FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PROJECT TITTLE: PERFORMANCE OF BIOSAND FILTERS AS METHOD

OF WATER TREATEMENT
.
CASE STUDY: MBAARE SUB-COUNTY
By

SAFI CHIRIMWAMI REBECCA

13/CG/159/BSCE-J

SUPERVISOR:

A Thesis submitted to the Department of civil engineering in

Fulfillment of the requirements for the award of a
Bachelor’s Degree in civil engineering at the
International University
Of East Africa

December, 2016
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPITER ONE................................................................................................................................3
INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................3
1.1 Research Background...........................................................................................................3
1.2 Problem Statement...............................................................................................................4
1.3. Research Objectives.............................................................................................................4
1.3.1 General Objective..........................................................................................................4
1.3.2 The specific objectives...................................................................................................5
1.4 Research Questions..............................................................................................................5
1.5 Justification...........................................................................................................................5
1.6 Significant of the Study.........................................................................................................5
1.7 scope of the study.................................................................................................................6
1.8 conceptual framework..........................................................................................................6
CHAPITER TWO...............................................................................................................................8
LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................................................8
2.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................8
2.2 Groundwater Quality and Groundwater Pollution................................................................8
2.3 Water Parameters................................................................................................................8
2.3.1 Water pH........................................................................................................................8
2.3.2 Turbidity........................................................................................................................9
2.3.3 Electrical conductivity...................................................................................................9
2.3.4 Escherichia coli pathogenic strains................................................................................9
2.3.5 Salmonella...................................................................................................................10
2.3.6 Lead.............................................................................................................................10
2.3.7 Iron..............................................................................................................................10
2.4 WHO standards for drinking water.....................................................................................11
2.5 BIOSAND FILTER............................................................................................................11
2.5.1 Definition.....................................................................................................................11
2.5.2 Biosand filter components and filtration process.........................................................12
- Heavy metals................................................................................................................13
CHAPITER THREE...........................................................................................................................15
METODOLOGY..............................................................................................................................15
3.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................15

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 3.2 Research design..................................................................................................................15
3.3 Research approach.............................................................................................................15
3.3.1 Qualitative study..........................................................................................................15
3.3.2 Quantitative study........................................................................................................15
3.5. Description of the study Area............................................................................................15
3.6 Preparation and laboratory analysis...................................................................................16
3.7 Data Analysis and presentation..........................................................................................17
CHAPITER FOUR............................................................................................................................18
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...........................................................................................................18
5.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................23
REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................25
APPENDICCES................................................................................................................................28
APPENDIX 1: WORK PLAN........................................................................................................28
APPENDIX 2: BUDGET...............................................................................................................28

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 CHAPITER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Background

Water is essential to all forms of life and makes up 50-97% of the weight of all plants and
animals and about 70% of human body (Buchholz, 1998). It is also a vital resource for
agriculture, manufacturing, transportation and many other human activities. Assessment of
surface water quality is important for sustainable development since safe water is the door
way to health which is the pre-requisite for progress, social equity and human dignity
(Phiri et al., 2005). Provision of safe and adequate water is a fundamental human right as
the combination of unsafe drinking water and inadequate sanitation facilities constitutes
one of the major causes of death and disability as a result of water borne diseases, which is
often on epidemic scale among the poor in developing countries (Orewole et al., 2006).
Most of rivers in the urban areas of the developing world are the end points of effluents
discharged from the industries and runoff. Industrial effluents, if not properly treated and
controlled can also pollute ground water (Olayinka, 2004). Therefore rivers generally have
poor quality water in the affected areas.
Since people use untreated water from these sources, the result is continuous outbreaks of
diseases. Those are particularly significant when it comes to ecologically fragile zone like
Africa. In Africa, medical situation remains alarming: care and drugs are inaccessible for
most of the population. In this context, Food gain is imperative vital need for population
than environment protection and effective water resources management (Aïssata, 2010).
Sustainable technology of water treatment is adopted and might be improved provided
that the quality of water supplied is no longer safe.

3
1.2 Problem Statement
Lack of monitoring water quality, flooding of the city, increasing population growth,
urbanization and anthropogenic activities such as poor agricultural land use, discharges of
industrial and municipal effluents into water, poor sanitation and wastewater management
have aggravated deterioration in the quality of both surface and underground water in
many parts of the world (Mary, 2009).
Heavy metals such as Iron, lead, copper, and so on, have been known to have direct toxic
effects when released into the aquatic environment and the sediments constitute the sink
for these pollutants (Forstner et al., 1998; Fleeger et al., 2003). Sediments act as carriers
and possible sources of pollution because heavy metals are not permanently fixed by them
and can be released back to the water column by changes in environmental conditions
(Horsfall et al., 1999) or by human activities. Populations and communities in nature may
be directly or indirectly affected by exposure to pollutants.
Mbaare one of the most populated subcoubty of kayunga is highly affected by the above
problems, both drinking and domestic water have a significant amount of contaminants
(biological, physical and chemical), which provide deceases to people. There is need of
finding an adequate technic or methodology for water treatment.

