. The Companies Act permits such deposits to be
received for a period up to 3 years at a time. Public deposits can be raised by companies to
meet their medium-term as well as short-term financial needs. The increasing popularity of
public deposits is due to :-
 The rate of interest the companies have to pay on them is lower than the interest on
bank loans.

 These are easier methods of mobilising funds than banks, especially during periods of
credit squeeze.

 They are unsecured.

 Unlike commercial banks, the company does not need to satisfy credit-worthiness for
securing loans.
VI. Reinvestment of Profits
Profitable companies do not generally distribute the whole amount of profits as dividend but,
transfer certain proportion to reserves. This may be regarded as reinvestment of profits or
ploughing back of profits. As these retained profits actually belong to the shareholders of the
company, these are treated as a part of ownership capital. Retention of profits is a sort of self
financing of business. The reserves built up over the years by ploughing back of profits may
be utilised by the company for the following purposes :-
 Expansion of the undertaking

 Replacement of obsolete assets and modernisation.

 Meeting permanent or special working capital requirement.

  Redemption of old debts.

The benefits of this source of finance to the company are :-

 It reduces the dependence on external sources of finance.

 It increases the credit worthiness of the company.

 It enables the company to withstand difficult situations.

 It enables the company to adopt a stable dividend policy.

To Finance Short-Term Capital, Companies can use the following Methods :-

 Trade Credit

Companies buy raw materials, components, stores and spare parts on credit from different
suppliers. Generally suppliers grant credit for a period of 3 to 6 months, and thus provide
short-term finance to the company. Availability of this type of finance is connected with the
volume of business. When the production and sale of goods increase, there is automatic
increase in the volume of purchases, and more of trade credit is available.

 Factoring

The amounts due to a company from customers, on account of credit sale generally remains
outstanding during the period of credit allowed i.e. till the dues are collected from the debtors.
The book debts may be assigned to a bank and cash realised in advance from the bank. Thus,
the responsibility of collecting the debtors' balance is taken over by the bank on payment of
specified charges by the company. This method of raising short-term capital is known as
factoring. The bank charges payable for the purpose is treated as the cost of raising funds.

 Discounting Bills of Exchange

This method is widely used by companies for raising short-term finance. When the goods are
sold on credit, bills of exchange are generally drawn for acceptance by the buyers of goods.
Instead of holding the bills till the date of maturity, companies can discount them with
commercial banks on payment of a charge known as bank discount. The rate of discount to be
charged by banks is prescribed by the Reserve Bank of India from time to time. The amount
of discount is deducted from the value of bills at the time of discounting. The cost of raising
finance by this method is the discount charged by the bank.

 Bank Overdraft and Cash Credit

It is a common method adopted by companies for meeting short-term financial requirements.
Cash credit refers to an arrangement whereby the commercial bank allows money to be
drawn as advances from time to time within a specified limit. This facility is granted against
the security of goods in stock, or promissory notes bearing a second signature, or other
marketable instruments like Government bonds. Overdraft is a temporary arrangement with
the bank which permits the company to overdraw from its current deposit account with the
bank up to a certain limit. The overdraft facility is also granted against securities. The rate of
interest charged on cash credit and overdraft is relatively much higher than the rate of interest
on bank deposits

Relationship Between the Primary and Secondary Market

1. The new issue market cannot function without the secondary market. The secondary
market or the stock market provides liquidity for the issued securities the issued securities are
traded in the secondary market offering liquidity to the stocks at a fair price.

2. The stock exchanges through their listing requirements, exercise control over the primary
market. The company seeking for listing on the respective stock exchange has to comply with
all the rules and regulations given by the stock exchange.

3. The primary market provides a direct link between the prospective investors and the
company. By providing liquidity and safety, the stock markets encourage the public to
subscribe to the new issues. The market ability and the capital appreciation provided in the
stock market are the major factors that attract the investing public towards the stock market.
Thus, it provides an indirect link between the savers and the company.

4. Even though they are complementary to each other, their functions and the organizational
set up are different from each other. The health of the primary market depends on the
secondary market and and vice-versa.

Secondary Market
The Secondary market deals in securities previously issued. The secondary market enables
those who hold securities to adjust their holdings in response to charges in their assessment of
risk and return. They also sell securities for cash to meet their liquidity needs. The price
signals, which subsume all information about the issuer and his business including associated
risk, generated in the secondary market, help the primary market in allocation of funds.

This secondary market has further two components.

 First, the spot market where securities are traded for immediate delivery and payment.

 The other is forward market where the securities are traded for future delivery and
payment. This forward market is further divided into Futures and Options Market
(Derivatives Markets).
In futures Market the securities are traded for conditional future delivery whereas in option
market, two types of options are traded. A put option gives right but not an obligation to the
owner to sell a security to the writer of the option at a predetermined price before a certain
date, while a call option gives right but not an obligation to the buyer to purchase a security
from the writer of the option at a particular price before a certain date.

Major Players in the secondary market

There are different types of buyers and sellers in the market who act through authorised
brokers only. Brokers represent their clients who may be individuals, institutions like
companies, banks and other financial institutions, mutual funds, trusts etc.
 Client brokers - These do simple broking business by acting as intermediaries
between the buyers and sellers and they earn only brokerage for their services
rendered to the clients.
 Jobbers - They are also known as Taravaniwallas , they are wholesalers doing both
buying and selling of selected scrips. They earn from the margin between buying and
selling rates.
 Arbitragers- they buy securities in one market and sell in another. The profit for them
is the price difference.
 Bulls - These are the optimistic people who expect prices to rise and as a result keep
on buying. Also called ' Tejiwalas'
 Bears - These are the pessimistic people who expect the prices to fall and as a result
keep on selling. Also called 'Mandiwalas'
 Stags - They are those members who neither buy or sell securities in the market. They
simply apply for subscription to new issues expecting to sell them at higher prices
later when these issues are quoted on the stock exchange.
 Wolves - They are fast speculators. They perceive changes in the trends of the market
and trade fast and make a fast buck.
 Lame Ducks - These are slow bears who lose in the market as they sell securities
without having shares.
 Investors-Retail Investors, Institutional Investors,Foreign Institutional Investors
 Stock Exchange Members/ Brokers
Functions of Stock Exchanges
1. Continuous and ready market for securities

Stock exchange provides a ready and continuous market for purchase and sale of securities. It
provides ready outlet for buying and selling of securities. Stock exchange also acts as an
outlet/counter for the sale of listed securities.
2. Facilitates evaluation of securities

Stock exchange is useful for the evaluation of industrial securities. This enables investors to
know the true worth of their holdings at any time. Comparison of companies in the same
industry is possible through stock exchange quotations (i.e price list).

3. Encourages capital formation

Stock exchange accelerates the process of capital formation. It creates the habit of saving,
investing and risk taking among the investing class and converts their savings into profitable
investment. It acts as an instrument of capital formation. In addition, it also acts as a channel
for right (safe and profitable) investment.

4. Provides safety and security in dealings

Stock exchange provides safety, security and equity (justice) in dealings as transactions are
conducted as per well defined rules and regulations. The managing body of the exchange
keeps control on the members. Fraudulent practices are also checked effectively. Due to
various rules and regulations, stock exchange functions as the custodian of funds of genuine
investors.

5. Regulates company management

Listed companies have to comply with rules and regulations of concerned stock exchange and
work under the vigilance (i.e supervision) of stock exchange authorities.

6. Facilitates public borrowing

Stock exchange serves as a platform for marketing Government securities. It enables

government to raise public debt easily and quickly.

7. Provides clearing house facility

Stock exchange provides a clearing house facility to members. It settles the transactions
among the members quickly and with ease. The members have to pay or receive only the net
dues (balance amounts) because of the clearing house facility.
8. Facilitates healthy speculation

Healthy speculation, keeps the exchange active. Normal speculation is not dangerous but
provides more business to the exchange. However, excessive speculation is undesirable as it
is dangerous to investors & the growth of corporate sector.

9. Serves as Economic Barometer

Stock exchange indicates the state of health of companies and the national economy. It acts as
a barometer of the economic situation / conditions.

10. Facilitates Bank Lending

Banks easily know the prices of quoted securities. They offer loans to customers against
corporate securities. This gives convenience to the owners of securities.

Trading and Settlement Procedures

Stock market is a trading platform which provides an opportunity to buyers and sellers of
securities to do transactions. As of now there are 23 recognised stock exchanges in India and
24th is likely to get functional soon. However the majority of transactions in securities
happen only on the National Stock Exchange. The Bombay stock Exchange is the second
largest contributor in the overall pie of total transactions. However it's contribution is
restricted to 5 to 7 percent only. There are three types of instruments that are traded on
National Stock Exchange namely equities, derivatives and debt instruments. This article
attempts to explain the procedure involved in trading and settlement of equities.
Before understanding the procedure of trading and settlement, it is important to have an
overview of changes that have taken place in Indian securities market in last ten years. Three
most noticeable changes which have taken place are 1) Dematerialisation , 2) Introduction of
screen based trading and 3) Shortening of trading and settlement cycles. The Depositories
Act was passed by the parliament in 1995 and this paved the way for conversion of physical
securities into electronic. With establishment of National Stock Exchange, there was a
significant change in the level of technology used for the operation of stock market. It led to
introduction of Screen Based Trading thereby removing the earlier system of open outcry
where prices of securities were quoted by symbols. Now all the transactions happen on
computer which is spread across country and connected to National Stock Exchange through
VSAT. These two factors combined together helped in reducing the trading and settlement
cycle in Indian securities market which got reduced from as long as 22 days to 2 days
currently.
Presently in India, stock exchanges follow T+2 days settlement cycle. Under this system,
trading happens on every business day, excluding Saturday, Sunday and exchange notified
holidays. The trading schedule is between 10:00 a.m. in the morning to 3:30 p.m. in the
evening. During this period , shares of the companies listed on a particular stock exchange
can be bought and sold. The SEBI has made it mandatory that only brokers and sub-
brokers
registered with it can buy and sell shares in the stock exchange. A person desirous of buying
or selling shares on the stock market needs to get himself registered with one of these brokers
/ sub-brokers. There is a provision for signing of broker/sub-broker - client agreement form.
Brokers/sub brokers ask their clients to deposit money with them known as margin based on
which brokers provide exposure to the clients in the stock market.
However signing of client-broker agreement is not sufficient. It is also essential for a person
to open a demat account through which securities are delivered and received. This demat
account can be opened with a depository participant which again is a SEBI registered
intermediary. Some of the leading depository in the country are Stock Holding Corporation of
India Ltd., ICICI Bank, HDFC Bank etc. If an individual buys shares ,it is in the demat
account that credit of shares are received. Similarly when a person sells shares, he has to
transfer shares to the brokers account through his demat account. All the brokers/sub-brokers
also essentially have a demat account.
Shares can be bought and sold through a broker on telephone. Brokers identify their clients
by a unique code assigned to a client. After the transaction is done by a client broker issues
him contract note which provides details of transaction. Apart from the purchase price of
security, a client is also supposed to pay brokerage, stamp duty and securities transaction tax.
In case of sale transaction, these costs are reduced from the sale proceeds and then remaining
amount is paid to the client. Trading of securities happen on the first day while settlement of
the same happens two days after. This means that a security bought on Monday will be
received by the client earliest on Wednesday which is called pay out day by the exchange.
However there is provision which allows a broker to transfer securities till 24 hours after pay
out receipt. Hence the broker may transfer shares latest by Thursday for a security bought on
Monday. Any transfer after Thursday would invite penalty for the broker. If a person has
bought security then he is supposed to pay money to the broker before pay in deadline which
is two days after trading day but the second day is considered till 10:30 a.m. Only.Hence the
client must pay money to the broker before 10:30 a.m. On T+2 day.
Settlement of securities is done by the clearing corporation of the exchange. Settlement of
funds is done by a panel of banks registered with the exchange. Clearing corporation
identifies payable/ receivable position of brokers based on which obligation report for brokers
are created. On T+2 days all the brokers who has transacted two days before receive shares or
give shares to the clearing corporation of exchange. This all is done through automated set up
Depository which involves NSDL and CDSL.
One of the most noticeable achievements of Indian securities market have been reduction in
the settlement cycle which has brought it at par with global securities market. If India is able
to attract huge investments in securities now, it is not only because of inherent strength of the
economy but also because stock markets have reached very advanced stage which make
outsiders to understand the process in Indian market easily.

Settlement
The first image shows the process and the second image shows the various steps involved in
the settlement cycle..
And here is the explanation:
Step 1: Trade details from exchange to NSCCL (clearing house of NSE)
Step 2: NSCCL notifies the trade details to Clearing members/ Custodians
Step 3: Download of obligation/ pay-in advice of funds/ securities
Step 4: Instructions to clearing banks to arrange funds by pay-in time
Step 5: Instruction to depositories for same
Step 6: Pay-in of securities
Step 7: Pay-in of funds
Step 8: Pay-out of securities
Step 9: Pay-out of funds
Step 10: Depository informs custodians/ Clearing members through DP
Step 11: Clearing banks inform custodians/ Clearing members.

Settlement Cycle
NSCCL clears and settles trades as per the well-defined settlement cycles. All the securities
are being traded and settled under T+2 rolling settlement. The NSCCL notifies the relevant
trade details to clearing members/custodians on the trade day (T), which are affi -rmed on
T+1 to NSCCL. Based on it, NSCCL nets the positions of counterparties to determine their
obligations. A clearing member has to pay-in/pay-out funds and/or securities. The obligations
are netted for a member across all securities to determine his fund obligations and he has to
either pay or receive funds. Members’ pay-in/pay-out obligations are determined latest by
T+1 and are forwarded to them on the same day, so that they can settle their obligations on
T+2. The securities/funds are paid-in/paid-out on T+2 day to the members’ clients’ and the
settlement is complete in 2 days from the end of the trading day.

Dematerialised Settlement
NSE along with leading financial institutions established the National Securities Depository
Ltd. (NSDL), the first depository in the country, with the objective to reduce the menace of
fake/forged and stolen securities and thereby enhance the efficiency of the settlement systems.
This has ushered in an era of dematerialized trading and settlement. SEBI, too, has been
progressively promoting dematerialization by mandating settlement only through
dematerialized form for more and more securities. The share of demat delivery in total
delivery at NSE was 100% in terms of value during 2008-09.

Leading Stock Exchanges in India

1. Bombay Stock Exchange BSE

BSE is the leading and the oldest stock exchange in India as well as in Asia. It was
established in 1887 with the formation of "The Native Share and Stock Brokers' Association".
BSE is a very active stock exchange with highest number of listed securities in India. Nearly
70% to 80% of all transactions in the India are done alone in BSE. Companies traded on BSE
were 3,049 by March, 2006. BSE is now a national stock exchange as the BSE has started
allowing its members to set-up computer terminals outside the city of Mumbai (former
Bombay). It is the only stock exchange in India which is given permanent recognition by the
government. At present, (Since 1980) BSE is located in the "Phiroze Jeejeebhoy Towers" (28
storey building) located at Dalal Street, Fort, Mumbai. Pin code - 400021.

In 2005, BSE was given the status of a full fledged public limited company along with a new
name as "Bombay Stock Exchange Limited". The BSE has computerized its trading system
by introducing BOLT (Bombay On Line Trading) since March 1995. BSE is operating BOLT
at 275 cities with 5 lakh (0.5 million) traders a day. Average daily turnover of BSE is near Rs.
200 crores.

2. National Stock Exchange NSE

Formation of National Stock Exchange of India Limited (NSE) in 1992 is one important
development in the Indian capital market. The need was felt by the industry and investing
community since 1991. The NSE is slowly becoming the leading stock exchange in terms of
technology, systems and practices in due course of time. NSE is the largest and most modern
stock exchange in India. In addition, it is the third largest exchange in the world next to two
exchanges operating in the USA.

The NSE boasts of screen based trading system. In the NSE, the available system provides
complete market transparency of trading operations to both trading members and the
participates and finds a suitable match. The NSE does not have trading floors as in
conventional stock exchanges. The trading is entirely screen based with automated order
machine. The screen provides entire market information at the press of a button. At the same
time, the system provides for concealment of the identify of market operations. The screen
gives all information which is dynamically updated. As the market participants sit in their
own offices, they have all the advantages of back office support, and facility to get in touch
with their constituents.
1. Wholesale debt market segment,
2. Capital market segment, and
3. Futures & options trading.

3. Over The Counter Exchange of India OTCEI

The OTCEI was incorporated in October, 1990 as a Company under the Companies Act 1956.
It became fully operational in 1992 with opening of a counter at Mumbai. It is recognised by
the Government of India as a recognised stock exchange under the Securities Control and
Regulation Act 1956. It was promoted jointly by the financial institutions like UTI, ICICI,
IDBI, LIC, GIC, SBI, IFCI, etc.
The Features of OTCEI are :-
1. OTCEI is a floorless exchange where all the activities are fully computerised.
2. Its promoters have been designated as sponsor members and they alone are entitled to
sponsor a company for listing there.
3. Trading on the OTCEI takes place through a network of computers or OTC dealers
located at different places within the same city and even across the cities. These
computers allow dealers to quote, query & transact through a central OTC computer
using the telecommunication links.
4. A Company which is listed on any other recognised stock exchange in India is not
permitted simultaneously for listing on OTCEI.
5. OTCEI deals in equity shares, preference shares, bonds, debentures and warrants.

