High Voltage Engineering 2018

MODULE-3: MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

Syllabus

3.1 Measurement of High Direct Current Voltages

3.2 Measurement of High AC and Impulse Voltages
3.3 Measurement of High Currents – Direct, Alternating and Impulse ,Cathode Ray Oscillographs for Impulse
Voltage and Current Measurements

Course Objectives

To discuss generation of high voltages and currents and their measurement

3.1 Measurement of High Direct Current and A.C Voltages

3.1.1 Electrostatic voltmeter

Principle of Operation

1. Electrostatic voltmeter can be referred to an electrostatic charge meter.

2. Electrostatic Voltmeter to measure large electrical potential. ( Direct method of measuring HV)
3. It can accurately measure surface potential (voltage) on materials without making physical contact.
4. Electrostatic voltmeter utilizes the attraction force between two charged surfaces.
5. Attraction between 2 charged surface create a deflection of a pointer directly calibrated in volts.
6. Attraction Force is proportional to the square of the applied voltage.
7. The measurement can be made for AC or DC voltages.
8. When one of the electrodes is free to move, the force on the plate can be measured by controlling it by
a spring or balancing it with a counterweight.
9. Electrostatic voltmeter is designed to measure high potential differences; typically from a few hundred
to many thousands volts.

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10. Electrostatic voltmeter utilizes the attraction force between two charged surfaces to create a deflection
of a pointer directly calibrated in volts.
11. The pivoted sector NN is attracted to the fixed sector QQ
12. The moving sector indicating the voltage by the pointer P and is counterbalanced by the small weight w.
13. Damping technique is Air friction damping.

In electrostatic fields, the attractive force between the electrodes of a parallel plate condenser is given by:

Fig: Schematic Diagram

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Fig: Constructional Details

Construction

1. Electrostatic voltmeters are made with parallel plate configuration using guard rings to avoid corona
and maintain constant potential.
2. An absolute voltmeter is made by balancing the plate with a counter weight and is calibrated in terms
of a small weight.
3. The electrostatic voltmeters have a small capacitance (5 to 50 pF)
4. High insulation resistance (above 1000 ohm).
5. They are considered as devices with high input impedance.
6. An upper frequency limit of about one MHz is achieved in careful designs.
7. The accuracy for AC voltage measurements is better than DC voltage measurements.
8. It consists of parallel plane disc type electrodes separated by a small distance.
9. The moving electrode is surrounded by a fixed guard ring to make the field uniform in the central
region.
10. In order to measure the given voltage with precision, the disc diameter is to be increased, and the gap
distance is to be made less
11. The balancing weight gives controlling torque.
12. Electrostatic voltmeters are constructed in an enclosed structure containing compressed air or SF6 or
carbon dioxide or nitrogen.
13. The gas pressure may be in the order of 15atm and Working stress= 100kV/cm

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Advantages

1. Active power loss is negligibly small

2. Low loading effect
3. Voltage up to 600kV can be measured

Limitations

1. The measurement of voltage lower than 50V is not possible because force become too small.
2. For constant distance ‘s’, F α V2, the sensitivity is small. This can be overcome by varying the gap
distance d in appropriate steps.

3.2 Measurement of HVAC Voltages : Chubb and Fortescue method for HV AC measurement

1. It is a simple and accurate method for the peak measurement of AC voltage.

2. It can be defined as peak voltmeter method.
3. Suggested by Chubb and Fortescue in 1913.
4. Peak value of instrument is required for HV measurement.
5. Peak value of an AC waveform is more important.
6. When the waveform is not sinusoidal, rms value of the voltage multiplied by square root of 2 is not
correct.
7. Hence a separate peak value instrument is desirable in high voltage applications.

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8. When a capacitor is connected to a sinusoidal voltage source, the charging current is generated.
9. The meter reading is proportional to the peak value of the value Vm.

where ‘I’ is the dc current read by the meter and C is the capacitance of the capacitor.

This method is known as the Chubb-Frotscue method for peak voltage measurement.

3.2.1 Generating voltmeter

1. “A generating voltmeter is a variable capacitor electrostatic voltage generator which generates

current proportional to the applied external voltage”

2. The device is driven by an external synchronous or constant speed motor and does not absorb power
or energy from the voltage measuring source. i.e no loading effect.
3. Generating volt meter can measure loss free AC voltage.
4. Generating voltmeters are high impedance devices.
5. No direct connection to the high voltage.

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Construction

• Fig. shows a schematic diagram of a generating voltmeter which employs rotating vanes for
variation of capacitance.

1. High voltage electrode is connected to a disc electrode D3 which is kept at a fixed distance on the axis
of the other low voltage electrodes D2, D1, and D0.

2. The rotor D0 is driven at a suitable constant speed by a synchronous motor.

3. Rotor vanes of D0 cause periodic change in capacitance between the insulated disc D2 and the high
voltage electrode D3.