1.3. Research Objectives

1.3.1 General Objective

The main objective of this study is to examine the performance and effectiveness of
Biosand filters in water treatment in Mbaar subcounty_Isingiro district.

1.3.2 The specific objectives

The specific objectives are:
i. To determine and to compare the Physico-chemical parameters of walls water
before and after Biosand filtration in Mbaare sub-county such as : pH,
Turbidity, Conductivity, Total dissolved solids
ii. To determine and to compare the Bacteriologic parameters of walls water
before and after Biosand filtration in Mbaare sub-county such as : E-coli and
Salmonella

4
 iii. To determine and to compare the concentration of selected heavy metals in
walls water before and after Biosand filtration in Mbaare sub-county such as :
Iron, Manganese, Lead
iv. To assemble a simply biosand filter prototype in the laboratory and to
determine the performance of the prototype with regard to pollutants removal

1.4 Research Questions

1. What are the physico-chemical parameters of ground water in mbaare subcounty?
2. How much ground water is affected by bacteriological pathogenes?
3. At which level is the concentration rate of heavy metals in ground water?
4. How the biosand filter will be used to treat the pollueted water?
5. Is the quality of water safe after using a biosand filter?

1.5 Justification
Biosand filter is a technology which if used properly can help minimizing the impurity of
ground water in order to be used safely.
Mbaare sub-county is facing a number of different waterbone diseases due to the quality
of ground water used without treatment. The Biosand filter method is tested and proposed
as one of ways to reduce or stop this problem.

1.6 Significant of the Study

1. The results from this study inform authorities in environment management on the
level of water pollution in Mbaare sub-county.
2. The results from the study can be used to determine the remedial action and effective
method to be used for water treatment to remove the heavy metals and other
pollutants elements
3. Mbaare sub-county may enjoy increased provision of clean and safe potable water in
the area through a deliberate effort on water provision and proper protection.
4. The entire population may benefit by evolving solution to the water pollution and
devising methods of maintaining clear water sources, which would improve their
livelihood, and get access to a product that is of an acceptable quality in the most
cost-effective manner.
5. The finding of the study may be replicated in various areas where similar conditions
exist.

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1.7 scope of the study
 Geographical content
The project is undertaken to serve the whole mbaar subcounty of Kayunga district.
 Scope content
The study entails the collection and analysis of walls water from different part of the
mbaar subcounty. The work is focused on the use of a biosand filter as the method of
treating, it involves the analysis of various water parameters.

 Time scope
The whole project was done in an estimated period of six (6) month.

1.8 conceptual framework

STUDY

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE Collection of DEPENDENT

Water PH sample VARIABLE
Laboratory test
Turbidity Result comparison
Electrical conductivity
Escherichia coli The quality of
water
pathogenic
Salmonella
strains
Improved quality of
drinkable water
Safe and healthy domestic
water
Reduction of death rate
TOPIC

OUTCOMES

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 CHAPITER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter presents a resumed review of the literature relating to the variables of this
study. It is focusing on treatment of polluted ground water by a biosand filter techniques.

2.2 Groundwater Quality and Groundwater Pollution

Groundwater quality comprises the physical, chemical, and biological qualities of ground
water. Temperature, turbidity, color, taste, and odor make up the list of physical water
quality parameters. Since most ground water is colorless, odorless, and without specific
taste, we are typically most concerned with its chemical and biological qualities. Although
spring water or groundwater products are often sold as “pure,” their water quality is
different from that of pure water.
Human activities can alter the natural composition of ground water through the disposal or
dissemination of chemicals and microbial matter at the land surface and into soils, or
through injection of wastes directly into ground water. Groundwater pollution (or
groundwater contamination) is defined as an undesirable change in groundwater quality
resulting from human activities (UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, 2003).

2.3 Water Parameters

2.3.1 Water pH
The pH level of drinking water reflects how acidic it is. pH stands for “potential of
hydrogen,” referring to the amount of hydrogen found in a substance (in this case, water).
pH is measured on a scale that runs from 0 to 14. Seven is neutral, meaning there is a
balance between acid and alkalinity. A measurement below 7 means acid is present and a
measurement above 7 is basic (or alkaline).
Water with a low pH can be acidic, naturally soft and corrosive.
Drinking water with a pH level above 8.5 indicates that a high level of alkalinity, minerals
are present. High alkalinity does not pose a health risk, but can cause aesthetic problems,
such as an alkali taste to the water that makes coffee taste bitter; scale build-up in
plumbing; and lowered efficiency of electric water heaters. (Wilkes et al.,2007).

7
The operational guideline recommended in drinking water is to maintain pH between 6.5
and 8.5 (WHO, 2008).

2.3.2 Turbidity
Turbidity in water is caused by suspended particles or colloidal matter that obstructs light
transmission through the water. It may be caused by inorganic or organic matter or a
combination of the two. Microorganisms (bacteria, viruses and protozoa) are typically
attached to particulates, and removal of turbidity by filtration will significantly reduce
microbial contamination in treated water. Turbidity in some groundwater sources is a
consequence of inert clay or chalk particles or the precipitation of non-soluble reduced
iron and other oxides when water is pumped from anaerobic waters, whereas turbidity in
surface waters may be the result of particulate matter of many types and is more likely to
include attached microorganisms that are a threat to health.
Turbidity in distribution systems can occur as a result of the disturbance of sediments and
biofilms but is also from the ingress of dirty water from outside the system (WHO,2011).