Stock Market Indicators

Definition of 'Market Indicators'
A series of technical indicators used by traders to predict the direction of the major financial
indexes. Most market indicators are created by analyzing the number of companies that have
reached new highs relative to the number that created new lows, also known as market
breadth.
Some of the most common market indicators are: Advance/Decline Index, Absolute Breadth
Index, Arms Index and McClellan Oscillator. A general outlook on the market's direction is
useful for traders looking for strength in individual equities because they ensure that the
broader market forces are working in their favor.

Primary Indicators
Most investors rely on a few favorite stock market indicators, and new ones seem to pop up
all the time, but the two most reliable ones for determining the strength of the market are
price and volume. Most other stock market indicators are derived from price and volume data.
So it stands to reason that if you follow the price and volume action on the major market
indices each day, you will always be in sync with the current trend.
Using price and volume to analyze stock market trends, while incorporating historical stock
market data, should be all you need to discern the current market’s strength and direction.
That said, secondary indicators can also help clarify the picture.

Secondary Indicators

1.Advance/Decline Line
Plots the number of advancing shares versus the number of declining shares. At times, a small
number of larger weighted stocks may experience significant moves, up or down, that skew
the price action on the index. This line, and its accompanying data, reveals whether a
majority of stocks followed the direction of the major indexes on that day.

2.Short Term Overbought — Oversold Oscillator

A 10-day moving average of the number of stocks moving up in price less the number of
stocks moving down in price (for a specific exchange). Stocks with prices that did not change
from the previous close are not included in this calculation. Some investors may use this
indicator to take a contrarian position when the market has moved too in far in one direction
over a short period of time.

3.10 Day Moving Average Up & Down Volume

Two 10-day moving average lines are presented to illustrate the volume of all stocks on an
exchange (AMEX, NASDAQ, NYSE) that are moving up or down in price. Blue line: A 10-
day moving average of the total volume of all stocks on an exchange moving up in price. Pink
line: A 10-day moving average of the total volume of all stocks on an exchange moving down
in price. When the two lines cross, this may indicate a trend change in favor of whichever line
is moving up.
4.10 Day Moving Average New Highs & New Lows
Two 10-day moving average lines are presented to illustrate stocks reaching new highs and
new lows, corresponding to their specific exchange (AMEX, NASDAQ, and NYSE). Blue
line: a 10-day moving average of the number of stocks making new price highs. Pink line: a
10-day moving average of the number of stocks reaching new price lows (based on prices at
market close). When the two lines cross, this may indicate a trend change in favor of
whichever line is moving up.

Types of stock market Indices

Stock Market index is a method to statistically measure the value of a batch of stock. It is a
tool to track an overall progress of the market and to compare the returns on
investments. There are several types of indexes (also called indices) based on their
calculation and need in the market, including
 price-weighted index,
 composite index,
 market-value weighted index or broad-based index.

 Price weighted index track changes in the stock market based on the per share price
of an individual stock. For example, suppose you have a portfolio that consists of two
stocks: Stock X worth $15 per share and Stock Y worth $45 per share. A greater
proportion of the index will be allocated to $45 stock than to $15 stock which means
$45 stock will be two times higher than the $15 stock. Therefore, if index consists of
these two stocks, it would reflect a $45 stock as being 67 percent, while $15 would
represent 33 percent. And it shows that a change in value of $15 stock will not affect
the index’s value as much as the other one would do.

 Composite index is a combination of several indexes and averages. It measures the

performance of all the stocks in a stock market. The composite index consists of a
large number of factors which are averaged together and form a product. This product
represents an overall market and is a useful tool to measure and track the changes in a
price level to an entire stock market or sector. An example is a New York Stock
Exchange and NASDAQ Composite Index. This index provides a useful benchmark
to measure a performance of an investor’s portfolio. Your Personal Financial
Mentor will always advise you to hold a well diversified portfolio in order to
minimize the risk of your investment and this index will provide you a reasonable
basis to evaluate your portfolio.

 Market-value weighted index or a capitalization weighted index is a stock exchange

index in which higher weighting is given to shares of those companies that have a
greater market capitalization.Let’s suppose you have a portfolio of 1 million shares of
$45 stock (Stock Y) and 20 million shares of $15 stock (Stock X). The Market Cap
(market capitalization) of ‘Stock X’ will be $300 million whereas market cap of
‘Stock Y’ will only be $45 million. Therefore, in a market value weighted index,
Stock X represents 87 percent of the index value and Stock Y represents 13 percent.
  Broad-based index provide a snapshot of the entire stock market. It is used by most
investment professionals as a benchmark to compare their progress. Example of these
indexes is Wilshire 500 andS&P500.

Indices of Indian Stock Exchanges

View live indices of some of the major Indian Indices.
As on 18 Jul 14:55
Current
Name Change % Chg Open High Low
Value

S&P BSE Sensex 25,700.12 138.96 0.54 25,558.48 25,713.40 25,441.24

CNX Nifty 7,679.30 38.85 0.51 7,630.25 7,685.00 7,595.50

S&P BSE Smallcap 10,202.14 9.02 0.09 10,192.25 10,231.39 10,103.95

S&P BSE Midcap 9,271.89 -19.80 -0.21 9,271.47 9,295.51 9,197.03

S&P BSE 100 7,779.75 30.41 0.39 7,744.33 7,784.15 7,696.03

S&P BSE 200 3,140.36 9.79 0.31 3,127.84 3,141.90 3,108.30

S&P BSE 500 9,833.69 28.12 0.29 9,797.57 9,837.88 9,735.07

S&P BSE BANKEX 17,678.36 200.86 1.14 17,401.06 17,704.41 17,277.03

S&P BSE Capital Goods 15,997.41 104.04 0.65 15,838.81 16,025.73 15,702.47

S&P BSE Oil and Gas 10,808.63 -45.46 -0.42 10,837.99 10,837.99 10,710.07

S&P BSE Metals 13,307.79 -28.78 -0.22 13,286.70 13,335.31 13,095.26

S&P BSE IT 9,416.26 148.22 1.57 9,364.01 9,466.20 9,352.94

S&P BSE Auto 15,757.69 41.42 0.26 15,678.56 15,760.85 15,533.54

S&P BSE Healthcare 11,824.23 -24.83 -0.21 11,835.66 11,870.34 11,791.86

S&P BSE FMCG 6,911.90 -11.11 -0.16 6,916.53 6,946.68 6,882.84

S&P BSE Realty 1,991.89 -7.02 -0.35 1,985.28 1,994.37 1,957.39

S&P BSE TECk 5,295.57 57.46 1.09 5,278.06 5,323.35 5,273.14

S&P BSE PSU 8,261.74 -47.69 -0.58 8,270.50 8,270.50 8,153.32

S&P BSE Consumer

8,550.31 -33.44 -0.39 8,884.05 8,885.72 8,479.60
Durables

S&P BSE Power 2,235.56 -22.37 -1.00 2,247.96 2,247.96 2,212.53

S&P BSE IPO 2,240.02 -6.69 -0.30 2,245.57 2,248.28 2,213.31

CNX Nifty Junior 16,417.65 -40.70 -0.25 16,397.90 16,433.50 16,261.15

CNX Midcap Index

11,020.35 -28.35 -0.26 11,004.45 11,027.50 10,911.05
-NSE

Nifty Midcap 50 3,221.55 -23.35 -0.72 3,225.70 3,225.70 3,185.40

CNX 100 7,624.40 30.45 0.40 7,581.15 7,629.35 7,543.15

CNX 500 6,197.55 18.10 0.29 6,167.45 6,199.55 6,135.25

Bank Nifty 15,444.75 175.70 1.14 15,169.00 15,463.15 15,089.30

CNX IT 9,965.75 146.00 1.47 9,944.85 10,019.20 9,944.85

CNX REALTY 253.80 -1.05 -0.41 252.65 254.10 249.00

CNX INFRA 3,320.10 -4.55 -0.14 3,307.05 3,321.70 3,268.85

CNX ENERGY 9,630.80 -58.80 -0.61 9,652.95 9,652.95 9,539.05

CNX FMCG 18,106.50 -35.60 -0.20 18,085.75 18,207.45 18,040.00

CNX MNC 7,771.55 -42.35 -0.54 7,794.75 7,794.75 7,727.35

CNX PHARMA 8,816.05 -5.80 -0.07 8,829.70 8,845.15 8,770.25

CNX PSE 3,636.30 -27.25 -0.75 3,643.65 3,643.65 3,591.10

CNX PSU BANK 3,637.30 -31.05 -0.85 3,634.95 3,645.80 3,589.75

CNX SERVICE 9,349.80 85.40 0.91 9,264.30 9,357.55 9,237.40

CNX MEDIA 2,076.70 -15.55 -0.75 2,075.55 2,096.85 2,070.95

CNX METAL 3,359.60 -4.65 -0.14 3,345.15 3,366.30 3,303.30

CNX AUTO 7,000.65 19.05 0.27 6,948.40 7,001.55 6,896.90

INDIA VIX 15.10 0.14 0.93 14.96 15.53 12.98

SX40 15,022.67 0.00 0.00 15,022.67 15,022.67 15,022.67

 Module III

Risk and Return Concepts: Concept of Risk, Types of Risk- Systematic risk,
Unsystematic risk, Calculation of Risk and returns.
Portfolio Risk and Return: Expected returns of a portfolio, Calculation of Portfolio
Risk and Return, Portfolio with 2 assets, Portfolio with more than 2assets.

CONCEPT OF RETURN AND RISK

There are different motives for investment. The most prominent among all is to earn a return
on investment. However, selecting investments on the basis of return in not enough. The fact
is that most investors invest their funds in more than one security suggest that there are
other factors, besides return, and they must be considered. The investors not only like return
but also dislike risk. So, what is required is:
i.Clear understanding of what risk and return are
,ii.What creates them, and
iii.How can they be measured?

Return:
The return is the basic motivating force and the principal reward in the investment process.
The return may be defined in terms of (i) realized return, i.e., the return which has been
earned, and (ii) expected return, i.e., the return which the investor anticipates to earn over
some future investment period. The expected return is a predicted or estimated return and
may or may not occur. The realized returns in the past allow an investor to estimate cash
inflows in terms of dividends, interest, bonus, capital gains, etc, available to the holder of the
investment. The return can be measured as the total gain or loss to the holder over a given
period of time and may be defined as a percentage return on the initial amount invested. With
reference to investment inequity shares, return is consisting of the dividends and the capital
gain or loss at the time of sale of these shares.

Risk:
Risk in investment analysis means that future returns from an investment are unpredictable.
The concept of risk may be defined as the possibility that the actual return may not be same
as expected. In other words, risk refers to the chance that the actual outcome (return) from an
investment will differ from an expected outcome. With reference to a firm, risk may be
defined as the possibility that the actual outcome of a financial decision may not be same as
estimated. The risk may be considered as a chance of variation in return. Investments having
greater chances of variations are considered more risky than those with lesser
chances of variations. Between equity shares and corporate bonds, the former is riskier than
latter. If the corporate bonds are held till maturity, then the annual interest inflows
and maturity repayment. Investment management is a game of money in which we have to
balance the risk and return.
The risks associated with investment are:-
 1. Inflation risk: Due to inflation, the purchasing power of money gets reduced.
2. Interest rate risk: Due to an economic situation prevailing in the country, the interest
rate may change.
3. Default risk: The risk of not getting investment back. That is, the principal amount
invested and / or interest.
4. Business risk: The risk of depression and other uncertainties of business.
5. Socio-political risk: The risk of changes in government, government policies, social
attitudes, etc.
The returns on investment usually come in the following forms:-
1. The safety of the principal amount invested.
2. Regular and timely payment of interest or dividend.
3. Liquidity of investment. This facilitates premature encashment, loan facilities,
marketability of investment, etc.
4. Chances of capital appreciation, where the market price of the investment is higher,
due to issue of bonus shares, right issue at a lower premium, etc.
5. Problem-free transactions like easy buying and selling of the investment, encashment
of interest or dividend warrants, etc.
The simple rule of investment management is that:-
1. The higher the risk, the greater will be the returns.
2. Similarly, lesser the risk, the lower will be the returns.
This rule of investment management is depicted in the following diagram:-

The above diagram showing risk and return indicates that:-

1. Low risk instruments such as small savings, and bank deposits bring low returns.
2. Medium risk instruments such as company deposits and non-convertible debentures
will earn medium returns.
 3. High-risk securities like equity shares, and convertible debentures will earn higher
returns.
Every investment opportunity carries some risks or the other. In some investments, a certain
type of risk may be predominant, and others not so significant. A full understanding of the
various important risks is essential for taking calculated risks and making sensible investment
decisions.

Types of Risk
Seven major risks are present in varying degrees in different types of investments.

Default risk
This is the most frightening of all investment risks. The risk of non-payment refers to both
the principal and the interest. For all unsecured loans, e.g. loans based on promissory notes,
company deposits, etc., this risk is very high. Since there is no security attached, you can do
nothing except, of course, go to a court when there is a default in refund of capital or payment
of accrued interest.
Given the present circumstances of enormous delays in our legal systems, even if you do go
to court and even win the case, you will still be left wondering who ended up being better off
- you, the borrower, or your lawyer!
So, do look at the CRISIL / ICRA credit ratings for the company before you invest in
company deposits or debentures.

Business risk
The market value of your investment in equity shares depends upon the performance of the
company you invest in. If a company's business suffers and the company does not perform
well, the market value of your share can go down sharply.
This invariably happens in the case of shares of companies which hit the IPO market with
issues at high premiums when the economy is in a good condition and the stock markets are
bullish. Then if these companies could not deliver upon their promises, their share prices fall
drastically.
When you invest money in commercial, industrial and business enterprises, there is always
the possibility of failure of that business; and you may then get nothing, or very little, on a
pro-rata basis in case of the firm's bankruptcy.
A recent example of a banking company where investors were exposed to business risk was
of Global Trust Bank. Global Trust Bank, promoted by Ramesh Gelli, slipped into serious
problems towards the end of 2003 due to NPA-related issues.
However, the Reserve Bank of India's decision to merge it with Oriental Bank of Commerce
was timely. While this protected the interests of stakeholders such as depositors, employees,
creditors and borrowers was protected, interests of investors, especially small investors were
ignored and they lost their money.
The greatest risk of buying shares in many budding enterprises is the promoter himself, who
by overstretching or swindling may ruin the business.

Liquidity risk
Money has only a limited value if it is not readily available to you as and when you need it.
In financial jargon, the ready availability of money is called liquidity. An investment should
not only be safe and profitable, but also reasonably liquid.
An asset or investment is said to be liquid if it can be converted into cash quickly, and with
little loss in value. Liquidity risk refers to the possibility of the investor not being able to
realize its value when required. This may happen either because the security cannot be sold in
the market or prematurely terminated, or because the resultant loss in value may be
unrealistically high.
Current and savings accounts in a bank, National Savings Certificates, actively traded equity
shares and debentures, etc. are fairly liquid investments. In the case of a bank fixed deposit,
you can raise loans up to 75% to 90% of the value of the deposit; and to that extent, it is a
liquid investment.
Some banks offer attractive loan schemes against security of approved investments, like
selected company shares, debentures, National Savings Certificates, Units, etc. Such options
add to the liquidity of investments.

The relative liquidity of different investments is highlighted in Table 1.

Table 1
Liquidity of Various Investments
Liquidity Some Examples
Very high Cash, gold, silver, savings and current
accounts in banks, G-Secs
High Fixed deposits with banks, shares of listed
companies that are actively traded, units,
mutual fund shares
Medium Fixed deposits with companies enjoying
high credit rating, debentures of good
companies that are actively traded
Low and very Deposits and debentures of loss-making
low and cash-strapped companies, inactively
traded shares, unlisted shares and
debentures, real estate
Don't, however, be under the impression that all listed shares and debentures are equally
liquid assets. Out of the 8,000-plus listed stocks, active trading is limited to only around
1,000 stocks. A-group shares are more liquid than B-group shares. The secondary market for
debentures is not very liquid in India. Several mutual funds are stuck with PSU stocks and
PSU bonds due to lack of liquidity.

Purchasing power risk, or inflation risk

Inflation means being broke with a lot of money in your pocket. When prices shoot up, the
purchasing power of your money goes down. Some economists consider inflation to be a
disguised tax.
Given the present rates of inflation, it may sound surprising but among developing countries,
India is often given good marks for effective management of inflation. The average rate of
inflation in India has been less than 8% p.a. during the last two decades.
However, the recent trend of rising inflation across the globe is posing serious challenge to
the governments and central banks. In India's case, inflation, in terms of the wholesale prices,
which remained benign during the last few years, began firming up from June 2006 onwards
and topped double digits in the third week of June 2008. The skyrocketing prices of crude oil
in international markets as well as food items are now the two major concerns facing the
global economy, including India.
Ironically, relatively "safe" fixed income investments, such as bank deposits and small
savings instruments, etc., are more prone to ravages of inflation risk because rising prices
erode the purchasing power of your capital. "Riskier" investments such as equity shares are
more likely to preserve the value of your capital over the medium term.

