10 Electromagnetic actuators

Outline

• Magnetic field

• Magnetic field due to an electric current

– Magnetic materials: permeability

– Magnetic circuits
– Magnetomotive force and magnetic flux
– Reluctances in series
– Reluctances in parallel
– Hard and soft magnetic materials

• Electromagnetic actuators
Learning outcomes

After completing this section you should be able to...

1. Calculate the magnetomotive force generated by a current-carrying coil,

the resulting flux density within a simple magnetic circuit consisting of
two or more reluctances, and the force acting across an air gap in such
a circuit.

2. Explain qualitatively, in terms of electromagnetic forces, the operation of

solenoids, linear force actuators, stepper motors and d.c. motors (com-
mutator and brushless).

3. Recognise and correctly interpret the following terms: commutator,

hard/soft magnetic material, magnetic field strength,...
10.1 Magnetic field

• Exists in any region of space where ...

a moving charge experiences a force

• Phenomena associated with a magnetic field

10.1.1 Field properties

1. Magnets – permanent magnetic field

2. At any point, the field has a direction

3. Magnetic flux – flowing in the direction of this field

MAGNET DRIVES FLUX OUT OF ITS NORTH POLE

4. Streamline in a fluid $ line of flux ...

forms a closed loop

5. Lines of flux never intersect

10.2 Magnetic field due to an electric current

Strength of magnetic field at a point... magnetic flux density, B

i
A single conductor carrying current ... flux density proportional to current

i
>




 
 
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
 

i
 
   
   



 




 
 



=
Conductor forms a loop – a turn

Each additional turn adds more flux lines... B / Ni

N- -

FLUX
 = BA
-
COIL:
AREAH
A H
HH
i R.H.
GRIP
N = 2 TURNS
RULE
 10.2.1 Magnetic materials: permeability

COIL
 = 2 0
eg
 = 0

Magnetic flux conductivity of a material... permeability, 


Permeability of free space, 0, is taken as reference

 = 0  r (10.1)


For air, r is 1
10.2.2 Magnetic circuits

• A magnet or electromagnet... source of magnetomotive force (m.m.f.)

• An m.m.f. drives magnetic flux

• Free space – flux returns through wide loops of low density

• To control magnetic effects...

flux is conducted around closed paths – circuits –...
made of high-permeability materials

• Resistance of path to magnetic flux is its reluctance

 Analogies between electric and magnetic circuit parameters:

Electric circuit Magnetic circuit

Quantity Symbol, unit Quantity Symbol, unit
EMF v , volt (V) COIL GENERATES AN... MMF F , ampere (A)
Current i , ampere (A) Magnetic flux  , weber (Wb)
Magnetic flux density B, tesla (T)
2
Current density (A m )
Resistance R , ohm (Ò) Reluctance S (A Wb )
1

Conductivity 1=, where  is Permeability r0; then:

MATERIAL PROP. resistivity; then: S = A l
R = A l r 0
PROPERTIES OF ‘PATH’
10.2.3 Magnetomotive force and magnetic flux

Current N turns
i

Circumference l
For a given core geometry and material...
 is proportional to i and number of turns N
Magnetomotive force (m.m.f.):

F = Ni
For a given F ...  is proportional to cross-sectional area A of the path
inversely proportional to its length l
proportional to the core material permeability r 0 
F
Thus  = , where
S
l
S = A (10.2)
r 0

S is the reluctance of the magnetic path

Magnetic circuit problems... use d.c. network methods of Notes 5 and 6

i Φ
+ N

E R F S
10.2.4 Reluctances in series

• A and/or r not uniform

• Reluctances for different path lengths added in series

• Like resistances around an electrical circuit

 Current N turns
i
Air gap
lg
MAGNETIC
RECORDING
HEAD
(TAPE, DISC, etc.)