2.3.3 Electrical conductivity

The natural conductivity of water body that has not been affected by human activities
depends mainly on the geology of the area. The conductivity of groundwater can vary
depending upon the type of rock or soil that the water has come in contact with. Water that
has come in contact with clay soils tends to have a high conductivity (Copertino et al.,
1998).
The concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS) is related to electrical conductivity.
The conductivity increases as the concentration of TDS increases. TDS and conductivity
affect the water sample and the solubility of slightly soluble compounds and gases in
water (e.g. CaCO3, and O2). In general, the corrosiveness of the water increases as TDS
and EC increase, assuming other variables are kept constant.

2.3.4 Escherichia coli pathogenic strains

Escherichia coli is present in large numbers in the normal intestinal flora of
humans and animals, where it generally causes no harm. However, in other parts of the
body, E. coli can cause serious disease, such as urinary tract infections, bacteraemia and
meningitis.

8
 A limited number of enteropathogenic strains can cause acute diarrhoea (Nataro
JP, Kaper JB,1998) .

2.3.5 Salmonella
Salmonella spp belong to the family Enterobacteriaceae. They are motile, Gram-
negative bacilli that do not ferment lactose, but most produce hydrogen sulfide or gas from
carbohydrate fermentation. Originally, they were grouped into more than 2000 species
(serotypes) according to their somatic (O) and flagellar (H) antigens (Kauffmann-White
classification). There has been much debate about the nomenclature and taxonomy of
Salmonella, but it is now considered that there are actually two species (Salmonella
enterica and Salmonella bongori). Other previously named species, including S. Typhi and
S. Paratyphi, are considered to be serovars ( Angulo FJ et al.,1997).

2.3.6 Lead
Exposure to lead is associated with a wide range of effects, including various
neurodevelopmental effects, mortality (mainly due to cardiovascular diseases), impaired
renal function, hypertension, impaired fertility and adverse pregnancy out-comes. JECFA
concluded that the effects on neurodevelopment and systolic blood pressure provided the
appropriate bases for dose–response analyses (WHO,2011).

2.3.7 Iron
Anaerobic groundwater may contain ferrous iron at concentrations up to several
milligrams per litre without discoloration or turbidity in the water when directly pumped
from a well. On exposure to the atmosphere, however, the ferrous iron oxidizes to ferric
iron, giving an objectionable reddish-brown colour to the water.
Iron also promotes the growth of “iron bacteria”, which derive their energy from the
oxidation of ferrous iron to ferric iron and in the process deposit a slimy coating on the
piping. At levels above 0.3 mg/l, iron stains laundry and plumbing fixtures.
There is usually no noticeable taste at iron concentrations below 0.3 mg/l, although
turbidity and colour may develop (WHO, 2003)

9
2.4 WHO standards for drinking water

Table1. WHO standard Values for drinking water

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS
PARAMETERS PERMISSIBLE UNIT
pH 7.0 – 8.5
EC 250 (mS/cm)
TDS 500 mg/l
TB 5 NTU
BACTERIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
E-coli 0 mg/ml
Salmonella 0 mg/ml
HEAVY METALS
Lead (Pb) 0.01 mg/l
Manganese (Mn) 0.5 mg/l
Iron (Fe) 0.3 mg/l

Source: WHO (1958). International standards for drinking water

2.5 BIOSAND FILTER

2.5.1 Definition

A biosand filter (BSF) is a point-of-use water treatment system adapted from traditional
slow sand filters. Biosand filters remove pathogens and suspended solids from water using
biological and physical processes that take place in a sand column covered with a biofilm.
BSFs have been shown to remove heavy metals, turbidity, bacteria, viruses and protozoa.
BSFs also reduce discoloration, odor and unpleasant taste. Studies have shown a
correlation between use of BSFs and a decrease in occurrence of diarrhea. (Buzunis,
B.,1995).

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2.5.2 Biosand filter components and filtration process

Fig1. Concrete Biosand

Biosand filters are typically constructed from concrete or plastic. At the top of the filter, a
tightly fitted lid prevents contamination and unwanted pests from entering the filter.
Below this, the diffuser plate prevents disturbance of the biofilm when water is poured
into the filter. Water then travels through the sand column, which removes pathogens and
suspended solids. Below the sand column, a layer of gravel prevents sand from entering
the drainage layer and clogging the outlet tube. Below the separating layer is the drainage
layer consisting of coarser gravel that prevents clogging near the base of the outlet tube.
(Stauber, 2006)
 Filtration process

Pathogens and suspended solids are removed by biological and physical processes that
take place in the biolayer and the sand layer. (Buzunis, B. 1995). These processes
include:
o Mechanical trapping: Suspended solids and pathogens are trapped in the
spaces between the sand grains.
o Predation: Pathogens are consumed by microorganisms in the biolayer.
o Absorption: Pathogens are absorbed into each other and to suspended
solids in the water and sand grains.
o Natural death: Pathogens finish their life cycles or die because there is not
enough food or oxygen.