Interest rate risk

In this deregulated era, interest rate fluctuation is a common phenomenon with its consequent
impact on investment values and yields. Interest rate risk affects fixed income securities and
refers to the risk of a change in the value of your investment as a result of movement in
interest rates.
Suppose you have invested in a security yielding 8 per cent p.a. for 3 years. If the interest
rates move up to 9 per cent one year down the line, a similar security can then be issued only
at 9 per cent. Due to the lower yield, the value of your security gets reduced.

Political risk
The government has extraordinary powers to affect the economy; it may introduce legislation
affecting some industries or companies in which you have invested, or it may introduce
legislation granting debt-relief to certain sections of society, fixing ceilings of property, etc.
One government may go and another come with a totally different set of political and
economic ideologies. In the process, the fortunes of many industries and companies undergo
a drastic change. Change in government policies is one reason for political risk.
Whenever there is a threat of war, financial markets become panicky. Nervous selling begins.
Security prices plummet. In case a war actually breaks out, it often leads to sheer
pandemonium in the financial markets. Similarly, markets become hesitant whenever
elections are round the corner. The market prefers to wait and watch, rather than gamble on
poll predictions.
International political developments also have an impact on the domestic scene, what with
markets becoming globalized. This was amply demonstrated by the aftermath of 9/11 events
in the USA and in the countdown to the Iraq war early in 2003. Through increased world
trade, India is likely to become much more prone to political events in its trading partner-
countries.

Market risk
Market risk is the risk of movement in security prices due to factors that affect the market as
a whole. Natural disasters can be one such factor. The most important of these factors is the
phase (bearish or bullish) the markets are going through. Stock markets and bond markets are
affected by rising and falling prices due to alternating bullish and bearish periods: Thus:
  Bearish stock markets usually precede economic recessions.
 Bearish bond markets result generally from high market interest rates, which, in turn,
are pushed by high rates of inflation.
 Bullish stock markets are witnessed during economic recovery and boom periods.
 Bullish bond markets result from low interest rates and low rates of inflation.

Systematic risk

Also called undiversifiablerisk or marketrisk. A good example of a systematic risk is market r

isk. The degree to which the stock moveswith the overall market is called the systematic risk
and denoted as beta.
A risk that is carried by an entire class of assets and/or liabilities. Systemic risk may apply to
a certain country or industry, or to theentire global economy. It is impossible to reduce system
ic risk for the global economy (complete global shutdown is always theoreticallypossible), bu
t one may mitigate other forms of systemic risk by buying different kinds of securities and/or
by buying in differentindustries. For example, oil companies have the systemic risk that they
will drill up all the oil in the world; an investor may mitigate thisrisk by investing in both oil
companies and companies having nothing to do with oil. Systemic risk is also called systemat
ic risk or undiversifiable risk.

In finance, different types of risk can be classified under two main groups, viz.,

1. Systematic risk.
2. Unsystematic risk.
The meaning of systematic and unsystematic risk in finance:
1. Systematic risk is uncontrollable by an organization and macro in nature.
2. Unsystematic risk is controllable by an organization and micro in nature.

A. Systematic Risk
Systematic risk is due to the influence of external factors on an organization. Such factors are
normally uncontrollable from an organization's point of view.
It is a macro in nature as it affects a large number of organizations operating under a similar
stream or same domain. It cannot be planned by the organization.
The types of systematic risk are depicted and listed below.

1. Interest rate risk,

2. Market risk and
3. Purchasing power or inflationary risk.
Now let's discuss each risk classified under this group.

1. Interest rate risk

Interest-rate risk arises due to variability in the interest rates from time to time. It particularly
affects debt securities as they carry the fixed rate of interest.
The types of interest-rate risk are depicted and listed below.

1. Price risk and

 2. Reinvestment rate risk.
The meaning of price and reinvestment rate risk is as follows:
1. Price risk arises due to the possibility that the price of the shares, commodity,
investment, etc. may decline or fall in the future.
2. Reinvestment rate risk results from fact that the interest or dividend earned from an
investment can't be reinvested with the same rate of return as it was acquiring earlier.

2. Market risk

Market risk is associated with consistent fluctuations seen in the trading price of any
particular shares or securities. That is, it arises due to rise or fall in the trading price of listed
shares or securities in the stock market.
The types of market risk are depicted and listed below.

1. Absolute risk,
2. Relative risk,
3. Directional risk,
4. Non-directional risk,
5. Basis risk and
6. Volatility risk.
The meaning of different types of market risk is as follows:
1. Absolute risk is without any content. For e.g., if a coin is tossed, there is fifty
percentage chance of getting a head and vice-versa.
2. Relative risk is the assessment or evaluation of risk at different levels of business
functions. For e.g. a relative-risk from a foreign exchange fluctuation may be higher if
the maximum sales accounted by an organization are of export sales.
3. Directional risks are those risks where the loss arises from an exposure to the
particular assets of a market. For e.g. an investor holding some shares experience a
loss when the market price of those shares falls down.
4. Non-Directional risk arises where the method of trading is not consistently followed
by the trader. For e.g. the dealer will buy and sell the share simultaneously to mitigate
the risk
5. Basis risk is due to the possibility of loss arising from imperfectly matched risks. For
e.g. the risks which are in offsetting positions in two related but non-identical
markets.
6. Volatility risk is of a change in the price of securities as a result of changes in the
 volatility of a risk-factor. For e.g. it applies to the portfolios of derivative instruments,
where the volatility of its underlying is a major influence of prices.

3. Purchasing power or inflationary risk

Purchasing power risk is also known as inflation risk. It is so, since it emanates (originates)
from the fact that it affects a purchasing power adversely. It is not desirable to invest in
securities during an inflationary period.
The types of power or inflationary risk are depicted and listed below.

1. Demand inflation risk and

2. Cost inflation risk.
The meaning of demand and cost inflation risk is as follows:
1. Demand inflation risk arises due to increase in price, which result from an excess of
demand over supply. It occurs when supply fails to cope with the demand and hence
cannot expand anymore. In other words, demand inflation occurs when production
factors are under maximum utilization.
2. Cost inflation risk arises due to sustained increase in the prices of goods and services.
It is actually caused by higher production cost. A high cost of production inflates the
final price of finished goods consumed by people.

B. Unsystematic Risk
Unsystematic risk is due to the influence of internal factors prevailing within an organization.
Such factors are normally controllable from an organization's point of view.
It is a micro in nature as it affects only a particular organization. It can be planned, so that
necessary actions can be taken by the organization to mitigate (reduce the effect of) the risk.
The types of unsystematic risk are depicted and listed below.
 1. Business or liquidity risk,
2. Financial or credit risk and
3. Operational risk.
Now let's discuss each risk classified under this group.

1. Business or liquidity risk

Business risk is also known as liquidity risk. It is so, since it emanates (originates) from the
sale and purchase of securities affected by business cycles, technological changes, etc.
The types of business or liquidity risk are depicted and listed below.

1. Asset liquidity risk and

2. Funding liquidity risk.
The meaning of asset and funding liquidity risk is as follows:
1. Asset liquidity risk is due to losses arising from an inability to sell or pledge assets at,
or near, their carrying value when needed. For e.g. assets sold at a lesser value than
their book value.
2. Funding liquidity risk exists for not having an access to the sufficient-funds to make a
payment on time. For e.g. when commitments made to customers are not fulfilled as
discussed in the SLA (service level agreements).

2. Financial or credit risk

Financial risk is also known as credit risk. It arises due to change in the capital structure of
the organization. The capital structure mainly comprises of three ways by which funds are
sourced for the projects. These are as follows:
1. Owned funds. For e.g. share capital.
2. Borrowed funds. For e.g. loan funds.
3. Retained earnings. For e.g. reserve and surplus.
The types of financial or credit risk are depicted and listed below.

1. Exchange rate risk,

2. Recovery rate risk,
3. Credit event risk,
4. Non-Directional risk,
5. Sovereign risk and
6. Settlement risk.
The meaning of types of financial or credit risk is as follows:
1. Exchange rate risk is also called as exposure rate risk. It is a form of financial risk that
arises from a potential change seen in the exchange rate of one country's currency in
relation to another country's currency and vice-versa. For e.g. investors or businesses
face it either when they have assets or operations across national borders, or if they
have loans or borrowings in a foreign currency.
2. Recovery rate risk is an often neglected aspect of a credit-risk analysis. The recovery
rate is normally needed to be evaluated. For e.g. the expected recovery rate of the
funds tendered (given) as a loan to the customers by banks, non-banking financial
companies (NBFC), etc.
3. Sovereign risk is associated with the government. Here, a government is unable to
meet its loan obligations, reneging (to break a promise) on loans it guarantees, etc.
4. Settlement risk exists when counterparty does not deliver a security or its value in
cash as per the agreement of trade or business.

3. Operational risk
Operational risks are the business process risks failing due to human errors. This risk will
change from industry to industry. It occurs due to breakdowns in the internal procedures,
people, policies and systems.
The types of operational risk are depicted and listed below.
 1. Model risk,
2. People risk,
3. Legal risk and
4. Political risk.
The meaning of types of operational risk is as follows:
1. Model risk is involved in using various models to value financial securities. It is due
to probability of loss resulting from the weaknesses in the financial-model used in
assessing and managing a risk.
2. People risk arises when people do not follow the organization’s procedures, practices
and/or rules. That is, they deviate from their expected behavior.
3. Legal risk arises when parties are not lawfully competent to enter an agreement
among themselves. Furthermore, this relates to the regulatory-risk, where a
transaction could conflict with a government policy or particular legislation (law)
might be amended in the future with retrospective effect.
4. Political risk occurs due to changes in government policies. Such changes may have
an unfavorable impact on an investor. It is especially prevalent in the third-world
countries.
C. Conclusion

Following three statements highlight the gist of this article on risk:

1. Every organization must properly group the types of risk under two main broad
categories viz.,
a. Systematic risk and
b. Unsystematic risk.
2. Systematic risk is uncontrollable, and the organization has to suffer from the same.
However, an organization can reduce its impact, to a certain extent, by properly
planning the risk attached to the project.
3. Unsystematic risk is controllable, and the organization shall try to mitigate the
adverse consequences of the same by proper and prompt planning.

What is Alpha and Beta in Stock Market?

Every investment involves two important aspects – returns and risk. And every investor wants
to get the maximum returns with minimum risk. In this post is described the significance of
Alpha and beta parameters of the stock portfolio that are used to describe the two main risks
inherent in investing in stocks. Alpha relates to factors affecting the performance of an
individual stock or the fund manager’s skill in selecting the stocks while beta relates to
market risks.

Alpha :-
Alpha is the risk-adjusted return on an investment. It is excess return of a stock portfolio or
fund over a given benchmark and hence is usually used to measure the performance of fund
manager in managing the fund portfolio. So usually an investor’s strategy should be to buy
securities with positive alpha as these may be undervalued.

If an investment outperformed the benchmark, that means more reward for a given amount of
risk. In that case α > 0.

If an investment underperformed the benchmark; that means the investment has earned too
little for its risk. In that case α < 0. For efficient markets, the expected value of the alpha is
zero. i.e α = 0 and the investment has earned a return adequate for the risk taken. Fund
managers are rated according to how much alpha their fund generates. It is thus a measure of
the fund manager’s ability to generate profits in excess of market returns. Fund managers are
usually paid in accordance to how much alpha their fund generates. Higher the alpha, the
higher is their fees.

Beta :-
Beta is a measure of a volatility of a stock and expresses the relation of movement of stock
with the movement of market as a whole. The S & P 500 Index is assigned a Beta of 1. So a
stock can have positive or negative value of beta.

If Beta = 1; that means security’s price will move in sync with the market.

If Beta is positive; that means stock moves more than the market and is more volatile.

If Beta is negative; that means stock moves less than the market and is less volatile.

High-beta stocks are generally riskier being more volatile but provide a potential for higher
returns as these are in the early stages of growth. On other side low-beta stocks pose less risk
and hence lower returns. Usually utilities stocks have a beta of less than 1 while high-tech
stocks have a beta of greater than 1.

Having gone through the fundamentals of alpha and beta; it can be inferred that low beta and
high alpha stocks are good. But blindly following this concept is not desirable because these
parameters are calculated based on historical data and history is never the indicator of future
performance of a stock portfolio.
(C) Correlation - correlation can be defined as: “…what is known as
the correlation coefficient, which ranges between -1 and +1. Perfect
positive correlation (a correlation co-efficient of +1) implies that as one
security moves, either up or down, the other security will move in
lockstep, in the same direction. Alternatively, perfect negative
correlation means that if one security moves in either direction the
security that is perfectly negatively correlated will move in the opposite
direction. If the correlation is 0, the movements of the securities are said
to have no correlation; they are completely random.”
Correlation simply describes how two things are similar or
dissimilar to each other. Specifically how two investments move in
relation to each other, how tightly they are linked or opposed.
Correlation between historically dissimilar investments (think stocks and
bonds) is never static, it’s not uncommon for the correlation of
investments to change, especially during volatile or crashing markets. In
fact, seemingly the only thing that goes up in a down market is in fact
correlation. I use correlation measurements in advanced portfolio
management to better manage risk. To me, higher correlation
theoretically means higher risk to the bottom line. The higher the
correlation of your investments the higher of the “doubling-down” effect
you get, in other words you have a greater opportunity for gains or
financial ruin. One particular ripe investment class for high correlation
are mutual funds because both bond funds AND stock funds trade on the
stock market, thus your bond funds become more correlated with stock
funds during volatile markets.

Definition of 'R-Squared'
A statistical measure that represents the percentage of a fund or security's movements that can
be explained by movements in a benchmark index. For fixed-income securities, the
benchmark is the T-bill. For equities, the benchmark is the S&P 500.

R-squared values range from 0 to 100. An R-squared of 100 means that all movements of a
security are completely explained by movements in the index. A high R-squared (between 85
and 100) indicates the fund's performance patterns have been in line with the index. A fund
with a low R-squared (70 or less) doesn't act much like the index.

A higher R-squared value will indicate a more useful beta figure. For example, if a fund has
an R-squared value of close to 100 but has a beta below 1, it is most likely offering higher
risk-adjusted returns. A low R-squared means you should ignore the beta.
Definition of 'Characteristic Line'

A line formed using regression analysis that summarizes a particular security or portfolio's
systematic risk and rate of return. The rate of return is dependent on the standard deviation of
the asset's returns and the slope of the characteristic line, which is represented by the asset's
beta.

Variance
Variance (σ2) is a measure of the dispersion of a set of data points around their mean value.
In other words, variance is a mathematical expectation of the average squared deviations
from the mean. It is computed by finding the probability-weighted average of squared
deviations from the expected value. Variance measures the variability from an average
(volatility). Volatility is a measure of risk, so this statistic can help determine the risk an
investor might take on when purchasing a specific security.

Standard Deviation
Standard deviation can be defined in two ways:

1. A measure of the dispersion of a set of data from its mean. The more spread apart the data,
the higher the deviation. Standard deviation is calculated as the square root of variance.

2. In finance, standard deviation is applied to the annual rate of return of an investment to

measure the investment's volatility. Standard deviation is also known as historical volatility
and is used by investors as a gauge for the amount of expected volatility.

Standard deviation is a statistical measurement that sheds light on historical volatility. For
example, a volatile stock will have a high standard deviation while a stable blue chip stock
will have a lower standard deviation. A large dispersion tells us how much the fund's return is
deviating from the expected normal returns.
 Module IV
Valuation of securities

Bond- Bond features, Types of Bonds, Determinants of interest rates, Bond

Management Strategies, Bond Valuation, Bond Duration.
Preference Shares- Concept, Features, Yields.
Equity shares- Concept, Valuation, Dividend Valuation models.

Definition of 'Bond'

A debt investment in which an investor loans money to an entity (corporate or governmental)

that borrows the funds for a defined period of time at a fixed interest rate. Bonds are used by
companies, municipalities, states and U.S. and foreign governments to finance a variety of
projects and activities.

Bonds are commonly referred to as fixed-income securities and are one of the three main
asset classes, along with stocks and cash equivalents.

Basic Features of Bonds

In order to better understand more complicated topics, the CFA Institute requires CFA
candidates to have the ability to describe the basic features of a bond. These features include:

1. Maturity
Maturity is the time at which the bond matures and the holder receives the final payment of
principal and interest. The "term to maturity" is the amount of time until the bond actually
matures. There are 3 basic classes of maturity:

 A. Short-Term Maturity - One to five years in length

 B.Intermediate-Term Maturity - Five to twelve years in length
 C. Long-Term Maturity - Twelve years or more in length
Maturity is important because:

 It indicates the length of time in which an investor will receive interest as well as
when he or she will receive principal payments.
 It affects the yield on the bond; longer maturities tend to yield higher rates.
 The price volatility of a bond is a function of its maturity. A longer maturity typically
indicates higher volatility or, in Wall Street lingo, simply the "vol".
2. Par Value
Par value is the dollar amount the holder will receive at the bond's maturity. It can be any
amount but is typically $1,000 per bond. Par value is also known as principle, face, maturity
or redemption value. Bond prices are quoted as a percentage of par.

Example: Premiums and Discounts

Imagine that par for ABC Corp. is $1000, which would =100. If the ABC Corp. bonds trade
at 85 what would the dollar value of the bond be? What if ABC Corp. bonds at 102?