S S S
The total reluctance of this series circuit is tot = c + g.
Hence the total flux is:

 = total reluctance =
m.m.f. of coil Ni A
  l  l Ni:
= r 0
l l c+ rg
(10.3)
c
+ g
r  0 A  0 A
10.2.5 Reluctances in parallel

S1S2
Stot = S + S
1 2
10.2.6 Hard and soft magnetic materials

The electromagnet core consists of:

• Magnetically soft material such as iron...

magnetic flux disappears as soon as the current ceases

• Steel or another magnetically hard material...

acquires permanent m.m.f., becomes permanent magnet
10.3 Electromagnetic actuators

Lines of flux =) to visualise, and qualitatively explain, forces between

magnetic objects:

1. Unlike poles attract ... to shorten the lines of flux

2. Like poles repel ... to push the lines of flux further apart
10.3.1 Magnetic force across an air gap

• Potential energy in a magnetic field

• Magnetic force of attraction can be calculated

• Attractive force f across an air gap of cross-sectional area A:

B
f = 2
2
A (10.4)
0
r = 1, B uniform within the gap

• Gap decreases... reluctance S decreases... flux density B increases...

...force increases
10.3.2 Solenoid
Permanent magnet
Coil former
Force,
displacement

Coil
10.3.3 Single-phase synchronous motor

The simplest electric motor:

• Turning rotor... low-reluctance magnetic path across one diameter

• Fixed stator... completes magnetic circuit... coil develops controlled mmf

 i N
MOMENT
M M = 0:
STABLE
ROTOR EQUILIBRIUM.




S


STATOR 
10.3.4 Rotating magnetic fields

• Two perpendicular stator coils... fields add vectorially

• Stator currents varied periodically...


same frequency, phase shift of 90 ...
resultant stator field rotates:
AC synchronous motors

• Single-phase a.c. motor ) two-phase motor...

use capacitor for phase shift (Moodle animation)

• Much better: 3-phase supply,... stator coils in star

• Magnetic field now rotates... reproducing that in generator

• Permanent magnet rotor turns at speed of generator

• If a torque is applied,... rotor lags in phase but maintains same speed

(Moodle animation)
DC stepper motors

Rotating field... d.c. supply switching

If rotor consists of permanent magnet (a single pole pair ):


1. Full step size of 90

2. Rotor, step by step, to any specified angular position

Smaller steps,... increase number of poles on rotor


Example: 3 pole pairs, giving a 90/3 = 30 step size

i i



N
GIVES FLUX @

i
@
R
@
or

-

N N


GIVES FLUX @
I
@
@

i
i
 Single full step of 30 :


LINE OF
SYMMETRY HALF STEP:  FULL STEP: 
@ @  @ @
@R
@ @
R
@ @
R
@ @
R
@

N N N N
N N N S N S N S
NEW LINE
(a) (b) (c) (d)
AA
K
OF

N
A

N
A
N

N
N

S S N N S N S N SYMMET
S

N
N







@  @  @  @

STABLE @
R
@
MOMENT @R
@ @
R
@
STABLE @
R
@
Variable reluctance stepper motor

• Rotor is soft (non-permanent) magnetic material

• Moves into position where flux lines through it are shortest

 10.3.5 Permanent magnet d.c. motor

• Stator is permanent magnet, rotor is a series of coils

• Rotor shown has just two coils, each split in half for symmetry

PERMANENT
MAGNETHH
H
H

N coil coil N coil

1a S
SWITCH OFF
2a @@ 1a
@
COIL 1 S
coil coil @

(a) (b)
@

2a 2b
- @
@
@

coil N SWITCH ON coil

@
coil N
@
COIL 2 1b
@
1b 2b@@
?
S S
@

R
@
 Commutator

COIL 1

POSITION (a) ABOVE:

Conductor
Insulator

COIL 2 Carbon
brush
DC
INPUT STATIONARY
MOTOR
SHAFT
10.3.6 Brushless d.c. motor

• Made ‘inside out’ – coils on the stator, magnet on the rotor

• Mechanical commutator too complicated

• Coils switched on and off electronically

• Rotor mechanically simpler and lighter, less inertia

• Brushless d.c. motors react very rapidly... high-speed control systems