4. Number and shape of vanes are so designed that a suitable variation of capacitance (sinusoidal or linear)
is achieved.

5. The AC current is rectified and is measured using moving coil meters. If the current is small an
amplifier may be used before the current is measured.

6. Generating voltmeters are linear scale instruments and applicable over a wide range of voltages.

7. The sensitivity can be increased by increasing the area of the pick up electrode and by using amplifier
circuits

Principle of operation

1. We have charge stored in the capacitor

2. If the capacitance of the capacitor varies with time when connected to the source of voltage V, the
current through the capacitor

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3. For a constant angular frequency, the current is proportional to the applied voltage V.
4. More often, the generated current is rectified and measured by a moving coil meter.
5. Generating voltmeter can be used for AC voltage measurements also provided the angular frequency
is the same or equal to half that of the supply frequency.

Advantages of Generating Voltmeters

1. No source loading by the meter

2. No direct connection to high voltage electrode
3. scale is linear and extension of range is easy
4. A very convenient instrument for electrostatic devices such as Van de Graff generator and particle
accelerators.

Limitations of Generating Voltmeters

1. They require calibration

2. Careful construction is needed and is a cumbersome instrument requiring an auxiliary drive
3. Disturbance in position and mounting of the electrodes make the calibration invalid.

Numerical

Solution:

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3.2.2 Series resistance micro ammeter

1. A large value of resistance (few hundreds of mega ohms) is connected in series with uA.
2. Protective device (Zener diode) connected across the uA.

Need for protective device:

1. If R fails, heavy current will flow through µA

2. To divert protective device is used

Operation of series resistance micro ammeter

1. “R ”should be high
2. High DC voltage is applied
3. Voltage drop across the resistance
4. The current flowing through the resistance ‘R’ is measured in µA.

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5. The resistance is constructed from a large no. of wire wound resistors in series.
6. Voltage V=IR
7. Drop in Ammeter is negligible
8. R should be chosen such that 1 to 10 uA is allowed for full scale deflection 500 kV can be measured
9. Accuracy : 20%

Drawbacks

1. More power dissipation

2. Temperature effects
3. Source loading.

Functions of series resistance

i) Limit the breakdown current

ii) To suppress unwanted oscillations

3.2.3 Standard Sphere Gap Measurement

a) Importance of sphere gap measurement

1. Peak value of voltage causes dielectric breakdown.

2. A sphere gap can be used for measurement of the peak value of the voltage if the gap distance is
known.
3. Sphere gap measurement is one of the standard method of measuring peak value of high voltage DC,
AC and impulse voltage.
4. It is used for checking voltmeters and other voltage measuring devices used in HV testing circuits.
5. Two types of sphere gap arrangement
a. Horizontal sphere gap arrangement
b. Vertical sphere gap arrangement

b) Construction

Standard diameter of the spheres are 2, 5, 6.25, 10, 12.5, 15, 25, 50, 75,100, 150 and 200cm.

a. Horizontal arrangement is usually is preferred for sphere diameter d<50cm and it is suitable for low
voltage range.
b. One of the sphere is static and other is movable (adjustable).
c. Impulse voltage which has wave front time at least 1μs & wave tail time of 5μs can be measured using
sphere gap measurement.

a. Horizontal arrangement of sphere gap

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Fig: Horizontal arrangement of sphere gap

b. Vertical arrangement of sphere gap

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Construction

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1. When the electric field across the gap exceeds static breakdown strength of gap, it results complete
breakdown of gaseous gap.
2. Spheres having equal diameters and it is made of Cu or Al.
3. The distance between two spheres are less than the diameter of spheres.
4. Sphere gaps can be arranged either
(i) Vertically with lower sphere grounded,
(ii) Horizontally with both spheres connected to the source voltage or one sphere grounded.
5. The spheres are carefully designed and fabricated so that their surfaces are smooth and the curvature is
uniform.
6. Spacing S between them gives a measure of the spark over voltage.
7. A series resistance is usually connected between the source and the sphere gap to
(i) Limit the breakdown current, and
(ii) to suppress unwanted oscillations in the source voltage when breakdown occurs (in case of impulse
voltages).
8. The value of the series resistance may vary from 100 to 1000 kilo ohms for AC or AC voltages and not
more than 500 ohm in the case of impulse voltages.

Factors affecting the measurements

1. Nearby earthed objects : Changes in breakdown strength

2. Atmospheric conditions and humidity : Breakdown voltage of a spark gap depends on density.
3. Irradiation
4. Polarity and rise time of voltage waveforms: Breakdown voltage for positive & negative polarity
impulses are different.
5. Influence of dust particle: Presence of dust Particle cause erratic breakdown.