Answer:
At 85, the ABC Corp. bonds would trade at a discount to par at $850. If ABC Corp. bonds at
102, the bonds would trade at a premium of $1,020.

3. Coupon Rate
A coupon rate states the interest rate the bond will pay the holders each year. To find the
coupon's dollar value, simply multiply the coupon rate by the par value. The rate is for one
year and payments are usually made on a semi-annual basis. Some asset-backed securities
pay monthly, while many international securities pay only annually. The coupon rate also
affects a bond's price. Typically, the higher the rate, the less price sensitivity for the bond
price because of interest rate movements.

4. Currency Denomination
Currency denomination indicates what currency the interest and principle will be paid in.
There are two main types:

 Dollar Denominated - refers to bonds with payment in USD.

 Non-dollar-Denominated - denotes bonds in which the payments are in another
currency besides USD.
Other currency denomination structures can use various types of currencies to make
payments.

Because the provisions for redeeming bonds and options that are granted to the issuer or
investor are more complicated topics, we will discuss them later in this LOS section.

Example: Bond Table

Let's take a look at an example of a bond with the features we've discussed so far, within a
bond table format you'd see in a paper.

Bond Management Strategies

The returns of bonds are influenced by a number of factors: changes in interest rates, changes
in the credit ratings of the issuers, and changes in the yield curve. A bond strategy is the
management of a bond portfolio either to increase returns based on anticipated changes in
these bond-pricing factors or to maintain a certain return regardless of changes in those
factors. Bond strategies can be classified as active, passive, hybrid.

 Active strategies usually involve bond swaps, liquidating one group of bonds to
purchase another group, to take advantage of expected changes in the bond market,
either to seek higher returns or to maintain the value of a portfolio. Active strategies
are used to take advantage of expected changes in interest rates, yield curve shifts, and
changes in the credit ratings of individual issuers.
  Passive strategies are used, not so much to maximize returns, but to earn a good
return while matching cash flows to expected liabilities or, as in indexing, to minimize
transaction and management costs. Pension funds, banks, and insurance companies
use passive strategies extensively to match their income with their expected payouts,
especially bond immunization strategies and cash flow matching. Generally, the
bonds are purchased to achieve a specific investment objective; thereafter, the bond
portfolio is monitored and adjusted as needed.

 Hybrid strategies are a combination of both active and passive strategies, often
employing immunization that may require rebalancing if interest rates change
significantly. Hybrid strategies include contingent immunization and combination
matching.

1. Active Bond Strategies

The primary objective of an active strategy is for greater returns, such as buying bonds with
longer durations in anticipation of lower long-term interest rates; buying junk bonds in
anticipation of economic growth; buying Treasuries when the Federal Reserve is expected to
increase the money supply, which it usually does by buying Treasuries. Active selection
strategies are based on anticipated interest rate changes, credit changes, and fundamental
valuation techniques.

 Interest Rate Anticipation Strategies

A rate anticipation strategy is one that involves selecting bonds that will increase the most in
value from an expected drop in interest rates. If a group of bonds are sold so that others can
be purchased based on the expected change in interest rates, then it is referred to as a rate
anticipation swap. A total return analysis or horizon analysis is conducted to evaluate
several strategies using bond portfolios with different durations to see how they would fare
under different interest rate changes, based on expected market changes during the
investment horizon.
If interest rates are expected to drop, then bonds with longer durations would be purchased,
since they would profit most from an interest rate decrease. If rates were expected to increase,
then bonds with shorter durations would be purchased, to minimize interest-rate risk. One
means of shortening duration is buying cushion bonds, which are callable bonds with a
coupon rate that is significantly higher than the current market rate. Cushion bonds generally
have a shorter duration because of their call feature and are cheaper to buy, since they
generally have a lower market price than a similar bond without the call feature. Rate
anticipation strategies generally require a forecast in the yield curve as well since the change
in interest rates may not be parallel.

 Yield Curve Shifts

Because the yield curve involves a continuum of interest rates, changes in the yield curve can
be described as the type of shift that occurs. The types of yield curve shifts that regularly
occur include parallel shifts, twisted shifts, and shifts with humpedness. Aparallel shift is
the
simplest kind of shift in which short-, intermediate-, and long-term yields change by the same
amount, either up or down. A shift with a twist is one that involves either a flattening or an
increasing curvature to the yield curve or it may involve a steepening of the curve where the
yield spread becomes either wider or narrower as one progresses from shorter durations to
longer durations. A yield shift with humpedness is one where the yields for intermediate
durations changes by a different amount from either short- or long-term durations. If the
intermediate-term yields increase less than either the short- or long-term durations, then that
is considered to be a positive humpedness, or as it is sometimes referred to as a positive
butterfly; the obverse, where short-term and long-term yields decline more (meaning that
bond prices increase faster) than intermediate term yields is referred to as negative
humpedness or a negative butterfly.
Several bond strategies were designed to profit or maintain value due to a specific change in
the yield curve. A ladder strategy is a portfolio with equal allocations for each maturity
group. A bullet strategy is a portfolio whose duration is allocated to 1 maturity group. For
instance, if interest rates were expected to decline, then a profitable bullet strategy would be
one with long-term bonds, which would benefit the most from a decrease in interest rates.
A barbell strategy is one that has a concentration in both short and long-term bonds if
negative humpedness in the yield curve is expected, in which case, short- and long-term
bonds will increase in price faster than the intermediate-term bonds.

 Credit Strategies
There are 2 types of credit investment strategies: quality swaps and credit analysis strategies.
Bonds of a higher quality generally have a higher price than those of lower quality of the
same maturity. This is based on the creditworthiness of the bond issuer, since the chance of
default increases as the creditworthiness of the issuer declines. Consequently, lower quality
bonds pay a higher yield. However, the number of bond issues that default tends to increase
in recessions and to decline when the economy is growing. Therefore, there tends to be a
higher demand for lower quality bonds during economic prosperity so that higher yields can
be earned and a higher demand for high quality bonds during recessions, which offers greater
safety and is sometimes referred to as the flight to quality. Hence, as an economy goes from
recession to prosperity, the credit spread between high and low quality bonds will tend to
narrow; from prosperity to recession, the credit spread widens. Quality swaps usually involve
a sector rotation where bonds of a specific quality sector are purchased in anticipation of
changes in the economy.
A quality swap profits by selling short the bonds that are expected to decline in price relative
to the bonds that are expected to increase in price more, which are bought. A quality swap
can be profitable whether interest rates increase or decrease, because profit is made from the
spread. If rates increase, the quality spread narrows: the percentage decrease in the price of
lower quality bonds will be less than the percentage decrease in the price of higher quality
bonds. If rates decrease, then the quality spread expands, because the price percentage
increase for the lower quality bonds is greater than the price percentage increase for the
higher quality bonds.
  Credit Analysis: the Evaluation of Credit Risk
A credit analysis strategy evaluates corporate, municipal, or foreign bonds to anticipate
potential changes in credit risk, which will usually result in changes in the issuers' bonds
prices. Bonds with forecasted upgrades are bought; bonds with potential downgrades are sold
or avoided. Generally, changes in credit risk should be determined before any upgrade or
downgrade announcements by the credit rating agencies, such as Moody's, Standard & Poor's,
or Fitch; otherwise, it may be too late to take advantage of price changes.

 Fundamental Credit Analysis

The credit analysis for corporate bonds includes the following:
 fundamental analysis:
o comparing the company's financial ratios with other firms in the industry,
especially the interest coverage ratio, which is earnings before interest and
taxes
o leverage, which is long-term debt over total assets
o cash flow, which determines the company's ability to pay interest on debt
o working capital, which is current assets minus current liabilities
o return on equity
 asset and liability analysis, which includes assessing:
o the market values of the company's assets and liabilities
o intangible assets and liabilities, especially unfunded pension liabilities
o the age and condition of the plants
o foreign-currency exposures
 industrial analysis:
o industry and company treads
o assessing the potential growth rate for the industry
o industrial development stage
o the cyclicality of the industry
o competitiveness
o labor and union costs and problems
o government regulations
 Indenture analysis: how protective covenants compare with industry norms.
Foreign corporate bonds are also analyzed in the same way, but additional issues include
the foreign exchange rate and any risks that may occur because of political, social, and
economic changes in the countries where the bonds are issued or where the company is
located.
Indenture analysis and economic analysis are used to gauge the riskiness of municipal bonds.
Economic analysis:
 debt burden
 financial status
 fiscal problems:
o revenues falling below projections
o declines in debt coverage ratios
o increased use of debt reserves
 o project cost overruns or delays
o frequent rate increases
 and the state of the general and local economy, such as:
o decreases in population
o loss of large employers
o increases in unemployment
o declines in property values
o the issuance of fewer building permits
 Multiple Discriminate Models and the Altman Z-Score
Multiple discriminate models are statistical models that are used to generate a credit score for
a bond so that its overall credit quality can be summarized, much as a credit score is used to
summarize a consumer's creditworthiness. Multiple discriminate models generally assess the
most important factors that determine the creditworthiness of the issuer by applying
appropriate weights to each of the factors. A popular scoring model is the Altman Z-score
model, developed by Edward Altman in 1968.

Altman Z-score = 1.2 × W + 1.4 × R + 3.3 × E + 0.6 × M + 1.0 × S

 W = ratio of working capital to total assets
 R = ratio of retained earnings to total assets
 E = ratio of earnings before interest and taxes to total assets
 M = market value of equity to total liabilities
 S = ratio of sales to total assets
The Altman Z-score ranges from -5.0 to +20.0. If a company has a Z score above 3.0, then
bankruptcy is considered unlikely; lower values indicate an increased risk of business failure.
Altman's double prime model includes the same factors except that the book value rather than
the market value of the company to total liabilities is used and the sales to total assets is
excluded.

Altman Z''-score = 6.56 × W + 3.26 × R + 6.70 × E + 1.05 × M

Scores above 2.6 are considered creditworthy, while scores below 1.1 indicate an increased
risk of business failure. Another score that is commonly used is the Hillegeist Z-score (HS),
which is an updated estimate of the Altman Z-score

Hillegeist Z-score = 3.835 + 1.13 × W + 0.0 05 × R + 0.2 69 × E + 0.3 99 × M – 0.033 × S

The 1 year probability of default = 1 ÷ (exp (HS) +1). Like the Altman Z-score, a higher
value indicates a lower probability of bankruptcy.
2.Passive Bond Management Strategies
In contrast to active management, passive bond management strategies usually involve
setting up a bond portfolio with specific characteristics that can achieve investment goals
without altering the strategy before maturity. The 3 primary passive bond strategies are index
matching, cash flow matching, and immunization.
 Bond Indexing
Index matching is constructing a bond portfolio that reflects the returns of a bond index.
Some indexes are general, such as theBloomberg Global Benchmark Bond Indexes or
the Barclays Aggregate Indexes; others are specialized, such as the Bloomberg Corporate
Bond Indexes. Bond indexing is mainly used to achieve greater returns with lower expenses
rather than matching cash flows with liabilities or durations of bonds with liabilities. Because
there are several types of indexes, it must 1st be decided which index to replicate. Afterwards,
a specific strategy must be selected that best achieves tracking an index, given the resources
of the bond fund.

There are several strategies for achieving indexing. Pure bond indexing (aka full replication
approach) is to simply buy all the bonds that comprise the index in the same proportions.
However, since some indexes consists of thousands of bonds, it may be costly to fully
replicate an index, especially for bonds that are thinly traded, which may have high bid/ask
spreads. Many bond managers solve this problem by selecting a subset of the index, but the
subset may not accurately track the index, thus leading to tracking error.
A cell matching strategy is sometimes used to avoid or minimize tracking error, where the
index is decomposed into specific groups with a specific duration, credit rating, sector, and so
on and then buying the bonds that have the characteristics of each cell. The quantity of bonds
selected for each cell can also mirror the proportions in the bond index.
Rather than taking a sample of a bond index to replicate, some bond managers use enhanced
bond indexing, where some bonds are actively selected according to some criteria or forecast,
in the hope of earning greater returns. Even if the forecast is incorrect, junk bonds tend to
increase in price faster when the economy is improving, because the chance of default
declines.

 Cash Flow Matching

Cash flow matching involves using dedicated portfolios with cash flows that match specific
liabilities. Cash flows include not only coupon payments, but also repayments of principal
because the bonds matured or they were called. Cash flow matching is often used by
institutions such as banks, insurance companies, and pension funds. Liabilities usually vary
as to certainty. For a bank, CD liabilities are certain in both amount and in the timing. In
some cases, the liability is certain but the timing is not, such as life insurance payouts and
pension distributions. Other liabilities, such as property insurance, are uncertain in both
amount and time.
Because most bonds pay semiannual coupons, a cash flow matching strategy is established by
1st constructing a bond portfolio for the last liability, then for the penultimate liability, and so
on, working backward. The cash flows for earlier liabilities are modified according to the
amount of cash flow received from coupons of the already selected bonds. However, special
consideration must be given to callable bonds and lower quality bonds, since their cash flows
are more uncertain, although the risk can be mitigated with options or other derivatives.
Because bonds cannot usually be selected to exactly match the cash flow of liabilities, a
certain amount of cash must be held on hand to pay liabilities as they come due. Thus, a
drawback to cash flow matching over immunization is that the cash is not fully invested.

 Bond Immunization Strategies

Bonds have both interest-rate risk and reinvestment risk. Reinvestment is necessary to earn at
least a market return. For instance, a 6% coupon bond does not earn a 6% return unless the
coupons are reinvested. A 6% 10-year bond with a par value of $1000 earns $600 in interest
over the term of the bond. By contrast, $1000 placed in a savings account that earns 6%
compounded semiannually would earn $806.11 after 10 years. Hence, to earn a 6% return
with a coupon bond, the coupons must be reinvested for at least the 6% rate.
Bond immunization strategies depend on the fact that the interest rate risk and the
reinvestment risk are reciprocal: when one increases, the other declines. Increases in interest
rates causes increased interest rate risk but lower reinvestment risk. When interest rates
decline, bond prices increase, but the cash flows from the bonds can only be reinvested at a
lower rate without taking on additional risk. A disadvantage of cash flow matching is that any
reinvestment risk cannot be offset by rising bond prices if the bonds are held to maturity.

Classical immunization is the construction of a bond portfolio such that it will have a
minimum return regardless of interest rate changes. The immunization strategy has several
requirements: no defaults; security prices change only in response to interest rates (for
instance, bonds cannot have embedded options); yield curve changes are parallel.
Immunization is more difficult to achieve with bonds with embedded options, such as call
provisions, or prepayments made on mortgage-backed securities, since cash flow is more
difficult to predict.
The initial value of the bonds must be equal to the present value of the liability using the
yield to maturity (YTM) as a discount factor. Otherwise, the modified duration of the
portfolio will not match the modified duration of the liability.

Immunization for multiple liabilities is generally achieved by rebalancing, in which bonds

are sold, thus freeing up some cash for the current liability, then using the remaining cash to
buy bonds that will immunize the portfolio for the later liabilities.
There are several requirements for immunizing multiple liabilities:
 present value of assets must equal the present value of liabilities
 the composite portfolio duration must equal the composite liabilities duration
 the distribution of durations of individual assets must range wider than the distribution
of liabilities

Contingent Immunization
Contingent immunization combines active management with a small portion of invested
funds and using the remaining portion for an immunized bond portfolio that ensures a floor
on the return, while also allowing for a possibly higher return through active management.
The target rate is the lower potential return that is acceptable to the investor, equal to the
market rate for the immunized portion of the portfolio. The cushion spread (aka excess
achievable return) is the difference in the rate of return if the entire portfolio was
immunized over the rate that will be earned because only part of the portfolio will be
immunized; the rest will be actively managed in the hope of achieving a return that is greater
than if the entire portfolio was immunized.
The safety margin is the cushion, the part that is actively managed. As long as it is positive,
the management can continue to actively manage part of the portfolio. However, if the safety
margin declines to 0, then active management ends and only the immunized bond portfolio is
maintained. If long-term rates decline, then the safety margin is increased, but any increases
in the interest rate will decrease the safety margin, possibly to 0.
The trigger point is the yield level at which the immunization mode becomes necessary in
order to achieve the target rate or the target return. At this point, active management ceases.

 Rebalancing
Classical immunization may not work if the shifting yield curve is not parallel or if the
duration of assets and liabilities diverge, since durations change as interest rates change and
as time passes.
Because duration is the average time to receive ½ of the present value of a bond's cash flow,
duration changes with time, even if there are no changes in interest rates. If interest rates do
change, then duration will shorten if interest rates increase or lengthen if interest rates
decrease.
Hence, to maintain immunization, the portfolio must be rebalanced, which involves bond
swaps: adding or subtracting bonds to appropriately modify the bond portfolio duration. Risk
can also be mitigated with futures, options, or swaps. The primary drawback to rebalancing is
that transaction costs are incurred in buying or selling assets. Hence, transaction costs must
be weighed against market risk when bond and liability durations diverge.
Rebalancing can be done with a focus strategy, buying bonds with a duration that matches
the liability. Another strategy is thebullet strategy, where bonds are selected that cluster
around the duration of the liabilities. A dumbbell strategy can also be pursued, in which
bonds of both shorter and longer durations than the liabilities are selected, so that any
changes in duration will be covered.
To immunize multiple period liabilities, specific bonds can be purchased that match the
specific liabilities or a bond portfolio with the duration equal to the average duration of the
liabilities can be selected. Although a bond portfolio with an average duration is easier to
manage, buying bonds for each individual liability generally works better. If a portfolio
requires frequent rebalancing, a better strategy may be matching cash flows to liabilities
instead of durations. Some bond managers use combination matching, or horizon matching,
matching early liabilities with cash flows and later liabilities with immunization strategies.