 Removal of contaminants

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 - Turbidity

Results for turbidity reductions vary depending on the turbidity of the in fluent water. Turbid
water contains sand, silt and clay. Feed turbidity in one study ranged from 1.86 to 3.9 NTU.
In a study water was obtained from ground water from 5 local wells. It poured through a slow
sand filter and results showed that turbidity decreased to a mean of 1.45 NTU in other words
a 93% reduction in turbidity was observed. As the biofilm above the sand ripens, turbidity
removal increases. Although biosand filters remove much turbidity, slow sand filters, which
have a slower filtration rate, remove more (Buzunis, B. 1995).
- Heavy metals
There is limited research on removal of heavy metals by biosand filters. In a study
conducted in South Africa, the filter removed about 64% of iron and 5% of magnesium.
(Buzunis, B. 1995).
- Bacteria
In laboratory studies, the biosand filter has been found to remove about 98-99% of
bacteria. In removal of Escherichia coli it was found that the biosand filter may increase
due to biofilm formation over about two months. The removal after this time ranged from
97-99.99% depending on the daily charge volume and percent feed water amended with
primary effluent to the filter daily. The addition of primary effluent or waste water
facilitates growth of the biofilm which aids bacterial die-off. Research shows that biosand
filters in use in the field remove fewer bacteria than ones in a controlled environment
(Elliott, et al.,2008).
- Viruses
Lab tests have shown that while the filters reduce significant quantities of E. coli, they
remove signifiicantly fewer viruses because viruses are smaller. In a study using
bacteriophages, virus removal ranged between 85% and 95% after 45 days of usage. A
recent study has suggested that virus removal increases significantly over time, reaching
99.99% after approximately 150 days (Sobsey, et al.,2008)
- Protozoa
In one lab test the biosand filter removed more than 99.9% of protozoa. In tests for one
type of protozoa, Giardia lamblia, the filter removed 100% over 29 days of use. It
removed 99.98% of the oocysts of another protozoa, Cryptosporidium sp., possibly due to

12
their smaller size. This removal was comparable with that of the slow sand filter
(Stauber et al.,2008)

- Health benefits
Studies show that BSF use reduced occurrence of diarrheal diseases by 47% in all age
groups.In a study conducted by CAWST in Haiti, 95% of 187 households believed their
water quality had improved since using biosand filters to clean it. 80% of users stated that
their families’ health had improved since implementation. Such health perceptions on the
use of biosand filter has shown to be more positive in long-term users(Duke, W. and D.
Baker ,2005).

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 CHAPITER THREE

METODOLOGY
3.1. Introduction
The following is the presentation of materials and methods were used during the study. It
presents how the research was designed, description of the sites, sampling procedures,
sample preparation and laboratory analysis and methods which was performed for data
processing and analysis in order to achieve the main and specific objectives.
3.2 Research design
The study of the Mbaar subcounty was carried out from 1 st January to 1st febriary 2016(uji
referrer ku work plan yako), focusing on the quality and use of ground, how its pollueted
and how dangerous it is to the population. Samples were taken from different wells of the
subcounty.
3.3 Research approach
3.3.1 Qualitative study
This was achieved by different site investigation using data collection from local
authority, personnel interviews, meeting, and site observation with to come up with the
information about the quality of water.
3.3.2 Quantitative study

The quantitative study was performed through sample analysis in Makerere (Chemistry
laboratory) and data was collected in order to be compared with World Health
Organisation standards.

3.4 Sampling Procedure

Water sampling process was carried out using 500ml polyethylene bottles. The bottles
were rinsed with sampled water, filled to capacity, closed, labeled and transported in
icebox at 4oc for physicochemical and biological analysis at Makerere University
laboratory.
(tiya photo ya ile icebox na zile ma bouteilles ndani kama uko nayo)

14
3.5. Description of the study Area
Isingiro District is located in the southeastern part of the Western Region of Uganda consisting of
two counties with ten sub-counties as well as two town councils and has a population of 396,700
of which 28 % has access to safe water.
The access rates vary from 12 % in Ngarama Sub-County to 49 % in Kabingo and Kabuyanda
Sub-Counties. The functionality rate in urban and rural areas is 92 % and 96 % respectively.
Isingiro District has 3,462 domestic water points (BH, SW, PS, RWHT, PSP) of which 18 have
been non-functional for morethan 5 years and are considered abandoned. The main water supply
technologies are the public stand post and the deep borehole technology. More than 3,000
rainwater harvesting tanks have been installed.
Isingiro District has 14 GFS and one pumped piped water sup-ply system (groundwater based),
serving approximately 38 % of the population having access to safe water while 62 % of the
population is served by point water sources (Directorate of Water Development, Ministry of
Water & Environment, 2010). The population density (people/km 2 ) of Mbaare subcounty is 155
and 24% of this population have access to safe water.