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3.2.4 Potential dividers

1. Potential or voltage dividers useful for high voltage DC and AC measurement.

2. Potential dividers are usually either resistive or capacitive or mixed element type.
3. The low voltage arm of the divider is usually connected to a fast recording oscillograph or a peak
reading instrument through a delay cable or a coaxial cable .

a. Z1 is usually a resistor or a series of resistors in case of a resistance potential divider.

b. Z1 is usually a single or a number of capacitors in case of a capacitance divider.
c. Z1 can able to use the combination of resistance & Capacitor in case of a mixed RC potential divider.
d. Z2 will be a resistor or a capacitor or an R-C impedance depending upon the type of the divider.

1. Resistance potential divider

a. A simple resistance potential divider consists of two resistances R1 and R2 in series. (R1>>R2)
b. Voltage ratio or attenuation factor is given by

c. The divider element R2, in practice, is connected through the coaxial cable to the oscilloscope.
d. Sudden switching action causes Flash over voltage and that causes damage to divider circuit. In order
to protect the dividers from flash over voltage, voltage controlled capacitors are used

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e. The cable will generally have a surge impedance Z0

f. Surge impedance will come in parallel with the oscilloscope input impedance (Rm , Cm).
g. Rm will generally be greater than one Mega ohm and Cm may be 10 to 50 picofarads.
h. For high frequency and impulse voltages, the ratio in the frequency domain will be given by

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2. Capacitive potential divider

Impulse voltage can be measured by using capacitive potential dividers

C1 - Standard Compressed Gas H.V. Condenser

C2 - Standard Low Voltage Condenser

ESV- Electrostatic Voltmeter P -Protective Gap C.C - Connecting Cable

1. Harmonic Effects can be eliminated by use of Capacitive Potential Dividers (CPD) with Electro Static
Voltmeter (ESV).
2. Gas filled condensers C1 and C2 are used as shown in figure.
3. C1 is a three terminal capacitor, connected to C2 by shielded cable.
4. C2 is shielded to avoid stray capacitance
5. Capacitive potential divider can measure fast rising voltage & pulse and impulse voltage.
6. Capacitance ratio is independent of frequency.
7. Ratio of the divider (Attenuation factor) is given by

8. Capacitance C1 is formed between the HV terminal of the source.

9. Suitable for measuring the impulse voltage up to 1 MV
10. C1 is the standard compressed air or gas condenser- HV Capacitor.
11. Value of C2 is very high, C2 may be mica capacitor, paper capacitor etc
12. C1 is connected to C2 by using a shield cable
13. C2 is completely covered by using a box, for avoiding stray capacitance.
14. Voltage can measure by using VTVM (Vacuum Tube Volt Meter) or ESV- testing purpose for
impulse voltage

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Impulse voltage measurement by using capacitive

V1- Voltage to be measured

V2-Meter reading

C1-Standard compressed gas HV condenser

C2-Standard low voltage condenser Cm-Capacitance of the meter

Advantages

1. Loading on the source is negligible

2. Capacitance ratio independent of frequency

3. Mixed RC potential divider

1. Mixed potential dividers use R-C elements in series or in parallel.

2. Improved step response

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The following elements mainly constitute the different errors in the measurement:

1. Residual inductance in the elements

2. Stray capacitance occurring
A. between the elements,
B. from sections and terminals of the elements to ground, and (c) from the high voltage lead
to the elements or sections
3. The impedance errors due to (a) connecting leads between the divider and the test objects, and (b)
ground return leads and extraneous current in ground leads

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4. Parasitic oscillations due to lead and cable inductances and capacitance of high voltage terminal to
ground.

Additional Information

Note1 -surge impedance

• The characteristic impedance or surge impedance of a uniform transmission line, usually written Z0, is
the ratio of the amplitudes of voltage and current of a single wave propagating along the line.

• That is, a wave travelling in one direction in the absence of reflections in the other direction.

• Characteristic impedance is determined by the geometry and materials of the transmission line and, for
a uniform line, is not dependent on its length. The SI unit of characteristic impedance is the ohm.

Note 2-Parasitic capacitance

• In electrical circuits, parasitic capacitance, stray capacitance or, when relevant, self-capacitance, is an
unavoidable and usually unwanted capacitance that exists between the parts of an electronic component or
circuit simply because of their proximity to each other.

• All actual circuit elements such as inductors, diodes, and transistors have internal capacitance, which
can cause their behavior to depart from that of 'ideal' circuit elements.

• Additionally, there is always non-zero capacitance between any two conductors; this can be significant
at higher frequencies with closely spaced conductors, such as wires or printed circuit board traces.

3.3 Measurement of Impulse current

1. In power system applications as well as in other scientific and technical fields, it is often
necessary to determine the amplitude and waveforms of rapidly varying high currents.
2. High impulse currents occur in lightning discharges, electrical arcs and post arc phenomenon
studies with circuit breakers, and with electric discharge studies in plasma physics.