 Fundamental Valuation Strategies

Another common strategy to benefit from the bond market is to find and buy underpriced
bonds and sell overpriced bonds, based on a fundamental analysis of what prices should be.
The intrinsic value of the bond is calculated by discounting the cash flows by a required rate
of return that generally depends on market interest rates plus a risk premium for taking on the
debt. Naturally, the calculations must take into account any embedded options and the credit
quality of the issuer and the credit ratings of the bond issue. The required rate of return is
equal to the following:

Required Rate of Return = Risk-Free Interest Rate + Default Risk Premium + Liquidity
Premium + Option Adjusted Spread
Bond managers incorporate the basic characteristics of a bond and its market into models,
such as multiple discriminate analysis or CDS analysis, to forecast changes in the credit
spread. Option pricing models may also be used to determine the value of embedded options
or to forecast changes in the option adjusted spread. Note that forecasts are not nearly as
important when using fundamental valuation strategies, since buying bonds that are cheaper
because of a temporary mispricing by the market and selling the same type of bonds when the
market starts pricing the bonds at their intrinsic value will yield better results regardless of
how the bond market changes.

A pure yield pickup strategy (aka substitution swap) is based on the yield pickup swap,
which takes advantage of temporary mispricing of bonds, buying bonds that are underpriced
relative to the same types of bonds held in the portfolio, thus paying a higher yield, and
selling those In the portfolio that are overpriced, which, consequently, pay a lower yield. A
pure yield pickup strategy can profit from either a higher coupon income or a higher yield to
maturity, or both. However, the bonds must be identical in regard to durations, call features,
and default ratings and any other feature that may affect its market value; otherwise, the
different prices will probably reflect the differences in credit quality or features rather than a
mispricing by the market. Nowadays, it is more difficult to profit from yield pickup strategies,
since quant firms are constantly scouring the investment universe for mispriced securities.
A tax swap allows an investor to sell bonds at a loss to offset taxes on capital gains and then
repurchase the bonds later with similar but not identical characteristics. The bonds cannot be
identical because of wash sale rules that apply to bonds as well stocks. However, the wash
sale criteria that apply to bonds are less defined, allowing the purchase of similar bonds with
only minor differences.

An intermarket-spread swap is undertaken when the current yield spread between 2 groups
of bonds is out of line with their historical yield spread and that the spread is expected to
narrow within the investment horizon of the bond portfolio. Spreads exist between bonds of
different credit quality, and between differences in features, such as being callable or non-
callable, or putable or non-putable. For instance, callable/non-callable bond swaps may be
profitable if the spread between the 2 is expected to narrow as interest rates decline. As
interest rates decline, callable bonds are limited to their call price, since, if the bonds are
called, that is what the bondholder will receive. Hence, the price spread between callable and
noncallable bonds is narrower during high interest rates and wider during low interest rates.
Thus, as interest rates decline, the callable/noncallable spread increases.

'Bond Valuation'
A technique for determining the fair value of a particular bond. Bond valuation includes
calculating the present value of the bond's future interest payments, also known as its cash
flow, and the bond's value upon maturity, also known as its face value or par value. Because a
bond's par value and interest payments are fixed, an investor uses bond valuation to
determine what rate of return is required for an investment in a particular bond to be
worthwhile.
Bond valuation is only one of the factors investors consider in determining whether to invest
in a particular bond. Other important considerations are: the issuing company's
creditworthiness, which determines whether a bond is investment-grade or junk; the bond's
price appreciation potential, as determined by the issuing company's growth prospects; and
prevailing market interest rates and whether they are projected to go up or down in the future.

The fundamental principle of bond valuation is that the bond's value is equal to the present
value of its expected (future) cash flows. The valuation process involves the following three
steps:
1. Estimate the expected cash flows.
2. Determine the appropriate interest rate or interest rates that should be used to discount the
cash flows.
3. Calculate the present value of the expected cash flows found in step one by using the
interest rate or interest rates determined in step two.

Bonds are long-term debt securities that are issued by corporations and government
entities. Purchasers of bonds receive periodic interest payments, called coupon payments,
until maturity at which time they receive the face value of the bond and the last coupon
payment. Most bonds pay interest semiannually. The Bond Indenture or Loan
Contract specifies the features of the bond issue. The following terms are used to describe
bonds.
Par or Face Value
The par or face value of a bond is the amount of money that is paid to the bondholders at
maturity. For most bonds the amount is $1000. It also generally represents the amount of
money borrowed by the bond issuer.
Coupon Rate
The coupon rate, which is generally fixed, determines the periodic coupon or interest
payments. It is expressed as a percentage of the bond's face value. It also represents the
interest cost of the bond issue to the issuer.
Coupon Payments
The coupon payments represent the periodic interest payments from the bond issuer to the
bondholder. The annual coupon payment is calculated be multiplying the coupon rate by the
bond's face value. Since most bonds pay interest semiannually, generally one half of the
annual coupon is paid to the bondholders every six months.
Maturity Date
The maturity date represents the date on which the bond matures, i.e., the date on which the
face value is repaid. The last coupon payment is also paid on the maturity date.
Original Maturity
The time remaining until the maturity date when the bond was issued.
Remaining Maturity
The time currently remaining until the maturity date.
Call Date
For bonds which are callable, i.e., bonds which can be redeemed by the issuer prior to
maturity, the call date represents the date at which the bond can be called.
Call Price
The amount of money the issuer has to pay to call a callable bond. When a bond first
becomes callable, i.e., on the call date, the call price is often set to equal the face value plus
one year's interest.
Required Return
The rate of return that investors currently require on a bond.
Yield to Maturity
The rate of return that an investor would earn if he bought the bond at its current market price
and held it until maturity. Alternatively, it represents the discount rate which equates the
discounted value of a bond's future cash flows to its current market price.
Yield to Call
The rate of return that an investor would earn if he bought a callable bond at its current
market price and held it until the call date given that the bond was called on the call date.
The box below illustrates the cash flows for a semiannual coupon bond with a face value of
$1000, a 10% coupon rate, and 15 years remaining until maturity. (Note that the annual
coupon is $100 which is calculated by multiplying the 10% coupon rate times the $1000 face
value. Thus, the periodic coupon payments equal $50 every six months.)
Bond Cash Flows

Because most bonds pay interest semi annually, the discussion of Bond Valuation presented
here focuses on semiannual coupon bonds.

Bond Duration
DEFINITION of 'Duration' -A measure of the sensitivity of the price (the value of principal)
of a fixed-income investment to a change in interest rates. Duration is expressed as a number
of years. Rising interest rates mean falling bond prices, while declining interest rates mean
rising bond prices.
First, it's important to understand how interest rates and bond prices are related. The key
point to remember is that rates and prices move in opposite directions. When interest rates
rise, the prices of traditional bonds fall, and vice versa. So if you own a bond that is paying a
3% interest rate (in other words, yielding 3%) and rates rise, that 3% yield doesn't look as
attractive. It's lost some appeal (and value) in the marketplace.
Duration is a way of measuring how much bond prices are likely to change if and when
interest rates move. In more technical terms, duration is measurement of interest rate risk.
Duration is measured in years. Generally, the higher the duration of a bond or a bond fund
(meaning the longer you need to wait for the payment of coupons and return of principal), the
more its price will drop as interest rates rise.

How Duration Affects the Price of Your Bonds

So how does this actually work? As a general rule, for every 1% increase or decrease in
interest rates, a bond's price will change approximately 1% in the opposite direction for every
year of duration.
For example, if a bond has a duration of five years and interest rates increase by 1%, the
bond's price will decline by approximately 5%. Conversely, if a bond has a duration of five
years and interest rates fall by 1%, the bond's price will increase by approximately 5%.
Understanding duration is particularly important for those who are planning on selling their
bonds prior to maturity. If you purchase a 10-year bond that yields 4% for $1,000, you will
still receive $40 dollars each year and will get back your $1,000 principal after 10 years
regardless of what happens with interest rates. If, however, you sell that bond before maturity
(or if you are invested in a fund that buys and sells bonds while you own it) then the price of
your bonds will be affected by changes in rates.

Why Duration Is Helpful

Because every bond and bond fund has a duration, those numbers can be a useful tool that
you and your financial professional can use to compare bonds and bond funds as you
construct and adjust your investment portfolio.
If, for example, you expect rates to rise, it may make sense to focus on shorter-duration
investments (in other words, those that have less interest-rate risk). Or, in this sort of
environment, you may want to focus on bonds that take on different types of risks, such as
high yield bonds, which are less affected by movements in interest rates.
It's also important to remember that duration is only one of many factors that could affect the
price of your bonds. And that's why we think it's important to work with a financial
professional who can help you construct a portfolio that's built to meet your individual goals.

Elements of Duration
The concept of duration is straightforward: It measures how quickly a bond will repay its true
cost. The longer it takes, the greater exposure the bond has to changes in the interest rate
environment.
Here are some of factors that affect a bond's duration:
 Time to maturity: Consider two bonds that each cost $1,000 and yield 5%. A bond
that matures in one year would more quickly repay its true cost than a bond that
matures in 10 years. As a result, the shorter-maturity bond would have a lower
duration and less price risk. The longer the maturity, the higher the duration.
 Coupon rate: A bond's payment is a key factor in calculating duration. If two
otherwise identical bonds pay different coupons, the bond with the higher coupon will
pay back its original cost quicker than the lower-yielding bond. The higher the coupon,
the lower the duration.

Using Duration to Your Advantage

Knowing the duration of a bond, or a portfolio of bonds, gives an investor an advantage in
two important ways:
 Speculating on interest rates: Investors who anticipate a decline in market interest
rates - as a result of, for instance, a stimulative rate cut by the Federal Reserve -
would try to increase the average duration of their bond portfolio. Likewise, investors
 who expect the Fed to raise interest rates would want to lower their average duration.
 Matching risk to your tastes: When selecting from bonds of different maturities and
yields, or comparing bond mutual funds, duration allows you to quickly determine
which bonds are more sensitive to changes in market interest rates, and to what
degree.

Types of Duration
There are four main types of duration calculations, each of which differ in the way they
account for factors such as interest rate changes and the bond's embedded options or
redemption features. The four types of durations are
 Macaulay duration
 modified duration
 effective duration and
 Key-rate duration.

Macaulay Duration
The formula usually used to calculate a bond\'s basic duration is the Macaulay
duration, which was created by Frederick Macaulay in 1938, although it was not
commonly used until the 1970s. Macaulay duration is calculated by adding the
results of multiplying the present value of each cash flow by the time it is
received and dividing by the total price of the security. The formula for
Macaulay duration is as follows:

n = number of cash flows

t = time to maturity
C = cash flow
i = required yield
M = maturity (par) value
P = bond price

Remember that bond price equals:

So the following is an expanded version of Macaulay duration:

Example 1: Betty holds a five-year bond with a par value of $1,000 and coupon
rate of 5%. For simplicity, let's assume that the coupon is paid annually and that
interest rates are 5%. What is the Macaulay duration of the bond?

= 4.55 years

Fortunately, if you are seeking the Macaulay duration of a zero-coupon bond,

the duration would be equal to the bond's maturity, so there is no calculation
required.
Modified Duration
Modified duration is a modified version of the Macaulay model that accounts
for changing interest rates. Because they affect yield, fluctuating interest rates
will affect duration, so this modified formula shows how much the duration
changes for each percentage change in yield. For bonds without any
embedded
features, bond price and interest rate move in opposite directions, so there is an
inverse relationship between modified duration and an approximate 1% change
in yield. Because the modified duration formula shows how a bond's duration
changes in relation to interest rate movements, the formula is appropriate for
investors wishing to measure the volatility of a particular bond. Modified
duration is calculated as the following:

OR

Let's continue to analyze Betty's bond and run through the calculation of her
modified duration. Currently her bond is selling at $1,000, or par, which
translates
to a yield to maturity of 5%. Remember that we calculated a Macaulay duration
of 4.55.

= 4.33 years

Our example shows that if the bond's yield changed from 5% to 6%, the
duration of the bond will decline to 4.33 years. Because it calculates how
duration will change when interest increases by 100 basis points, the modified
duration will always be lower than the Macaulay duration.

Effective Duration
The modified duration formula discussed above assumes that the expected cash
 flows will remain constant, even if prevailing interest rates change; this is also
the case for option-free fixed-income securities. On the other hand, cash flows
from securities with embedded options or redemption features will change when
interest rates change. For calculating the duration of these types of bonds,
effective duration is the most appropriate.

Effective duration requires the use of binomial trees to calculate

the option-adjusted spread (OAS). There are entire courses built around just
those two topics, so the calculations involved for effective duration are beyond
the scope of this tutorial. There are, however, many programs available to
investors wishing to calculate effective duration.

Key-Rate Duration
The final duration calculation to learn is key-rate duration, which calculates the
spot durations of each of the 11 "key" maturities along a spot rate curve. These
11 key maturities are at the three-month and one, two, three, five, seven, 10, 15,
20, 25, and 30-year portions of the curve.

In essence, key-rate duration, while holding the yield for all other maturities
constant, allows the duration of a portfolio to be calculated for a one-basis-point
change in interest rates. The key-rate method is most often used for portfolios
such as the bond ladder, which consists of fixed-income securities with differing
maturities. Here is the formula for key-rate duration:

The sum of the key-rate durations along the curve is equal to the effective
duration.

Bond Return
There are several ways of describing a rate of return on bond. Some of them are:
 Holding period return

 The current yield

 Yield to maturity

Holding Period Return

 It is a return in which an investor buys a bond and liquidates it in the market after holding it for a
definite period of time.

 The formula for calculating holding period of return is as follows:

  Price gain + Coupon payment
Purchase price

 It can be calculated on a daily, monthly or annual basis.

The Current Yield

 It is a measure through which the investors can easily figure out the rate of cash flow on the
investments made by them every year.
Annual Coupon Payment
 It is calculated as: Purchase Price

Yield to Maturity
 It is the single discount factor that makes the present value of future cash flows from a bond
equivalent to the current price of the bond.

 The following assumptions are used to calculate yield to maturity:

 There should not be any default.

 The interest payments are reinvested at yield to maturity.

 The investor has to hold the bond till its maturity.

 It is calculated as:

Present value Coupon1 Coupon2 (Couponn + Face value)

= + +....+
(1+y)1 (1+y) (1+y)n
2

Bond Value Theorems

 These are evolved on the basis of three factors:

(i) Coupon rate (ii) years to maturity (iii) expected rate of return.
 The five bond value theorems are as follows:

 Theorem 1: If the bond’s market price increases then its yield declines and vice versa.

 Theorem 2: If the bond’s yield remains constant over its life, then the discount or
premium depends on the maturity period.

 Theorem 3: If the yield remains constant over its life, the discount and premium on bonds
will decline at an increasing rate as its life gets shorter.

 Theorem 4: A raise in the bond’s price for a decline in the bond’s yield is greater than the
fall in the bond’s price for a raise in the yield.
  Theorem 5: The percentage change in the bond’s price owing to change in its yield will be
small if the coupon rate is high.

Bond Duration
 It measures the time structure and interest rate risk of the bond.
T
P (C )
 The formula for calculating the duration is as follows: D=
v t
×t
t =1 P0
Where D = Duration
C = Cashflow
R = Current yield to maturity
T = Number of years
Pv(ct) = Present value of the cash flow
P0 = Sum of the present value of cash flow

Immunisation
 It is a technique that makes a bondholder relatively certain about the promised cash stream.

 An immunisation can be achieved by reinvesting the coupons in the bonds that offer higher
interest rate.

Concept of Stock Return

 It is a return which includes current income and capital gain that is caused by increase in the price.

 The current income and capital gain are expressed as a percentage of the money invested in the
beginning.

 An investor before investing in securities must properly analyze the returns associated with the
securities.

Anticipated Return
 It is the expected rate of return an investor will get in future on his investments.

 The anticipated rate of return can be calculated with the help of probability.

 Probability refers to the likelihood occurrence of an event.

N

 It can be calculated as:

E(R)  (Probability Pt ) (Return R t )
= t=1

Multiple Year Holding Period

 If the holding period is more than a year, it is called multiple year holding period.
  The formula for calculating the multiple year holding period is as follows:
 N [(e )d / e] (1 + g)n   (P / E) [ (e )(1 + g)N + 1
] 
P0 =  0
(1 + r)n  + (1 +0
r)N 
 
n = 1   

where g = annual expected growth in earnings, dividends and price

e = most recent earnings per share
d / e = dividend pay out
r = required rate of return
P / E = price-earnings ratio
N = holding period in years
Constant Growth Model
 The basic assumption of this model is that the dividends are expected to grow at the same rate.
D1
 It is calculated as: P 0=
rg

where P0 = Present value of the stock

r = Required rate of return
g = Growth rate
D1 = Next year’s dividend
Two Stage Growth Model
 It is an extended form of constant growth model, where the growth stages are divided into:

 A period of remarkable growth

 A period of constant growth

 It is calculated as:
N
D (1 + g ) t D 1
P0 =   0 s
t + N+1
×
(1 + r ) (r - g ) (1 + r ) N

where t=1
D0 = Divisdend of the prevsious perniod s
gs and gn = Above normal and normal growth rate
rs = Required rate of return
N = Period of above normal growth
Valuation through Price-Earnings Ratio
 P/E ratio indicates price per rupee of share earnings.

