Discrete Mathematics
Discrete Mathematics
Discrete Mathematics
Propositional Logic
The Language of Propositions
Applications
Logical Equivalences
Predicate Logic
The Language of Quantifiers
Logical Equivalences
Nested Quantifiers
Proofs
Rules of Inference
Proof Methods
Proof Strategy
Propositional Logic Summary
The Language of Propositions
Connectives
Truth Values
Truth Tables
Applications
Translating English Sentences
System Specifications
Logic Puzzles
Logic Circuits
Logical Equivalences
Important Equivalences
Showing Equivalence
Satisfiability
Some Imp. Questions
What is Discrete Mathematics?
Ans: Discrete mathematics is the part of mathematics
devoted to the study of discrete objects/ structures that are
countable or otherwise distinct and separable (such
as integers, graphs, and statements in logic, etc.).
If my client is guilty, then the knife was in the drawer. Either the
knife was not in the drawer or Jason Pritchard saw the knife. If the
knife was not there on October 10, it follows that Jason Pritchard did
not see the knife. Furthermore, if the knife was there on October 10,
then the knife was in the drawer and also the hammer was in
the barn. But we all know that the hammer was not in the barn.
Therefore, ladies and gentlemen of the jury, my client is innocent.
p q p ∨q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
p q p ↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
p q → r is equivalent to (p q) → r
If the intended meaning is p (q → r )
then parentheses must be used.
Applications of Propositional Logic:
Summary
Translating English to Propositional Logic
System Specifications
Boolean Searching
Logic Puzzles
Logic Circuits
AI Diagnosis Method (Optional)
Translating English Sentences
Steps to convert an English sentence to a statement in
propositional logic
Identify atomic propositions and represent using
propositional variables.
Determine appropriate logical connectives
“If I go to Harry’s or to the country, I will not go
shopping.”
p: I go to Harry’s If p or q then not r.
q: I go to the country.
r: I will go shopping.
Example
Problem: Translate the following sentence into
propositional logic:
“You can access the Internet from campus only if you are
a computer science major or you are not a freshman.”
One Solution: Let a, c, and f represent respectively
“You can access the internet from campus,” “You are a
computer science major,” and “You are a freshman.”
a→ (c ∨ ¬ f )
System Specifications
System and Software engineers take requirements in
English and express them in a precise specification
language based on logic.
Example: Express in propositional logic:
“The automated reply cannot be sent when the file
system is full”
Solution: One possible solution: Let p denote “The
automated reply can be sent” and q denote “The file
system is full.”
q→ ¬ p
Consistent System Specifications
Definition: A list of propositions is consistent if it is
possible to assign truth values to the proposition variables
so that each proposition is true.
Exercise: Are these specifications consistent?
“The diagnostic message is stored in the buffer or it is
retransmitted.”
“The diagnostic message is not stored in the buffer.”
“If the diagnostic message is stored in the buffer, then it is
retransmitted.”
Solution: Let p denote “The diagnostic message is stored in the buffer.” Let
q denote “The diagnostic message is retransmitted” The specification can
be written as: p ∨ q, ¬p, p → q. When p is false and q is true all three
statements are true. So the specification is consistent.
What if “The diagnostic message is not retransmitted is added.”
Solution: Now we are adding ¬q and there is no satisfying
assignment. So the specification is not consistent.
Logic Puzzles Raymond
Smullyan
(Born 1919)
An island has two kinds of inhabitants, knights, who always tell the
truth, and knaves, who always lie.
You go to the island and meet A and B.
A says “B is a knight.”
B says “The two of us are of opposite types.”
Example: What are the types of A and B?
Solution: Let p and q be the statements that A is a knight and
B is a knight, respectively. So, then p represents the
proposition that A is a knave and q that B is a knave.
If A is a knight, then p is true. Since knights tell the truth, q must also
be true. Then (p ∧ q)∨ ( p ∧ q) would have to be true, but it is not.
So, A is not a knight and therefore p must be true.
If A is a knave, then B must not be a knight since knaves always lie. So,
then both p and q hold since both are knaves.
Logic Circuits
(Studied in depth in Chapter 12)
Electronic circuits; each input/output signal can be viewed as a 0 or 1.
0 represents False
1 represents True
Complicated circuits are constructed from three basic circuits called gates.