3.6 Preparation and laboratory analysis

o Variables which are indicators of potable water quality such as pH, electric
conductivity (EC) were determined using Electrometric methon. Total Dissolved
Solids (TDS) was determined through Total Dissolved Solids dried in oven 105 0
method and Turbidity viaAbsoptometric method.
o Bacteriological parameters such as E-coli, almonia were measured in laboratory using
Serial dilution method.
o The analysis of total Pb and Fe in water was be performed in Makerere Chemistry
Laboratory using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer AAS, and the results
were compared with the drinking water standard of WHO.

3.7 Data Analysis and presentation

The data analysis and presentation (tables and graphic) was achieved by Microsoft
Excel and text treatment by Microsoft word.

3.8 Determination of Biosand efficiency

To achieve this purpose, a simple formula was set which allowed us to calculate the rate
of change for each Physico-chemical parameter, Biological Parameter and Heavy Metal
concentration after Biosand filtration

15
Where X represents each variable and is expressed in percentage.

Fig2. Formula quantifying the efficiency of Biosand filtration on each variable

16
 CHAPITER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

The results presented in this chapter cover the site visits and experiments carried out
during the execution of the project within the period of March and May, 2017. The raw
water quality parameters are given and the results of water treatment by a Bio-sand
filter are presented and discussed.

4.2 Laboratory Test Results

For the Nation as a whole, the chemical and biological character of ground water is
acceptable for most uses. The quality of ground water, particularly shallow ground
water, is changing as a result of human activities. Ground water is less susceptible to
bacterial pollution than surface water because the soil and rocks through which ground
water flows screen out most of the bacteria. Bacteria, however, occasionally find their
way into ground water, sometimes in dangerously high concentrations. But freedom
from bacterial pollution alone does not mean that the water is fit to drink. Many unseen
dissolved mineral and organic constituents are present in ground water in various
concentrations. Most are harmless or even beneficial; though occurring infrequently,
others are harmful, and a few may be highly toxic.
Pa;2rameter for the ground water have therefore been analyzed and discussed as
follows;
 Physico-chemical parameters

 Potential of Hydrogen (pH)

- Before Biosand Filtration
The pH value obtained for ground sample from different wells: kintutu, Mbuule, and
Nalongo was 6.04; 5.99, and 6.02 respectively. These values are not within the
acceptable range of values of 6.5 - 8.5 according to the guidelines for drinking water
quality as stated by World Health Organization (WHO). Theses samples are not so much
alkaline and remember that the excessive acidity and alkalinity is harmful to human
health, changes the taste of the water and may cause damage or blockage of the
conduits.
- After Biosand Filtration

17
After samples filtration PH were raised up to 7.37, 7.52, 7.42 for kintutu, Mbuule, and
Nalongo respectively. These values are within the acceptable range of WHO standard for
safe drinking water.

Fig3. Graphic Representing pH variation before and after Biosand filtration

 Conductivity
- Before Biosand Filtration
The Conductivity is the ability of water to transmit electric or heat which is mainly the
ionic activity within the water. Conductivity can therefore be directly associated with
the number of ions in a solution and hence it is higher in water with more total
dissolved solids. The maximum acceptable conductivity of water is 250mS/cm(WHO).
The conductivity of ground water founded for different wells was 47.6ms/cm; 60ms/cm
and 52ms/cm respectively which is too low than the standard limit
- After Biosand Filtration
The Ec of each sample after filtration changed to 149.6, 149.7 and 133.8 respectively,
values which ranged within acceptable limits of WHO.

Fig4. Graphic Representing conductivity variation before and after Biosand filtration

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 Turbidity
- Before Biosand Filtration
Turbidity is caused by suspended materials which absorb and scatter light. These
colloidal and finely dispersed turbidity-causing materials do not settle under quiescent
conditions and are difficult to remove by sedimentation. Turbidity is a key parameter in
water supply engineering, because turbidity will both cause water to be aesthetically
unpleasant and cause problems in water treatment processes, such as filtration and
disinfection. Turbidity is also often used as indicative evidence of the possibility of
bacteria being present. Turbidity measurements performed using proprietary
Nephelometric instruments are expressed as Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).
The nephelometric apparatus is designed to measure forward scattering of light at 90o
to the path of an incandescent light beam. Suspended particles present in a water
sample reflect a portion of the incident light off the particle surface. The light reflected
at 90o is measured by a photoelectric detector and is compared against light reflected
by a reference standard. No interference exists for the turbidity test.
The turbidity of the ground water sample for kintutu, Mbuule, and Nalongo were found
to have 21, 122 and 42 NTU respectively. These are above the maximum allowable limit
yet excessive turbidity, or cloudiness in drinking water is aesthetically unappealing and
may represent health concern.
Turbidity can provide food and shelter for pathogens and hence encourage its growth
and reproduction therefore leading to waterborne disease outbreak.
- After Biosand Filtration
After filtration, the turbidity values of kintutu, Mbuule, and Nalongo were founded to be
1NTU, 3NTU, 4NTU respectively which are below 5NTU therefore safe for drinking.

Fig5. Graphic Representing Turbidity variation before and after Biosand filtration

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 Total Dissolved Solids
- Before Biosand Filtration
The samples had 90, 86, 91mg/l respectively and these are below the maximum
acceptable value of 1500mg/l and therefore making the water no suitable for consumer
use and domestic use.
- After Biosand Filtration
After filtration the TDS of different samples raised up to 160mg/l, 163mg/l and 172mg/l
respectively which are within the acceptable limits of 150-500mg/l of WHO standard.