Rogowski Coils

Measurement of high impulse current

1. A Rogowski coil, named by Walte Rogowski, is an electrical device for measuring Alternating
Current(AC) or high speed current pulses.
2. It consists of a helical coil of wire with the lead from one end returning through the centre of the coil to
the other end, so that both terminals are at the same end of the coil.
3. The whole assembly is then wrapped around the straight conductor whose current is to be measured.
4. Since the voltage that is induced in the coil is proportional to the rate of change of current in the
straight conductor.
5. There is no metal (iron) core.

“A Rogowski coil is a toroid of wire used to measure an alternating current i(t) through a cable encircled
by the toroid”

1. Connected to an electrical (or electronic) The output of the Rogowski coil is usually integrator
circuit to provide an output signal that is proportional to the current

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Integrator circuit

2. Usually an integrating circuit RC is employed as shown in Fig to obtain the output voltage proportional
to the current to be measured.
3. If a coil is placed surrounding a current carrying conductor, the voltage signal induced in the coil is

M is the mutual inductance between the conductor & coil.

I(t) is the current flowing in the conductor.

4. The coil is wound on a nonmagnetic former of toroidal shape and is coaxially placed surrounding
the current carrying conductor.
5. The number of turns on the coil is chosen to be large, to get enough signal induced.
6. The output voltage is given by

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7. Rogowski coils with electronic or active integrator circuits have large bandwidths (about 100
MHz).
8. At frequencies greater than 100 MHz the response is affected by the skin effect.

Advantages

1. Lower construction costs.

2. Temperature compensation is simple.
3. No iron core to saturate

Disadvantages

1. Maintenance of integrators circuit

3.3.1 Magnetic Link

1. These can be used for measurement of peak value of impulse currents.

2. Magnetic links are high retentively steel strips arranged on a circular wheel or drum.
3. These strips have the property that the remanent magnetism (residual magnetism) for a current pulse of
0.5/5 µs is same as that caused by a d.c. current of the same value.
4. Remenent magnetism or Residual magnetism is the magnetization left behind in a feromagnetic
material after an external magnetic field is removed
5. The strips will be kept at a known distance from the current carrying conductor and parallel to it.
6. The Remanent magnetism (Residual magnetism) is then measured in the laboratory from which the
peak value of the current can be estimated.
7. These are useful for field measurements, mainly for estimating the lightning currents on the
transmission lines and towers.
8. By using a number of links, accurate measurement of the peak value, polarity, and the percentage
oscillations in lightning currents can be made.

3.3.2 Cathode Ray Oscillograph for Impulse Measurements:

Modern Cathode Ray Oscillograph for Impulse Measurements are sealed tube, hot cathode oscilloscopes with
photographic arrangement for recording the waveforms. The cathode ray oscilloscope for impulse work
normally has input voltage range from 5 m V/cm to about 20 V/cm. In addition, there are probes
and attenuators to handle signals up to 600 V (peak to peak). The bandwidth and rise time of
the oscilloscope should be adequate. Rise times of 5 ns and bandwidth as high as 500 MHz may be necessary.

Sometimes high voltage surges test oscilloscopes do not have vertical amplifier and directly require an input
voltage of 10 V. They can take a maximum signal of about 100 V (peak to peak) but require
suitable attenuators for large signals.

Oscilloscopes are fitted with good cameras for recording purposes. Tektronix model 7094 is fitted with a lens of
1 : 1.2 polaroid camera which uses 10.000 ASA film which possesses a writing speed of 9 cm/ns.

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With rapidly changing signals, it is necessary to initiate or start the oscilloscope time base before the signal
reaches the oscilloscope deflecting plates, otherwise a portion of the signal may be missed. Such measurements
require an accurate initiation of the horizontal time base and is known as triggering. Oscilloscopes are normally
provided with both internal and external triggering facility. When external triggering is used, as with recording
of impulses, the signal is directly fed to actuate the time base and then applied to the vertical or Y deflecting
plates through a delay line. The delay is usually 0.1 to 0.5 μs.

The delay is obtained by:

1. A long interconnecting coaxial cable 20 to 50 in long. The required triggering is obtained from an antenna
whose induced voltage is applied to the external trigger terminal.

2.The measuring signal is transmitted to the CRO by a normal coaxial cable. The delay is obtained by an
externally connected coaxial long cable to give the necessary delay. This arrangement is shown in Fig. 7.55.

3.The impulse generator and the time base of the CRO are triggered from an electronic tripping device. A first
pulse from the device starts the CRO time base and after a predetermined time a second pulse triggers the
impulse generator.

Course Outcome

At the end of the course,students will be able to:

Discuss measurement techniques for high voltages and currents.

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