The inverter (NOT gate)takes an input bit and produces the negation of that bit.
The OR gate takes two input bits and produces the value equivalent to the disjunction of the two
bits.
The AND gate takes two input bits and produces the value equivalent to the conjunction of the
two bits.
More complicated digital circuits can be constructed by combining these basic circuits to
produce the desired output given the input signals by building a circuit for each piece of
the output expression and then combining them. For example:
Diagnosis of Faults in an Electrical
System (Optional)
AI Example (from Artificial Intelligence: Foundations
of Computational Agents by David Poole and Alan
Mackworth, 2010)
Need to represent in propositional logic the features of
a piece of machinery or circuitry that are required for
the operation to produce observable features. This is
called the Knowledge Base (KB).
We also have observations representing the features
that the system is exhibiting now.
Electrical System Diagram (optional)
Outside Power
s1 cb1
l1
l2
Representing the Electrical System
in Propositional Logic
We need to represent our common-sense
understanding of how the electrical system works in
propositional logic.
For example: “If l1 is a light and if l1 is receiving
current, then l1 is lit.
light_l1 live_l1 ok_l1 → lit_l1
Also: “If w1 has current, and switch s2 is in the up
position, and s2 is not broken, then w0 has current.”
live_w1 up_s2 ok_s2 → live_w0
This task of representing a piece of our common-sense
world in logic is a common one in logic-based AI.
Knowledge Base (opt)
live_outside We have outside power.
light_l1 Both l1 and l2 are lights.
light_l2
live_w0 → live_l1
live_w1 up_s2 ok_s2 → live_w0 If s2 is ok and s2 is in a down
live_w2 down_s2 ok_s2 → live_w0 position and w2 has current,
live_w3 up_s1 ok_s1 → live_w1 then w0 has current.
live_w3 down_s1 ok_s1 → live_w2
live_w4 → live_l2
live_w3 up_s3 ok_s3 → live_w4
live_outside ok_cb1 → live_w3
light_l1 live_l1 ok_l1 → lit_l1
light_l2 live_l2 ok_l2 → lit_l2
Observations (opt)
Observations need to be added to the KB
Both Switches up
up_s1
up_s2
Both lights are dark
lit_l1
lit_l2
Diagnosis (opt)
We assume that the components are working ok, unless we are
forced to assume otherwise. These atoms are called assumables.
The assumables (ok_cb1, ok_s1, ok_s2, ok_s3, ok_l1, ok_l2)
represent the assumption that we assume that the switches,
lights, and circuit breakers are ok.
If the system is working correctly (all assumables are true), the
observations and the knowledge base are consistent (i.e.,
satisfiable).
The augmented knowledge base is clearly not consistent if
the assumables are all true. The switches are both up, but
the lights are not lit. Some of the assumables must then be
false. This is the basis for the method to diagnose possible
faults in the system.
A diagnosis is a minimal set of assumables which must be false to
explain the observations of the system.
Diagnostic Results (opt)
See Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational Agents (by
David Poole and Alan Mackworth, 2010) for details on this problem and
how the method of consistency based diagnosis can determine possible
diagnoses for the electrical system.
The approach yields 7 possible faults in the system. At least one of these
must hold:
Circuit Breaker 1 is not ok.
Both Switch 1 and Switch 2 are not ok.
Both Switch 1 and Light 2 are not ok.
Both Switch 2 and Switch 3 are not ok.
Both Switch 2 and Light 2 are not ok.
Both Light 1 and Switch 3 are not ok.
Both Light 1 and Light 2 are not ok.
Section Summary
Tautologies, Contradictions, and Contingencies.
Logical Equivalence
Important Logical Equivalences
Showing Logical Equivalence
Normal Forms (optional, covered in exercises in text)
Disjunctive Normal Form
Conjunctive Normal Form
Propositional Satisfiability
Sudoku Example
Tautologies, Contradictions, and
Contingencies
A tautology is a proposition which is always true.
Example: p ∨¬p
A contradiction is a proposition which is always false.
Example: p ∧¬p
A contingency is a proposition which is neither a
tautology nor a contradiction, such as p
P ¬p p ∨¬ p p ∧¬ p
T F T F
F T T F
Logically Equivalent
Two compound propositions p and q are logically equivalent if p↔q
is a tautology.