 The advantages of price earnings ratio are as:

 It helps in comparing the stock prices that have different earnings per share.

 It helps in estimating the stocks of those companies that do not pay the dividends.

 The formula for calculating P/E ratio is as:

d/e
P/E =
r – ROE (1 – d/e)
Preferred Stock Valuation
 Preferred stocks are those stocks that provide a steady rate of return.

 Preferred stocks can be calculated with the help of the following formula:
D
P0 =
r
where D = dividend paid
r = required rate of return

Preference Shares
Meaning Of Preference Shares
Preference shares are those, which enjoy the following two preferential rights:
1. Dividend at a fixed rate or a fixed amount on these shares before any dividend on equity
shares.
2. Return of preference share capital before the return of equity share capital at the time of
winding up of the company.

Preference shares also have a right to participate or in part in excess profits left after been
paid to equity shares, or has a right to participate in the premium at the time of redemption.
But these shares do not carry voting rights.

Features of Preference Shares:

Preference share have the following features:
1. Preference shares are long-term source of finance.
2. The dividend payable on preference shares is generally higher than debenture interest.
3. Preference shareholders get fixed rate of dividend irrespective of the volume of profit.
4. It is known as hybrid security because it also bears some characteristics of debentures.
5. Preference dividend is not tax deductible expenditure.
6. Preference shareholders do not have any voting rights.
7. Preference shareholders have the preferential right for repayment of capital in case of
winding up of the company.
8. Preference shareholders also enjoy preferential right to receive dividend.

Types Of Preference Shares

Following are the major types of preference shares:

1. Cumulative Preference Shares

When unpaid dividends on preference shares are treated as arrears and are carried forward to
subsequent years, then such preference shares are known as cumulative preference shares. It
means unpaid dividend on such shares is accumulated till it is paid off in full.

2. Non-cumulative Preference Shares

Non-cumulative preference shares are those type of preference shares, which have right to get
fixed rate of dividend out of the profits of current year only. They do not carry the right to
receive arrears of dividend. If a company fails to pay dividend in a particular year then that
need not to be paid out of future profits.

3. Redeemable Preference Shares

Those preference shares, which can be redeemed or repaid after the expiry of a fixed period
or after giving the prescribed notice as desired by the company, are known as redeemable
preference shares. Terms of redemption are announced at the time of issue of such shares.

4. Non-redeemable Preference Shares

Those preference shares, which can not be redeemed during the life time of the company, are
known as non-redeemable preference shares. The amount of such shares is paid at the time of
liquidation of the company.

5. Participating Preference Shares

Those preference shares, which have right to participate in any surplus profit of the company
after paying the equity shareholders, in addition to the fixed rate of their dividend, are called
participating preference shares.

6. Non-participating Preference Shares

Preference shares, which have no right to participate on the surplus profit or in any surplus on
liquidation of the company, are called non-participating preference shares.

7. Convertible Preference Shares

Those preference shares, which can be converted into equity shares at the option of the
holders after a fixed period according to the terms and conditions of their issue, are known as
convertible preference shares.

8. Non-convertible Preference Shares

Preference shares, which are not convertible into equity shares, are called non-convertible
preference shares.

The advantages of Preference shares are as follows:

(A) Advantages from Company point of view: The company has the following advantages by issue
of preference shares.
I. Fixed Return: The dividend payable on preference shares is fixed that is usually lower than that
payable on equity shares. Thus they help the company in maximizing the profits available for
dividend to equity shareholders.
II. No Voting Right: Preference shareholders have no voting right on matters not directly affecting
their right hence promoters or management can retain control over the affairs of the company.
III. Flexibility in Capital Structure: The company can maintain flexibility in its capital structure by
issuing redeemable preference shares as they can be redeemed under terms of issue.
IV. No Burden on Finance: Issue of preference shares does not prove a burden on the finance of the
company because dividends are paid only if profits are available otherwise no dividend.
V. No Charge on Assets: No-payment of dividend on preference shares does not create a charge on the
assets of the company as is in the case of debentures.
VI. Widens Capital Market: The issue of preference shares widens the scope of capital market as they
provide the safety to the investors as well as a fixed rate of return. If company does not issue
preference shares, it will not be able to attract the capital from such moderate type of investors.

(B) Advantages from Investors point of view: Investors in preference shares have the following
advantages:
I. Regular Fixed Income: Investors in cumulative preference shares get a fixed rate of dividend on
preference share regularly even if there is no profit. Arrears of dividend, if any, is paid in the year's) of
profits.
II. Preferential Rights: Preference shares carry preferential right as regard to payment of dividend and
preferential as regards repayment of capital in case of winding up of company. Thus they enjoy the
minimum risk.
III. Voting Right for Safety of Interest: Preference shareholders are given voting rights in matters
directly affecting their interest. It means, their interest is safeguarded.
IV. Lesser Capital Losses: As the preference shareholders enjoy the preferential right of repayment
of their capital in case of winding up of company, it saves them from capital losses.
V. Fair Security: Preference share are fair securities for the shareholders during depression periods
when the profits of the company are down.

The Disadvantages of Preference Shares are as follows: The important disadvantages of the issue of
preference shares are as below:
(A) Demerits for companies: The following disadvantages to the issuing company are associated
with the issue of preference shares.
I. Higher Rate of Dividend: Company is to pay higher dividend on these shares than the prevailing
rate of interest on debentures of bonds. Thus, it usually increases the cost of capital for the company.
II. Financial Burden: Most of the preference shares are issued cumulative which means that all the
arrears of preference dividend must be paid before anything can be paid to equity shareholders. The
company is under an obligation to pay dividend on such shares. It thus, reduces the profits for equity
shareholders.
III. Dilution of Claim over Assets: The issue of preference shares involves dilution of equity
shareholders claim over the assets of the company because preference shareholders have the
preferential right on the assets of the company in case of winding up.
IV. Adverse effect on credit-worthiness: The credit worthiness of the company is seriously affected
by the issue of preference shares. The creditors may anticipate that the continuance of dividend on
preference shares and suspension of dividend on equity capital may depreive them of the chance of
getting back their principal in full in the event of dissolution of the company, because preference
capital has the preference right over the assets of the company.
V. Tax disadvantage: The taxable income is not reduced by the amount of preference dividend while
in case of debentures or bonds, the interest paid to them is deductible in full.

(B) Demerits for Investors: Main disadvantages of preference shares to investors are:
I. No Voting Right: The preference shareholders do not enjoy any voting right except in matters
directed affecting their interest.
II. Fixed Income: The dividend on preference shares other than participating preference shares is fixed
even if the company earns higher profits.
III. No claim over surplus: The preferential shareholders have no claim over the surplus. They can
only ask for the return of their capital investment in the company.
IV. No Guarantee of Assets: Company provides no security to the preference capital as is made in the
case of debentures. Thus their interests are not protected by the assets of the company.

Difference between preference shares and ordinary shares

preference Shares ordinary Shares

Shareholders have a preferential right in terms of Shareholders are entitled to dividends as well as
entitlement to receipt of dividends as well as residual economic value should the company
repayment of capital in the event of the company unwind (after bondholders and preference
being wound up. shareholders are paid).
They offer shareholders a fixed dividend each Ordinary shareholder dividends can be higher than
year. preference shareholder dividends as dividends for
ordinary shares are not fixed.
Shareholders have no voting rights and in the Ordinary shareholders have the right to vote at
event of non-payment of dividends may have a Annual General Meetings and they have the
cumulative dividend feature that requires all ability to elect the Board of Directors of a
dividends to be paid before any payment of company
common share.
 Module 5
Concept of Fundamental Analysis
 It is the examination of various factors such as earnings of the company, growth rate and risk
exposure that affects the value of shares of a company.

 Fundamental analysis consists of:

 Economic analysis

 Industry analysis

 Company analysis

Economic Analysis
 It is the analysis of various macro economic factors that have a significant bearing on the stock
market.

 The various macro economic factors are:

 Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

 Savings and investment

 Inflation

 Interest rates

 Budget

 Tax structure

Economic Forecasting
 Forecasting the future state of the economy is needed for decision making.

 The following forecasting methods are used for analyzing the state of the economy:

 Economic indicators: Indicate the present status, progress or slow down of the economy.

 Leading indicators: Indicate what is going to happen in the economy. Popular leading
indicators are fiscal policy, monetary policy, rainfall and capital investment.

 Coincidental indicators: Indicate what the economy is — GDP, industrial production,

i
  Lagging indicators: Changes occurring in leading and coincidental indicators are
reflected in lagging indicators. Unemployment rate, consumer price index and flow of
foreign funds are examples of such indicators.

 Diffusion index: It is a consensus index, which has been constructed by the National
Bureau of Economic Research in USA.

Industry Analysis
 It is used to analyze the performance of the industries over the years.

 An industry is a group of firms that are engaged in the production of similar goods and services.

 Industries can be classified into:

 Growth industry: Has high rate of earnings and growth is independent of business cycle.

 Cyclical industry: Growth and profitability of the industry move along with the business
cycle.

 Defensive industry: It is an industry which defies the business cycle.

 Cyclical growth industry: It is an industry that is cyclical and at the same time growing.

 An investor must analyze the following factors:

 Growth of the industryØ Cost structure and profitability

 Nature of the product Ø Nature of the competition

 Government policy

Company Analysis
 In company analysis, the growth of the company is analyzed by the investor so that the present
and future value of the shares can be known.

 The present and future value of shares is affected by a following number of factors such as:

 Competitive edge of the company

 Market share

 Growth of sales

 Stability of the sales

Financial Analysis
 It involves analyzing the financial statements of the company.

 The financial statements of the company include:

 Balance sheet: It shows the status of a company’s financial position at the end of the
year.

 Profit and loss account: It shows the profit and loss made by the company during a
period.

Analysis of Financial Statements

 It helps the investor in determining the financial position and progress of the company.

 The various simple analyses that are performed to ascertain the financial position of the company
are:

 Comparative financial statement: In this , data from the current year’s balance sheet is
compared with similar data from the previous year’s balance sheet.

 Trend analysis: It shows the growth and decline of sale and profit over the years.

 Common size income statement: It shows each item of expense as a percentage of net
sales.

 Fund flow analysis: It is a statement of the sources and application of funds.

 Cash flow analysis: It shows cash inflow and outflow of a company during the year.

 Ratio analysis: It is the numerical relationship between the two items.

Technical Analysis
 A process of identifying trend reversals at an earlier stage to formulate the buying and
selling strategy.

 Technical analyst study the relationship between price-volume and supply-demand for the
overall market and the individual stock.

Assumptions
 The market value of the scrip is determined by the interaction of supply and demand.
  The market discounts everything.

 The market always moves in trend.

 History repeats itself. It is true to the stock market also.

Origin of Technical Analysis

 Technical analysis is based on the doctrine given by Charles H. Dow in 1884, in the Wall
Street Journal.

 A. J. Nelson, a close friend of Charles Dow formalised the Dow theory for economic forecasting.

 Analysts used charts of individual stocks and moving averages in the early 1920s.

Dow Theory
 Dow developed his theory to explain the movement of the indices of Dow Jones Averages.

 The theory is based on certain hypothesis:

 The first hypothesis is that no single individual or buyer can influence the major trend of
the market.

 The second hypothesis is that market discounts every thing.

 The third hypothesis is that the theory is not infallible.

 According to Dow theory the trend is divided into

 Primary

 Intermediate/Secondary

 Short term/Minor

Primary Trend
 The security price trend may be either increasing or decreasing.

 When the market exhibits the increasing trend, it is called ‘bull market’ and when it exhibits a
decreasing trend it is called ‘bear market’.

Bull Market
 The bull market shows three clear-cut peaks.

 Each peak is higher than the previous peak.

 The bottoms are also higher than the previous bottoms.

Bear Market
 The market exhibits falling trend.

 The peaks are lower than the previous peaks.

 The bottoms are also lower than the previous bottoms.

The Secondary Trend

 The secondary trend or the intermediate trend moves against the main trend and leads to
correction.

 The correction would be 33% to 66% of the earlier fall or increase.

 Compared to the time taken for the primary trend, secondary trend is swift and quicker.

Minor Trends
 Minor trends or tertiary moves are called random wriggles.

 They are simply the daily price fluctuations.

 Minor trend tries to correct the secondary trend movement.

Support and Resistance Level

 In the support level, the fall in the price may be halted for the time being or it may result even in
price reversal.

 In this level, the demand for the particular scrip is expected.

 In the resistance level, the supply of scrip would be greater than the demand.

 Further rise in price is prevented.

 Selling pressure is greater and the increase in price is halted for the time being.

Indicators
Volume of Trade
 Volume expands along with the bull market and narrows down in the bear market.

 Technical analyst use volume as an excellent method of confirming the trend.

Breadth of the Market

 The net difference between the number of stock advanced and declined during the same period is
the breadth of the market.
  A cumulative index of net differences measures the market breadth.

Short sales
 This is a technical indicator also known as short interest.

 It refers to the selling of shares that are not owned.

 They show the general situations.

Moving Average
 The word moving means that the body of data moves ahead to include the recent observation.

 The moving average indicates the underlying trend in the scrip.

 For identifying short-term trend, 10 to 30 days moving averages are used.

 In the case of medium-term trend 50 to 125 days are adopted.

 To identify long-term trend 200 days moving average is used.

Oscillators
Oscillator shows the share price movement across a reference point from one extreme to another. The
momentum indicates:
 Overbought and oversold conditions of the scrip or the market.

 Signaling the possible trend reversal.

 Rise or decline in the momentum.

Relative Strength Index (RSI)

 RSI was developed by Wells Wilder.

 Identifies the inherent technical strength and weakness of a particular scrip or market. RSI can be
calculated for a scrip by adopting the following formula
100 
 100 

 1  Rs 
RSI
= Average gain per day
Rs = Average loss per day

 If the share price is falling and RSI is rising, a divergence is said to have occurred.

 Divergence indicates the turning point of the market.

Rate of Change (ROC)
  ROC measures the rate of change between the current price and the price ‘n’ number of days in the
past.

 ROC helps to find out the overbought and oversold positions in a scrip.

 ROC can be calculated by two methods.

 In the first method current closing price is expressed as a percentage of the 12 days or
weeks in past.

 In the second method, the percentage variation between the current price and the price 12
days in the past is calculated.

Charts
Charts are graphic presentations of the stock prices. These also have the following uses:
 Spots the current trend for buying and selling

 Indicates the probable future action of the market by projection

 Shows the past historic movement

 Indicates the important areas of support and resistance

Point and Figure Charts

 These charts are one-dimensional and there is no indication of time or volume.

 The price changes in relation to previous prices are shown.

 The change of price direction can be interpreted.

Some inherent disadvantages are:

 They do not show the intra-day price movement.

 Only whole numbers are taken into consideration, resulting in loss of information
regarding minor fluctuations.

 Volume is not mentioned in the chart.

Bar Charts
 The bar chart is the simplest and most commonly used tool of a technical analyst.

 A dot is entered to represent the highest price at which the stock is traded on the day, week or
month.
  Another dot is entered to indicate the lowest price on that particular date.

 A line is drawn to connect both the points.

 A horizontal nub is drawn to mark the closing price.

Chart Patterns
 V Formation Ø Tops and bottoms

 Double top and bottom Ø Head and shoulders

 Inverted head and shoulders

Triangles
 The triangle formation is easy to identify and popular in technical analysis

 The different triangles are:

 Symmetrical

 Ascending

 Descending—inverted
Module 6
Efficient Market Theory
 Efficient market theory states that the share price fluctuations are random and do not follow any
regular pattern.

 The expectations of the investors regarding the future cash flows are translated or reflected on the
share prices.

 The accuracy and the quickness in which the market translates the expectation into prices are
termed as market efficiency.

Two Types of Market Efficiencies

 Operational efficiency: Operational efficiency is measured by factors like time taken to execute
the order and the number of bad deliveries. Efficient market hypothesis does not deal with this
efficiency.

 Informational efficiency: It is a measure of the swiftness or the market’s reaction to new

information.

 New information in the form of economic reports, company analysis, political statements
and announcement of new industrial policy is received by the market frequently.

 Security prices adjust themselves very rapidly and accurately.

History of the Random-Walk Theory

 French mathematician, Louis Bachelier in 1900 wrote a paper suggesting that security price
fluctuations were random.

 In 1953, Maurice Kendall in his paper reported that stock price series is a wandering one.

 Each successive change is independent of the previous one.

 In 1970, Fama stated that efficient markets fully reflect the available information.

Forms of Efficiencies
They are divided into three categories:
 Weak form

 Semi-strong form

 Strong form

The level of information being considered in the market is the basis for this segregation.
Market Efficiency
Weak Form of EMH
 Current prices reflect all information found in the volumes.