Fig6. Graphic Representing TDS variation before and after Biosand filtration

 Bacteriologic parameters
 Escherichia Coli
- Before Biosand Filtration
The ground water sample of kintutu, Mbuule, and Nalongo were found to have
presence of Escherichia Coli bacteria of 650cfu/100ml, 1265cfu/100ml and
900cfu/100ml respectively; this is so dangerous to the health as there should not be any
bacteria in water.
- After Biosand Filtration
The filtered water sample collected from different wells of kintutu, Mbuule, and
Nalongo contained 7cfu/100ml, 6cfu/100ml and 9cfu/100ml each. These samples
contained less than 10cfu/100ml after filtration, they are within the reasonable range
(0-10cfu/100ml) according to WHO definition for water safety.
Total coliform may come from sources other than fecal matter however it should be
considered as an indication of pollution especially for positive E.coli results.

20
Fig7. Graphic Representing E-coli variation before and after Biosand filtration
 Salmonella
- Before Biosand Filtration
The ground water sample of kintutu, Mbuule, and Nalongo were found to have
presence of salmonella of 0cfu/100ml,750 cfu/100ml and 600 cfu/100ml respectively.
- After Biosand Filtration
After filtration , the samples contained 0cfu/100ml, 1cfu/100ml and 0.87cfu/100ml. the
first sample met at hundred percent the WHO requirement for water safety and the last
two ones are close at 99% to the WHO standard for drinking water wich is of 0cfu/ml in
safe water.

Fig8. Graphic Representing Salmonella variation before and after Biosand filtration
 Metals
 Iron
- Before Biosand Filtration
The quantity of iron metals founded in different wells was 0.93mg/l, 2mg/l, 1.99mg/l
- After Biosand filtration

21
The total iron available in different filtered samples decreased up to 0.299 mg/l,
0.3,0.22mg/l wich are bellow 0.3 mg/l as required by WHO.

Fig9. Graphic Representing Iron variation before and after Biosand filtration
 Lead
No lead were founded in before and after Biosand filtration samples

4.3 Means of variables

Table2. Mean of Variables before Biosand Filtration
VARIABLES/SITE Kintutu Mbuule Nalongo Mean
S
pH 6.04 5.99 6.02 6.017±0.02
Conductivity 47 60 52 53±3.79
Turbidity 21 122 42 61.67±30.77
TDS 90 86 91 89±1.53
E-coli 650 1265 900 938.33±178.57

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 Salmonella 0 750 600 450±229.13
Iron 0.93 2 1.99 1.64±0.34
Lead 0 0 0 0

Table3. Mean of Variables after Biosand Filtration

VARIABLES/SITES Kintutu Mbuule Nalongo Mean
pH 7,37 7,52 7,42 7.44±0.04
Conductivity 149.6, 149.7 133.8 144.37±5.28
Turbidity 1 3 4 2.67±0.88
TDS 160 163 172 165±3.6
E-coli 7 6 9 7.33±0.88
Salmonella 0 1 0.87 0.62±0.31
Iron 0.299 0.3 0.22 0.27±0.03
Lead 0 0 0 0
4.4 T-Test Comparing averages for matched pairs
The T-test is used to test the difference between the means of matched pair samples.
The measures were done two times on the same sample.
We assume that:
- The null hypothesis (Ho) is that there is no difference between the means of the
samples before and after filtration. If so, it will determines the no action of Biosand
filtration on the quality of water and shows that the Biosand is not adequate for
pollutants removable in water.
- The alternative hypothesis is that there is difference between the means of the
samples before and after filtration. Which prove the efficiency of Biosand in water
treatment
Tab4. Statistics Results of T-test for before and after Biosand filtration samples

T-TEST PAIRS=B.B.F WITH A.B.F (PAIRED)
/CRITERIA=CI(.9900)

/MISSING=ANALYSIS.

4.4.1. T-Test

Paired Samples Statistics

Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

Pair 1 B.B.F 1.9996E2 8 333.31076 117.84315

A.B.F 40.9625 8 70.46879 24.91448

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 Paired Samples Correlations

N Correlation Sig.

Pair 1 B.B.F & A.B.F 8 -.218 .604

Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences

99% Confidence Interval of the

Difference

Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Lower Upper T df Sig. (2-tailed)

Pair 1 B.B.F - A.B.F 1.58995E2 355.38278 125.64679 -280.70421 598.69346 1.265 7 .246

4.4.2 Statistics test Interpretation

Following the results of the above performed T-test for matched pair samples, we can
see that for two tailed test, the t-value of 1.265 at 7 degree of freedom exceeds the
Significance value of 0.246 at the Probability P = 0.99. We therefore reject the Null
Hypothesis and conclude that the means of the two samples (B.B.F and A.B.F) are
significantly different in the two-tailed test.
We can confirm at 99% of certitude that the Biosand filter changed the quality of water.
4.5. Biosand Filter Efficiency on removing Biological organisms and heavy metals in
water
To examine the performance of Biosand filter on different parameters, the above
formula Fig2 must be applied in order to quantify the variation of the concentration of
parameter.
Tab5. Mean values concentration of organisms and metals
I.V/DV Before Filtration After Filtration
E-coli 938.33 7.33
Salmonella 450 0.62
Iron 1.64 0.27
Lead 0 0