We write this as p⇔q or as p≡q where p and q are compound
propositions.
Two compound propositions p and q are equivalent if and only if the
columns in a truth table giving their truth values agree.
This truth table shows that ¬p ∨ q is equivalent to p → q.
p q ¬p ¬p ∨ q p→ q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
De Morgan’s Laws
Augustus De Morgan
1806-1871
Domination Laws: ,
Idempotent laws: ,
Negation Laws: ,
Key Logical Equivalences (cont)
Commutative Laws: ,
Associative Laws:
Distributive Laws:
Absorption Laws:
More Logical Equivalences
Constructing New Logical
Equivalences
We can show that two expressions are logically equivalent
by developing a series of logically equivalent statements.
To prove that we produce a series of equivalences
beginning with A and ending with B.
No
Disjunctive Normal Form is important for the circuit
design methods discussed in Chapter 12.
Disjunctive Normal Form (optional)
Example: Show that every compound proposition can be
put in disjunctive normal form.
Solution: Construct the truth table for the proposition.
Then an equivalent proposition is the disjunction with n
disjuncts (where n is the number of rows for which the
formula evaluates to T). Each disjunct has m conjuncts
where m is the number of distinct propositional variables.
Each conjunct includes the positive form of the
propositional variable if the variable is assigned T in that
row and the negated form if the variable is assigned F in
that row. This proposition is in disjunctive normal from.
Disjunctive Normal Form (optional)
Example: Find the Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF) of
(p∨q)→¬r
Solution:
1. Eliminate implication signs:
Even if the domains are infinite, you can still think of the
quantifiers in this fashion, but the equivalent expressions
without quantifiers will be infinitely long.
Negating Quantified Expressions
Consider x J(x)
“Every student in your class has taken a course in Java.”
Here J(x) is “x has taken a course in Java” and
the domain is students in your class.
Negating the original statement gives “It is not the case
that every student in your class has taken Java.” This
implies that “There is a student in your class who has
not taken Java.”
Symbolically ¬x J(x) and x ¬J(x) are equivalent
Negating Quantified Expressions
(continued)
Now Consider x J(x)
“There is a student in this class who has taken a course in
Java.”
Where J(x) is “x has taken a course in Java.”
Negating the original statement gives “It is not the case
that there is a student in this class who has taken Java.”
This implies that “Every student in this class has not
taken Java”
Symbolically ¬ x J(x) and x ¬J(x) are equivalent
De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers
The rules for negating quantifiers are:
Solution: x F(x)
Translation (cont)
U = {fleegles, snurds, thingamabobs}
F(x): x is a fleegle
S(x): x is a snurd
T(x): x is a thingamabob
“Nothing is a snurd.”
is “For every real number ε > 0, there exists a real number δ > 0
such that |f(x) – L| < ε whenever 0 < |x –a| < δ.”
Using quantifiers:
3. Now we can repeatedly apply the rules for negating quantified expressions:
Example:
Let p be “It is snowing.”
Let q be “I will study discrete math.”
Example:
Let p be “it is snowing.”
Let q be “I will study discrete math.”
Example:
Let p be “it snows.”
Let q be “I will study discrete math.”
Let r be “I will get an A.”
Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study English literature.”
Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will visit Las Vegas.”
Corresponding Tautology:
(p∧q) →p
Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study English literature.”
Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study English literature.”
Corresponding Tautology:
((¬p ∨ r ) ∧ (p ∨ q)) →(q ∨ r)
Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let r be “I will study English literature.”
Let q be “I will study databases.”
C
Valid Arguments
Example 1: From the single proposition
Example:
Example:
Example:
[ Even though these examples seem silly, both trivial and vacuous
proofs are often used in mathematical induction, as we will see
in further topics..) ]
Even and Odd Integers
Definition: The integer n is even if there exists an
integer k such that n = 2k, and n is odd if there exists
an integer k, such that n = 2k + 1. Note that every
integer is either even or odd and no integer is both
even and odd.
We only cover the case where x is odd because the case where y is odd is
similar. The use phrase without loss of generality (WLOG) indicates this.
Existence Proofs Srinivasa Ramanujan
(1887-1920)
Two Dominoes