 Future prices can not be predicted by analysing the prices from the past.

 Buying and selling activities of the information traders lead the market price to align with the
intrinsic value.

Empirical Tests
 Filter rule:

 According to this strategy if a price of a security rises by atleast x per cent,

investor should buy and hold the stock until its price declines by atleast x per cent
from a subsequent high.

 Several studies have found that gains produced by the filter rules were much
below normal than the gains of the simple buy and hold strategy adopted by the
investor.

 Runs test:

 It is used to find out whether the series of price movements have occurred by
chance.

 A run is an uninterrupted sequence of the same observation.

 Studies using runs test have suggested that runs in the price series of stocks are
not significantly from the run in the series of random numbers.

 Serial correlation:

 Serial correlation or auto-correlation measures the correlation co-efficient in a

series of numbers with the lagging values of the same series.

 Many studies conducted on the security price changes have failed to show any
significant correlations.

Semi-Strong Form
 The security price adjusts rapidly to all publicly available information.

 The prices not only reflect the past price data, but also the available information regarding the
earnings of the corporate, dividend, bonus issue, right issue, mergers, acquisitions and so on.

 The market has to be semi-strongly efficient, timely and correct dissemination of information and
assimilation of news are needed.
Strong Form
 All information is fully reflected on security prices.

 It represents an extreme hypothesis which most observers do not expect it to be literally true.

 Information whether it is public or inside cannot be used consistently to earn superior investors’
return in the strong form.

Market Inefficiencies
 Announcement effect

 Low PE effect

 Small firm effect

 Module 7
Portfolio
 Portfolio is a combination of securities such as stocks, bonds and money market instruments.

 The process of blending together the broad asset classes so as to obtain optimum return with
minimum risk is called portfolio construction.

 Diversification of investments helps to spread risk over many assets.

Approaches in Portfolio Construction

 Traditional approach evaluates the entire financial plan of the individual.

 In the modern approach, portfolios are constructed to maximize the expected return for a given
level of risk.

Traditional Approach
The traditional approach basically deals with two major decisions:
 Determining the objectives of the portfolio

 Selection of securities to be included in the portfolio

Analysis of Constraints
 Income needs

 Need for current income

 Need for constant income

 Liquidity

 Safety of the principal

 Time horizon

 Tax consideration

 Temperament

Determination of Objectives
The common objectives are stated below:
 Current income

 Growth in income

 Capital appreciation
  Preservation of capital

Selection of Portfolio
 Objectives and asset mix

 Growth of income and asset mix

 Capital appreciation and asset mix

 Safety of principal and asset mix

 Risk and return analysis

Diversification
 According to the investor’s need for income and risk tolerance level portfolio is diversified.

 In the bond portfolio, the investor has to strike a balance between the short term and long term
bonds.

Stock Portfolio
Modern Approach
 Modern approach gives more attention to the process of selecting the portfolio.

 The selection is based on the risk and return analysis.

 Return includes the market return and dividend.

 Investors are assumed to be indifferent towards the form of return.

 The final step is asset allocation process that is to choose the portfolio that meets the requirement
of the investor.

Managing the Portfolio

 Investor can adopt passive approach or active approach towards the management of the portfolio.

 In the passive approach the investor would maintain the percentage allocation of asset classes and
keep the security holdings within its place over the established holding period.

 In the active approach the investor continuously assess the risk and return of the securities within
the asset classes and changes them accordingly.

Simple Diversification
 Portfolio risk can be reduced by the simplest kind of diversification.

 In the case of common stocks, diversification reduces the unsystematic risk or unique risk.
  But diversification cannot reduce systematic or undiversifiable risk.

Diversification and Portfolio Risk

Problems of Vast Diversification
 Purchase of poor performers

 Information inadequacy

 High research cost

 High transaction cost

The Markowitz Model

Assumptions:
 The individual investor estimates risk on the basis of variability of returns.

 Investor’s decision is solely based on the expected return and variance of returns only.

 For a given level of risk, investor prefers higher return to lower return.

 Likewise, for a given level of return investor prefers lower risk than higher risk.
N

Portfolio Return R p  X 1R 1
t =1
=

Portfolio Risk X 2Ã 2
1 1
+X2 2
22 + 2XX(rÃ
1212 1
Ã) 2
à p =

 sp = portfolio standard deviation

 X1 = percentage of total portfolio value in stock X1

 X2 = percentage of total portfolio value in stock X2

 s1 = standard deviation of stock X1

 s2 = standard deviation of stock X2

 r12 = correlation co-efficient of X1 and X2

Proportion
 X1 = s2 ¸ (s1 + s2) the precondition is that the correlation co-efficient should be –1.0, Otherwise it
is
o 2  (r σ σ )
2 12 1 2
X1 = σ 2
+ σ 2
 (2r σ σ )
1 2 12 1 2

Markowitz Efficient Frontier

Utility Analysis
 Utility is the satisfaction the investor enjoys from the portfolio return.
  The investor gets more satisfaction of more utility in X + 1 rupees than from X rupee.

 Utility increases with increase in return.

Fair Gamble
 In a fair gamble which costs Re 1, the outcomes are
A and B events.

 Event ‘A’ will yield Rs 2.

 Occurrence of B event is a dead loss i.e. 0.

 The chance of occurrence of both the events are 50 : 50.

 The expected value of investment is

(½)2 + ½(0) = Re 1.

Type of Investors
 Risk averse investor rejects a fair gamble because the disutility of the loss is greater for him than
the utility of an equivalent gain.

 Risk neutral investor is indifferent to the fair gamble.

 The risk seeking investor would select a fair gamble i.e. he would choose to invest. The expected
utility of investment is higher than the expected utility of not investing.

Leveraged Portfolios
 To have a leveraged portfolio, investor has to consider not only risky assets but also risk free
assets.

 Secondly, he should be able to borrow and lend money at a given rate of interest.

Risk Free Asset

 The features of risk free asset are:

 absence of default risk and interest risk.

 full payment of principal and interest amount.

 The return from the risk free asset is certain and the standard deviation of the return is nil.

Need for Sharpe Model

 In Markowitz model a number of co-variances have to be estimated.
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 If a financial institution buys 150 stocks, it has to estimate 11,175 i.e., (N2 – N)/2 correlation
co-efficients.

 Sharpe assumed that the return of a security is linearly related to a single index like the market
index.

 It needs 3N + 2 bits of information compared to

[N(N + 3)/2] bits of information needed in the Markowitz analysis.

Single Index Model

Stock prices are related to the market index and this relationship could be used to estimate the return of
stock.
Ri = ai + bi Rm + ei
where Ri — expected return on security i
ai — intercept of the straight line or alpha co-efficient
bi — slope of straight line or beta co-efficient
Rm — the rate of return on market index
ei — error term

Risk
 Systematic risk = bi 2 × variance of market index

= bi 2ms 2
 Unsystematic risk = Total variance – Systematic risk

ei 2 = si 2 – Systematic risk
 Thus the total risk = Systematic risk + Unsystematic risk

= bi 2 sm2 + e 2i

Portfolio Variance
 The portfolio variance can be derived

σ2 =  N x β 
2

p
 i i 2  + 
N x 2 e2


 i=1 
where i i
m
  i=1 
= variance of portfolio  
= expected variance of index
= variation in security’s return not related to the market index
xi = the portion of stock i in the portfolio

Expected Return of Portfolio

 For each security ai and bi should
N
be estimated
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 Portfolio return is the weighted average of the estimated return for each security in the portfolio.

 The weights are the respective stocks’ proportions in the portfolio.

Portfolio Beta
A portfolio’s beta value is the weighted average of the beta values of its component stocks using
relative share of them in the portfolio as weights.
N

p =  x
i
bp is the portfolio beta. i i =1

Selection of Stocks
 The selection of any stock is directly related to its excess return-beta ratio.
R i  R f

βi
where Ri = the expected return on stock i
Rf = the return on a riskless asset
bi = the expected change in the rate of return on stock i associated with one unit change
in the market return
Optimal Portfolio
 The steps for finding out the stocks to be included in the optimal portfolio are as:

 Find out the “excess return to beta” ratio for each stock under consideration

 Rank them from the highest to the lowest

 Proceed to calculate Ci for all the stocks according to the ranked order using the following
formula
i  R f )βi
N (R
σ 2
m 
σ 2
i =1 ei
Ci 2
N
β
i
2
1 + σ m
sm2 = variance of the market index i =1 σ 2
ei

sei2 = variance of a stock’s movement that is not associated with the

movement of market index i.e., stock’s unsystematic risk
 The cumulated values of Ci start declining after a particular Ci and that point is taken as
the cut-off point and that stock ratio is the cut-off ratio C.

The CAPM Theory

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  Markowitz, William Sharpe, John Lintner and Jan Mossin provided the basic structure for the
CAPM model.

 It is a model of linear general equilibrium return.

 The required rate return of an asset is having a linear relationship with asset’s beta value i.e.,
undiversifiable or systematic risk.

Assumptions
 An individual seller or buyer cannot affect the price of a stock.

 Investors make their decisions only on the basis of the expected returns, standard deviations and
covariances of all pairs of securities.

 Investors are assumed to have homogenous expectations during the decision-making period.

 The investor can lend or borrow any amount of funds at the riskless rate of interest.

 Assets are infinitely divisible.

 There is no transaction cost.

 There is no personal income tax.

 Unlimited quantum of short sales, is allowed.

Lending and Borrowing

 It is assumed that the investor could borrow or lend any amount of money at riskless rate of
interest.

Rp = Portfolio return
Xf = The proportion of funds invested in risk free assets
1 – Xf = The proportion of funds invested in risky assets
Rf = Risk free rate of return
Rm = Return on risky assets
 The expected return on the combination of risky and risk free combination is
R p = R f Xf + R m (1 – Xf )

Market Portfolio
The market portfolio comprised of all stocks in the market.
Each asset is held in proportion to its market value to the total value of all risky assets

Return
 The expected return of an efficient portfolio is
 Expected return = Price of time + (Price of risk × Amount of risk)
 Price of time is the risk free rate of return

 Price of risk is the premium amount higher and above the risk free return

Security Market Line

Capital market line does not show the risk-return trade off for other portfolios and individual securities.
Standard deviation includes the systematic and unsystematic risk.
Unsystematic risk can be diversified and it is not related to the market.
Systematic risk could be measured by beta.
The beta analysis is useful for individual securities and portfolios whether efficient or inefficient.
The SML helps to determine the expected return for a given security beta
Rm – Rf
R – R = COV
i f im/σm
σm
Evaluation of Securities with SML

 The stocks above the SML yield higher returns for the same level of risk.

 They are underpriced compared to their beta value.

P – Po + Div
i P
Ri =
o
where Pi—present price
Po—purchase price
Div—dividend.

Empirical Tests of the CAPM

 The studies generally showed a significant positive relationship between the expected return and
the systematic risk.

 But the slope of the relationship is usually less than that of predicted by the CAPM.

 The risk and return relationship appears to be linear. Empirical studies give no evidence of
significant curvature in the risk/return relationship.

 The CAPM theory implies that unsystematic risk is not relevant, but unsystematic and systematic
risks are positively related to security returns.

 The ambiguity of the market portfolio leaves the CAPM untestable.

 If the CAPM were completely valid, it should apply to all financial assets including bonds.

Present Validity of CAPM

 CAPM provides basic concepts which is truly of fundamental value.
  The CAPM has been useful in the selection of securities and portfolios.

 Given the estimate of the risk free rate, the beta of the firm, stock and the required market rate of
return, one can find out the expected returns for a firm’s security.

Arbitrage
 Arbitrage is a process of earning profit by taking advantage of differential pricing for the same
asset.

 The process generates riskless profit.

 In the security market, it is of selling security at a high price and the simultaneous purchase of the
same security.

The Assumptions
 The investors have homogenous expectations.

 The investors are risk averse and utility maximisers.

 Perfect competition prevails in the market and there is no transaction cost.

Arbitrage Portfolio
 According to the APT theory, an investor tries to find out the possibility to increase returns from
his portfolio without increasing the funds in the portfolio.

 He also likes to keep the risk at the same level.

 If X indicates the change in proportion,

DXA + DXB + DXC = 0

Factor Sensitivity
 The factor sensitivity indicates the responsiveness of a security’s return to a particular factor. The
sensitiveness of the securities to any factor is the weighted average of the sensitivities of the
securities.

 Weights are the changes made in the proportion. For example bA, bB and bC are the sensitivities, in
an arbitrage portfolio the sensitivities become zero.

bA DXA + bB DXB + bC DXC = 0

The APT Model
 According to Stephen Ross, returns of the securities are influenced by a number of macro
economic factors.
  The macro economic factors are: growth rate of industrial production, rate of inflation, spread
between long term and short term interest rates and spread between low grade and high grade
bonds. The arbitrage theory is represented by the equation:

Ri = l0 + l1 bi1 + l2 bi2 … + lj bij

where Ri = average expected return
l1 = sensitivity of return to bi1
bi1 = the beta co-efficient relevant to the particular factor
Arbitrage Pricing Equation
In a single factor model, the linear relationship between the return Ri and sensitivity bi can be given in the
following form
Ri = lo + libi
 Ri = return from stock A

 lo = riskless rate of return

 bi = the sensitivity related to the factor

 li = slope of the arbitrage pricing line

APT and CAPM

 The simplest form of APT model is consistent with the simple form of the CAPM model.

 APT is more general and less restrictive than CAPM.

 The APT model takes into account of the impact of numerous factors on the security.

 The market portfolio is well defined conceptually. In APT model, factors are not well specified.

 There is a lack of consistency in the measurements of the APT model.

 The influences of the factors are not independent of each other.

 Module 8
The Concept
 Portfolio manager evaluates his portfolio performance and identifies the sources of strength and
weakness.

 The evaluation of the portfolio provides a feed back about the performance to evolve better
management strategy.

 Evaluation of portfolio performance is considered to be the last stage of investment process.

Sharpe’s Performance Index

 Sharpe index measures the risk premium of the portfolio relative to the total amount of risk in the
portfolio.

 Risk premium is the difference between the portfolio’s average rate of return and the riskless rate
of return.

Formula for Sharpe’s Performance Index

Portfolio average return – Risk free rate of interest
=
Standard deviation of the portfolio return

R p – R f
St =
σp
Treynor’s Performance Index
 The relationship between a given market return and the fund’s return is given by the characteristic
line.

 The fund’s performance is measured in relation to the market performance.

 The ideal fund’s return rises at a faster rate than the general market performance when the market
is moving upwards.

 Its rate of return declines slowly than the market return, in the decline.

Treynor’s Index Formula

Rp = a + bRm + ep
 Rp = Portfolio return

 Rm = The market return or index return

  ep = The error term or the residual

 a, b = Co-efficients to be estimated

Beta co-efficient is treated as a measure of undiversifiable systematic risk

Portfolio average return – Riskless rate of interest
Tn =
Beta co-efficient of portfolio
Rp – Rf
T=
n
β
Jensen’s Perfpormance Index
 The absolute risk adjusted return measure was developed by Michael Jensen.

 The standard is based on the manager’s predictive ability.

Jensen Model
The basic model of Jensen is:
Rp = a + b (Rm – Rf)
 Rp = average return of portfolio

 Rf = riskless rate of interest

 a = the intercept

 b = a measure of systematic risk

 Rm = average market return

ap represents the forecasting ability of the manager. Then the equation becomes
Rp – Rf = ap + b(Rm – Rf)
or
Rp = ap + Rf + b(Rm – Rf)

Portfolio Revision
 The investor should have competence and skill in the revision of the portfolio.

 The portfolio management process needs frequent changes in the composition of stocks and
bonds.

 Mechanical methods are adopted to earn better profit through proper timing.

 Such type of mechanical methods are Formula Plans and Swaps.

Passive Management
 Passive management refers to the investor’s attempt to construct a portfolio that resembles the
overall market returns.
  The simplest form of passive management is holding the index fund that is designed to replicate a
good and well defined index of the common stock such as BSE-Sensex or NSE-Nifty.

Active Management
 Active Management is holding securities based on the forecast about the future.

 The portfolio managers who pursue active strategy with respect to market components are called
‘market timers’.

 The managers may indulge in ‘group rotations’.

The Formula Plans

The formula plans provide the basic rules and regulations for the purchase and sale of securities.

The aggressive portfolio consists more of common stocks which yield high return with high risk.

The conservative portfolio consists of more bonds that have fixed rate of returns

Assumptions of the Formula Plan

 Certain percentage of the investor’s fund is allocated to fixed income securities and common
stocks.

 The portfolio is more aggressive in the low market and defensive when the market is on the rise.

 The stocks are bought and sold whenever there is a significant change in the price.

 The investor should strictly follow the formula plan once he chooses it.

 The investors should select good stocks that move along with the market.

Advantages of the Formula Plan

 Basic rules and regulations for the purchase and sale of securities are provided.

 The rules and regulations are rigid and help to overcome human emotion.

 The investor can earn higher profits by adopting the plans.

 It controls the buying and selling of securities by the investor.

 It is useful for taking decisions on the timing of investments.

Disadvantages of the Formula Plan

  The formula plan does not help the selection of the security.

 It is strict and not flexible with the inherent problem of adjustment.

 Should be applied for long periods, otherwise the transaction cost may be high.

 Investor needs forecasting.