4.5.1 E-coli

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E-Coli concentration variation= E-coli before filtration – E-coli after filtration × 100
E-coli before filtration

E-coli variation = 938.33 – 7.33 × 100 = 99.22%

938.33
The Biosand Filter removed 99.22% of E-coli in water, which allowed it to reach the
standard limits set by WHO

4.5.2 Salmonella

Salmonela variation = 450 – 0.62 × 100 = 99.86%

450
The Biosand Filter removed 99.86% of Salmonella in water, which allowed it to reach the
standard limits set by WHO

4.5.3 Iron

Iron variation = 1.64 – 0.27 × 100 = 83.54%

1.64
The Biosand Filter removed 83.54% of Iron in water, which allowed it to reach the
standard limits set by WHO
4.5.4 Lead

There is no lead which was fund in water samples

By reducing the concentration of biological parameter (E-coli and Salmonella) and Heavy
metals (Iron), the Biosand filter changed positively the quality of water because that
reduction affected directly the Physico-Chemical parameters such as pH, Conductivity,
TDS and so on.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Introduction
The chapter presents the conclusions and recommendations made from the study using
biosand filter as a method of water treatment in Mbaar subcounty of Kanyunga district
in Uganda. The conclusions are basing on the results obtained and recommendations
are focusing on the possible measures for good ground water quality improvement and
knowledge gap as areas for further research. On the bases of the findings some
recommendations are presented to provide guidelines to the environmental
management authorities, local leaders of health and safety etc.

5.2 Conclusion

In accordance with the set objectives for this project: (1)To determine and to compare
the Physico-chemical parameters of walls water before and after Biosand filtration in
Mbaare sub-county such as : pH, Turbidity, Conductivity, Total dissolved solids. (2) To
determine and to compare the Bacteriologic parameters of walls water before and after
Biosand filtration in Mbaare sub-county such as: E-coli and Salmonella. (3) To determine
and to compare the concentration of selected heavy metals in walls water before and after
Biosand filtration in Mbaare sub-county such as: Iron and Lead. (4) To assemble a simply
biosand filter prototype in the laboratory and to determine the performance of the
prototype with regard to pollutants removal;
And the results obtained and discussed in the fourth chapter: 99.22%, 99.86% and 83.54
of E-coli, Salmonella and Iron respectively was removed by Biosand filtration and that
reduction of concentration affected directly the quality of water by changing it Phsysico-

26
chemical parameters from 6.04, 47, 21 and 90 to 7.37, 149.6, 1 and 160 for pH,
Conductivity, Turbidity and TDS specifically;

Statistical test was performed to confirm the change between the mean values of
samples before Biosand filtration and after Biosand filtration and it have been fund that
at 99% of probability and 7 as degree of freedom, there was a significant difference
between means of samples (T-test for matched pairs for means comparing)

Following the precedent result, we can confirm with insurance that the Biosand filter is
a potential source for ground water treatment such as wells due to effectiveness of
pollutants removal in water. It removes pathogens organisms, Heavy metals and
suspended solids from water using biological and physical processes that take place in a
sand column covered with a biofilm. Biosand Filter has been shown to change positively
the physico-chemical parameters of water such as: pH, Conductivity, Turbidity and TDS.

The following specific points were noticed deriving from this study;

1) Raw ground water from different wells in Mbaar subcontry are not suitable as for
use as water consumption due their high rate of pollution in terms of pathogens, metals
and others undesirable parameters which have harmful effects on human’s health.

2) The research showed that there is a possibility of using Domestic manual filters like
Biosand filter in the treatment of ground water. This would help to reduce the rate of
lack of safe water hence reducing rate of mortality.
3) It was also fund that the pysico chemicals parameter such as pH, Turbidity,
Conductivity, Total dissolved solids of the treated water have meet the WHO standard
requirement.
4. Water is crucial not only for sustaining life but also for socio-economic development
of a community. Its availability in the right quality and quantity at the required time and
space remains a great challenge. However, this can only be realized if the clean water is
available and conveniently reached by man. The potential benefits of water treatment
using Biosand filter include the availability of relatively clean water close at hand. The
population of Mbaar district is advised to introduce this method of treating water in
order to sort out lack of safe water problem.
5. The quality of Ground water may be affected by many things but still it can also be
improved by means of many methods, the use of Biosand filter method can assist in
cleaning and disinfecting the ground water.
5.2 Recommendations

In accordance with the results of this study, the following recommendations are given;

27
1. Public involvement in water quality management should be improved, this including
the creation of awareness concerning the importance of safe drinking water to avoid
diseases which can arise from water pollution;
2. The government should be more involved by reducing the number of activity and the
possibility of wells pollution in order to minimize the level of pollution in ground
water;

3. The state should have enacted detailed and quite strict laws regarding ground water
pollution from human activity and operations.