Rupee Cost Averaging

 Stocks with good fundamentals and long term growth prospects should be selected.

 The investor should make a regular commitment of buying shares at regular intervals.

 Reduces the average cost per share and improves the possibility of gain over a long period.

Constant Rupee Plan

 A fixed amount of money is invested in selected stocks and bonds.

 When the price of the stocks increases, the investor sells sufficient amount of stocks to return
to the original amount of the investment in stocks.

 The investor must choose action points or revaluation points.

 The action points are the times at which the investor has to readjust the values of the stocks in
the portfolio.

Constant Ratio Plan

 Constant ratio between the aggressive and conservative portfolios is maintained.

 The ratio is fixed by the investor.

 The investor’s attitude towards risk and return plays a major role in fixing the ratio.

Variable Ratio Plan

 At varying levels of market price, the proportions of the stocks and bonds change.

 Whenever the price of the stock increases, the stocks are sold and new ratio is adopted by
increasing the proportion of defensive or conservative portfolio.

 To adopt this plan, the investor is required to estimate a long term trend in the price of
the stocks.
Mutual Funds
Mutual funds are in the form of Trust (usually called Asset Management Company) that
manages the pool of money collected from various investors for investment in various
classes of assets to achieve certain financial goals. We can say that Mutual Fund is trusts
which pool the savings of large number of investors and then reinvests those funds for
earning profits and then distribute the dividend among the investors. In return for such
services, Asset Management Companies charge small fees. Every Mutual Fund / launches
different schemes, each with a specific objective. Investors who share the same objectives
invests in that particular Scheme. Each Mutual Fund Scheme is managed by a Fund
Manager with the help of his team of professionals (One Fund Manage may be managing
more than one scheme also).

Types of Mutual Funds

Mutual Funds can be classified into various categories under the following heads:-

(A) ACCORDING TO TYPE OF INVESTMENTS: - While launching a new scheme, every

Mutual Fund is supposed to declare in the prospectus the kind of instruments in which it will
make investments of the funds collected under that scheme. Thus, the various kinds of
Mutual Fund schemes as categorized according to the type of investments are as follows :-

(A) Equity Funds / Schemes

(B) Debt Funds / Schemes (Also Called Income Funds)
(C) Diversified Funds / Schemes (Also Called Balanced Funds)
(D) Gilt Funds / Schemes
(E) Money Market Funds / Schemes
(F) Sector Specific Funds
(G) Index Funds

B) ACCORDING TO THE TIME OF CLOSURE OF THE SCHEME : While

launching new schemes, Mutual Funds also declare whether this will be an open ended
scheme (i.e. there is no specific date when the scheme will be closed) or there is a closing
date when finally the scheme will be wind up. Thus, according to the time of closure
schemes are classified as follows :-

(A) Open Ended Schemes

(B) Close Ended Schemes

Open ended funds are allowed to issue and redeem units any time during the life of the
scheme, but close ended funds can not issue new units except in case of bonus or rights
issue. Therefore, unit capital of open ended funds can fluctuate on daily basis (as new
investors may purchase fresh units), but that is not the case for close ended schemes. In
other words we can say that new investors can join the scheme by directly applying to the
mutual fund at applicable net asset value related prices in case of open ended schemes but not
in case of close ended schemes. In case of close ended schemes, new investors can buy the
units only from secondary markets.

C) ACCORDING TO TAX INCENTIVE SCHEMES : Mutual Funds are also allowed to

float some tax saving schemes. Therefore, sometimes the schemes are classified according
to this also:-

(a) TAX SAVING FUNDS

(b) NOT TAX SAVING FUNDS / OTHER FUNDS

(D) ACCORDING TO THE TIME OF PAYOUT : Sometimes Mutual Fund schemes are
classified according to the periodicity of the pay outs (i.e. dividend etc.). The categories are
as follows :-

(a) Dividend Paying Schemes

(b) Reinvestment Schemes

Functions of Investment Companies

An investment company is a financial services firm that holds securities of other companies
purely for investment purposes. Investment companies come in different forms: exchange-
traded funds, mutual funds, money-market funds, and index funds. Investment companies
collect funds from institutional and retail investors, and are entrusted with making
investments in financial instruments according to the strategies that were previously agreed
with the investors.

Collect Investments
 Investment companies collect funds by issuing and selling shares to investors. There
are basically two types of investment companies: close-end and open-end companies.
Close-end companies issue a limited amount of shares that can then be traded in the
secondary market--on a stock exchange--whereas open-end company funds, e.g.
mutual funds, issue new shares every time an investor wants to buy its stocks.
Invest in Financial Instruments
 Investment companies invest in financial instruments according to the strategy of
which that they made investors aware. There are a wide range of strategies and
financial instruments that investment companies use, offering investors different
exposures to risks. Investment companies invest in equities (stocks), fixed-income
(bonds), currencies, commodities and other assets.

Pay Out the Profits

 The profits and losses that an investment company makes are shared among its
shareholders. Depending on the type--close-end or open-end--and the structure of the
investment company, investors can redeem their shares for cash from the company,
sell the shares to another firm or individual, or receive capital distributions when
 assets held by the investment company are sold.

Classification of Investment companies

Unit Investment Trusts (UITs)
A unit investment trust, or UIT, is a company established under an indenture or similar
agreement. It has the following characteristics:

 The management of the trust is supervised by a trustee.

 Unit investment trusts sell a fixed number of shares to unit holders, who receive a
proportionate share of net income from the underlying trust.
 The UIT security is redeemable and represents an undivided interest in a specific
portfolio of securities.
 The portfolio is merely supervised, not managed, as it remains fixed for the life of the
trust. In other words, there is no day-to-day management of the portfolio.
Face Amount Certificates
A face amount certificate company issues debt certificates at a predetermined rate of interest.
Additional characteristics include:

 Certificate holders may redeem their certificates for a fixed amount on a specified
date, or for a specific surrender value, before maturity.
 Certificates can be purchased either in periodic installments or all at once with a
lump-sum payment.
 Face amount certificate companies are almost nonexistent today.
Management Investment Companies
The most common type of investment company is the management investment company,
which actively manages a portfolio of securities to achieve its investment objective. There are
two types of management investment company: closed-end and open-end. The primary
differences between the two come down to where investors buy and sell their shares - in the
primary or secondary markets - and the type of securities they sell.

 Closed-End Investment Companies: A closed-end investment company issues shares

in a one-time public offering. It does not continually offer new shares, nor does it
redeem its shares like an open-end investment company. Once shares are issued, an
investor may purchase them on the open market and sell them in the same way. The
market value of the closed-end fund's shares will be based on supply and demand,
much like other securities. Instead of selling at net asset value, the shares can sell at a
premium or at a discount to the net asset value.
 Open-End Investment Companies: Open-end investment companies, also known
as mutual funds, continuously issue new shares. These shares may only be purchased
from the investment company and sold back to the investment company. Mutual funds
are discussed in more detail in the Variable Contracts section.

Performance of Mutual funds

Mutual Fund Performance - Desktop Tools
  Mutual Fund Research Tool
For a 360-degree analysis of Indian mutual funds, CRISIL offers an advanced Mutual
Fund Research tool that comes with the most updated database providing all kinds of
complex calculations, analysis, reports and updates on the click of a mouse. The Mutual
Fund ResearchTool allows the client to view details, compare performance, monitor
portfolio, and customise queries on more than 6500 mutual fund schemes at the click of
a button.
 Wealth Management Tool
The wealth management tool provides robust performance features as well as scalability
as it covers all asset classes along with mutual funds. It provides client-wise summaries
of the portfolio holdings in various asset classes, industry/company wise holdings, and
the gain/loss on the client's portfolio. Besides it has a Transaction import facility and can
be installed on the Intranet and made available to all Relationship Managers across India.
 Financial Planning Tool
CRISIL's Financial Planning model includes various modules designed to generate a
scientific Financial Plan for an individual. It includes sections for risk profiling, analysis
of needs, retirement planning, assessment of insurance requirement and cash flow
analysis. The Financial Planner is backed by a comprehensive Asset Allocation Model,
which combines Strategic and Tactical Asset Allocation models. While the model is
scalable to meet unique specifications, CRISIL can also offer technology development
support to deploy the model in the form of an online interface to the customer based on
client specifications.
 Attribution Tool
Performance Attribution is a technique that helps fund managers understand the causes
for variability in performance in the course of pursuing benchmark levels. It helps them
take corrective action in their portfolios. For equity portfolios, Performance Attribution
explains the excess return (positive or negative) in terms of sector allocation and security
selection strategies. In case of debt portfolios, the performance is attributed to the
duration and credit strategies.

Net Asset Value

A mutual fund's price per share or exchange-traded fund's (ETF) per-share value. In both
cases, the per-share dollar amount of the fund is calculated by dividing the total value of all
the securities in its portfolio, less any liabilities, by the number of fund shares outstanding.
In the context of mutual funds, NAV per share is computed once a day based on the closing
market prices of the securities in the fund's portfolio. All mutual funds' buy and sell orders are
processed at the NAV of the trade date. However, investors must wait until the following day
to get the trade price.

Mutual funds pay out virtually all of their income and capital gains. As a result, changes in
NAV are not the best gauge of mutual fund performance, which is best measured by annual
total return.
Because ETFs and closed-end funds trade like stocks, their shares trade at market value,
which can be a dollar value above (trading at a premium) or below (trading at a discount)
NAV.

Behavioral Finance:

Behavioral economics and the related field, behavioral finance, study the effects
of psychological, social, cognitive, and emotional factors on the economic decisions of
individuals and institutions and the consequences for market prices, returns, and the resource
allocation. The fields are primarily concerned with the bounds of rationality of economic
agents. Behavioral models typically integrate insights
from psychology, neuroscience and microeconomic theory; in so doing, these behavioral
models cover a range of concepts, methods, and fields.
DEFINITION OF 'BEHAVIORAL FINANCE'
A field of finance that proposes psychology-based theories to explain stock market anomalies.
Within behavioral finance, it is assumed that the information structure and the characteristics
of market participants systematically influence individuals' investment decisions as well as
market outcomes.
There have been many studies that have documented long-term historical phenomena in
securities markets that contradict the efficient market hypothesis and cannot be captured
plausibly in models based on perfect investor rationality. Behavioral finance attempts to fill
the void.

A theory stating that there are important psychological and behavioral variables involved in
investing in the stock market that provide opportunities for smart investors to profit. For
example, when a certain stock or sector becomes "hot" and prices increase substantially
without a change in the company's fundamentals, behavioral finance theorists would attribute
this to mass psychology. They therefore might short the stock in the long term, believing that
eventually the psychological bubble will burst and they will profit.
How it works/Example:

Suppose a lawsuit is brought against a tobacco company. Investors know that when this has
happened before, the share price of the tobacco company has fallen. With this in mind, many
investors sell off their holdings in the company. This selling results in the further decline of
the security's value.

Investors in other tobacco companies may fear similar lawsuits knowing that such a lawsuit
was brought against one tobacco company. These investors may sell off their holdings for
fear of loss. The securities prices of other companies in the industry consequently decline as
well.

All the while, none of these tobacco companies took any action or had a judgment against
them that intrinsically lessened their worth. This is the sort of issue that behavioral finance
attempts to explain.
Why it Matters:

Anyone knowledgeable in financial market understands that there are numerous variables that
affect prices in the securities markets. Investors’ decisions to buy or sell may have a more
distinct margin affect impact on market value than favorable earnings or promising products.

The role of behavioral finance is to help market analysts and investors understand price
movements in the absence of any intrinsic changes on the part of companies or sectors.

Difference between Fundamental Analysis and Technical Analysis

These terms refer to two different stock-picking methodologies used for researching and
forecasting the future growth trends of stocks. Like any investment strategy or philosophy,
both have their advocates and adversaries. Here are the defining principles of each of these
methods of stock analysis:

Fundamental analysis is a method of evaluating securities by attempting to measure the

intrinsic value of a stock. Fundamental analysts study everything from the overall economy
and industry conditions to the financial condition and management of companies.
Technical analysis is the evaluation of securities by means of studying statistics generated by
market activity, such as past prices and volume. Technical analysts do not attempt to measure
a security's intrinsic value but instead use stock charts to identify patterns and trends that may
suggest what a stock will do in the future.
In the world of stock analysis, fundamental and technical analysis are on completely opposite
sides of the spectrum. Earnings, expenses, assets and liabilities are all important
characteristics to fundamental analysts, whereas technical analysts could not care less about
these numbers. Which strategy works best is always debated, and many volumes of textbooks
have been written on both of these methods. So, do some reading and decide for yourself
which strategy works best with your investment philosophy.
Investors use techniques of fundamental analysis or technical analysis (or often both) to make
stock trading decisions. Fundamental analysis attempts to calculate the intrinsic value of a
stock using data such as revenue, expenses, growth prospects and the competitive landscape,
while technical analysis uses past market activity and stock price trends to predict activity in
the future.
Comparison chart
Fundamental Analysis Technical Analysis

Definition Calculates stock value Uses price movement of

using economic factors, security to predict future
known as fundamentals. price movements
Data gathered from Financial statements Charts
Stock bought When price falls below When trader believes they
 intrinsic value can sell it on for a higher
price
Time horizon Long-term approach Short-term approach
Function Investing Trade

Concepts used Return on Equity (ROE) Dow Theory, Price Data

and Return on Assets
(ROA)
Vision looks backward as well as looks backward
forward
focus Focuses on what ought to Focuses on what actually
happen in a market happens in a market
Factors in foreign Factors involved in price Charts are based on market
exchange analysis: action involving:
 Supply and demand  Price
 Seasonal cycles  Volume
 Weather  Open interest
 Government policy (futures only)

Fundamental Stock Analysis

Fundamental stock analysis is the process of financial statement analysis, and an examination
of company products, management, competitors, markets, and economic environment to
determine the value of its’ stock. Both historical and present data can be used, with the goal
being to forecast how the stock will perform in the future.

The most common data used in fundamental research and analysis would be revenues,
expenses, profits, earnings per share, assets, liabilities, book value, dividends, cash flow, and
projected earnings growth rates. Key ratios would include price/earnings ratio (P/E), dividend
yield, dividend payout ratio, return on equity, price to sale, and price to book value.

An analyst would evaluate the data and ratios in comparison to the universe of stocks
available. The goal of the investor is to invest in those companies with the best prospects
given the current price.

Technical Analysis

Technical analysis is the forecasting of the future price of a financial asset using primarily
historical price and volume data. Technical analysts believe that all information is reflected in
the price; making fundamental analysis unnecessary. Information from the analysis of price is
used to predict what the future price will be.
There are several different popular schools of technical analysis, including Elliott Wave
Theory, Dow Theory, and Candlestick Charting. All attempt to use price patterns and price
trends to make forecasts of future prices. The central idea is to estimate the likelihood of price
movements and make trades based on those with the best risk/reward ratio.

When evaluating price, technicians frequently use overall trend, areas of support and
resistance on the charts, price momentum, volume to determine buy/sell pressure, and relative
strength compared to the market. They would also look for price patterns, study moving
averages, and examine indicators such as put/call ratios.

Market Efficiency:
When money is put into the stock market, the goal is to generate a return on the capital
invested. Many investors try not only to make a profitable return, but also to outperform, or
beat, the market.

However, market efficiency - championed in the efficient market hypothesis (EMH)

formulated by Eugene Fama in 1970, suggests that at any given time, prices fully reflect all
available information on a particular stock and/or market. Fama was awarded the Nobel
Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences jointly with Robert Shiller and Lars Peter Hansen in
2013. According to the EMH, no investor has an advantage in predicting a return on a stock
price because no one has access to information not already available to everyone else.

The Effect of Efficiency: Non-Predictability

The nature of information does not have to be limited to financial news and research alone;
indeed, information about political, economic and social events, combined with how
investors perceive such information, whether true or rumored, will be reflected in the stock
price. According to the EMH, as prices respond only to information available in the market,
and because all market participants are privy to the same information, no one will have the
ability to out-profit anyone else.

In efficient markets, prices become not predictable but random, so no investment pattern can
be discerned. A planned approach to investment, therefore, cannot be successful.

Forms of Market Efficiency:

The Three Basic Forms of the EMH

The efficient market hypothesis assumes that markets are efficient. However, the efficient
market hypothesis (EMH) can be categorized into three basic levels:

1. Weak-Form EMH
The weak-form EMH implies that the market is efficient, reflecting all market information.
This hypothesis assumes that the rates of return on the market should be independent; past
rates of return have no effect on future rates. Given this assumption, rules such as the ones
traders use to buy or sell a stock, are invalid.
2. Semi-Strong EMH
The semi-strong form EMH implies that the market is efficient, reflecting all publicly
available information. This hypothesis assumes that stocks adjust quickly to absorb new
information. The semi-strong form EMH also incorporates the weak-form hypothesis. Given
the assumption that stock prices reflect all new available information and investors purchase
stocks after this information is released, an investor cannot benefit over and above the market
by trading on new information.

3. Strong-Form EMH
The strong-form EMH implies that the market is efficient: it reflects all information both
public and private, building and incorporating the weak-form EMH and the semi-strong form
EMH. Given the assumption that stock prices reflect all information (public as well as private)
no investor would be able to profit above the average investor even if he was given new
information.