4. Different ministries involved in water issues, environment management and

development should come together and draft an operational document governing ground
water management, especially water wells

5. The coordination efforts should be made to provide training and development

programs to the local population for Biosand filter designing in for each family to have
its own one.

This study is an additional data and information to already existed reviews on some
Congolese waters with high pollution rate and contaminants. The findings will assist our
relevant agencies on the need to protect our water bodies and make it safe for supporting
aquatic life.

5.5 Area for further research

The assessment of Physico-chemical parameters such as pH, Electrical conductivity,
Total Dissolved Solids and Turbidity; Biological parameters such as E-coli and
Salmonella, and Heavy metal such as Iron and Pb, was investigated in Ground water in
kintutu, Mbuule, and Nalongo sub-counties of Isingiro District in the southeastern part of the
Western Region of Uganda. There is therefore a need for further research in following
areas:

- Performance of Biosand filters in surface water treatment.

28
 - Efficiency of Biosand filters in Lead removal in rainwater in Kampala town due
to lot of cars.
- The use of Biosand station as way of treating used water from industries.

REFERENCES

Buchholz, R.A., (1998). Principles of environmental management. The Greening of

Business, 2nd. Prentice-Hall, London, Uk.
Phiri, O., Mumba,P, B.H.Z, and Kadewa, W. (2005). Assessment of the impact of
industrial effluents on water quality of receiving rivers in urban areas of Malawi:
Int. J.Environ. Sci. Tech, Autumn 2005, vol.2, No.3, pp. 237-244;

Olayinka K. O (2004). Studies on industrial pollution in Nigeria: The effect of textile

effluents on the journal of Helth and Biomedical Sciences, 3, 44-50;

Mary, K., (2009). Chemical and bacteriological assessment of piped and borehole water
in Dar es Salaam city. Unpublished Msc Dissertation, Kampala International
University, Uganda.
Aïssata, B.H., (2010). Aquiferes superficiels et profonds et pollution urbaine en afrique:
Cas de la communauté urbaine de Niamey (NIGER). Unpublished PhD thesis, Universite
Abdou Moumouni de Niamey, Niger
Directorate of Water Development, Ministry of Water & Environment, 2010:
Uganda Mbaare subcounty location and water accessibility .
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA (2003). Groundwater Quality and Groundwater
Pollution, ANR Associate Editor for Natural Resources.
Wilkes University, Center for Environmental Quality, Environmental Engineering
and Earth Sciences (2007). pH of Water.
Copertino, V,A., Molino,B., Telesca, V. (1998). Spatial and Temporal Evolution of
Water Quality in Reservoirs. Phys. Chem. Earth 23, 475-478;

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Nataro JP, Kaper JB (1998) Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli. Clinical Microbiology
Reviews, 11:142–201.
Rusin PA et al. (1997) Risk assessment of opportunistic bacterial pathogens in drinking-
water.

Angulo FJ et al. (1997) A community waterborne outbreak of salmonellosis and the

effectiveness of a boil water order. American Journal of Public Health, 87:580–584.
Escartin EF et al. (2002) Potential Salmonellatransmission from ornamental fountains.
Journal of Environmental Health, 65:9–12.
Koplan JP et al. (1978) Contaminated roof-collected rainwater as a possible cause of
an outbreak of salmonellosis. Journal of Hygiene, 81:303–309.
Tindall BJ et al. (2005) Nomenclature and taxonomy of the genus Salmonella.
International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 5:521–524.
WHO (2011). Lead in drinking-water
IPCS (1999) Manganese and its compounds
WHO (2011) Manganese in drinking-water, WHO Press 20 Avenue Appia.
WHO (2003) Iron in drinking-water, WHO Press 1211 Geneva 27.
WHO, (2008). Guidelines for drinking-water quality 3rd Edition incorporating the first
and second agenda volume 1 Recommendations, World Health Organizations,
Geneva 2008;
Buzunis, B. (1995). Intermittently Operated Slow Sand Filtration: A New Water
Treatment Process. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Calgary, Canada.
Baumgartner,
Duke, W. and D. Baker (2005). The Use and Performance of the Biosand Filter in the
Artibonite Valley of Haiti: A Field Study of 107 Households, University of Victoria,
Canada.
Elliott, M., Stauber, C., Koksal, F., DiGiano, F., and M. Sobsey (2008). Reductions
of E. coli, echovirus type 12 and bacteriophages in an intermittently operated 2
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Pages 2662-2670.

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 APPENDICCES

APPENDIX 1: WORK PLAN

Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March Apr may
.
Tasks
Conception of the project
Project problem statement
Proposal writing and
discussion
Proposal presentation

Data collection

Data analysis
Final presentation
Final report submission

APPENDIX 2: BUDGET
The table below shows the estimated cost of the project;
Items Unit Quantity Rate Amount
Stationary - - 25 000 UGX 25 000 UGX
Transport Per day 20 000 UGX 600 000 UGX
Internet Per day 5 000 UGX 25 000 UGX
Data collection and Per week 30 000 UGX 60 000 UGX
laboratory test
Miscellaneous - - 250 000 25 000 UGX
UGX
Printing Per page 50 500 UGX 25 000 UGX
Total 985 000 UGX

31