Gupta Era

Like the Mauryas a few centuries earlier, the Guptas made a permanent impact on Indian history by
building up a large empire and by firmly establishing several trends of Indian culture which had begun in
the earlier periods. The Gupta kings are known not only for their political might and strength but also for
great achievements in the field of science, art, culture and literature.

About the early Guptas we do

not know much in detail. The
Allahabad pillar inscription of
Samudragupta mentions
maharaja Srigupta and
maharaja Ghatotkacha as his
ancestors. I-tsing, who
travelled India from A.D. 671
to 695 refers to Srigupta as
the builder of a temple at
Gaya for the Chinese
pilgrims, 500 years before his
time. This king Srigupta has
been identified with the first
Gupta king of that name
mentioned in the Allahabad
pillar inscription. The Puranas
mention that the early Guptas
controlled the area along the
Ganga, Prayag, Saketa and
Magadha. Srigupta was
succeeded by his son
Ghatotkacha who too is
referred to as raja in Gupta
records.

Chandragupta I

In A.D. 320 Chadragupta I succeeded his father Ghatotkacha. It is said that he laid 'the' foundation of the
great Gupta Empire. Chandragupta I married a Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. The Lichchhavis (to
whom Gautama Buddha belongs) were an old and established Ganarajya and quite powerful, still being
respected in north India. This marriage alliance of Chandragupta I was important for his political career
as is proved by the coins of Chandragupta I and Kumaradevi type. These coins portray the figures of
Chandragupta and Kumaradevi and mention the name of the Lichchhavis. Samudragupta, son of
Chandragupta I and Kumaradevi, in the Allahabad inscription proudly called himself Lichchhavis-dauhitra
'son of the daughter of Lichchhavis'. Chandragupta I introduced a new era, the Gupta era, starting with
his coronation in A.D. 320. He was the first Gupta king to adopt the
title maharajadhiraja and issued gold coins.

Samudragupta

Samudragupta succeeded his father about A.D. 340. He earned a

reputation as one of the greatest kings and conquerors. He was
chosen by his father as his successor because of his qualities that
would make him into a good king. The Allahabad pillar inscription gives
a detailed account of the career and personality of Samudragupta. The
inscription was composed by one of his officials, Harishena, and
engraved on the Ashoka's pillar at Allahabad.

The military achievements of Samudragupta contain a long list of kings

and rulers defeated and subdued by· him. In the aryavarta he uprooted
nine kings and princes and annexed their kingdom.

His next most important campaign was in southern India. Altogether

twelve kings and princes of the south (dakshinapatha) are listed in the
inscription. In the case of the kings of this area, he followed the policy
of first capturing the kings, then releasing them from captivity and then ‘King and Queen Type’ Coin
reinstalling them as kings in their territory. By showing royal mercy he Of Chandragupta I; Durga
won their allegiance. For his south Indian campaign, Samudragupta Seated On Lion on Reverse
proceeded through the eastern and southern parts of Madhyadesha
'to Orissa and then advanced along the eastern coast and reached
Kanchi and beyond and returned to his capital by way of Maharashtra
and Khandesh. After these conquests he performed
Ashvamedhayajna. On this occasion he issued gold coins depicting
the sacrificial horse and bearing the legend conveying that he
performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice.

The Allahabad pillar inscription also lists fourteen kingdoms bordering

his kingdom. These rulers paid tribute, followed his orders and showed
their obedience by attending his court. These were located in eastern
Rajasthan, northern Madhya Pradesh, Assam and Nepal. Further,
some forest kings (atavika-rajas) are mentioned whom Samudragupta
had made his paricharaka (helpers).

Another group of political powers listed in the inscription are such as

Kushanas, Sakas, Murundas as well as Simhalas (Sri Lanka) and
inhabitants of other islands. These rulers sent embassies to
Samudragupta's court. According to a Chinese source, Meghavarna,
king of Sri Lanka, sent an embassy to Samudragupta for his ‘Tiger Slayer Type’ Coin,
permission to build a monastery and a guest house for Buddhist Samudragupta; On Reverse,
pilgrims at Bodh Gaya. Goddess Ganga Standing On
Makara, Holding Lotus
Samudragupta was a versatile genius. He was not only proficient in
war, but also in the shastras. He is called kaviraja i.e. 'king of poets'.
The Allahabad pillar inscription calls him a great musician. This is also
confirmed by his lyricist type of coins which shows him playing veena
(lute). He patronised learned men in his court and appointed them as
his ministers. Samudragupta died in about A.D. 380 and was
succeeded by his son Chandragupta II.

‘Ashvamedha Type’ Coin,

Samudragupta

Chandragupta II

The Gupta Empire reached its highest glory, both in terms of

territorial expansion and cultural excellence under Chandragupta II,
son of Samudragupta and Dattadevi. Like his father, Chandragupta
II was chosen by his father as his successor. Chandragupta II
inherited a strong and consolidated empire from his father, which he ‘Lyrist Type’ Coin,
further extended. He established matrimonial alliance with Samudragupta; Seated
Vakatakas and married his daughter Prabhavatigupta to Rudrasena Lakshmi on Reverse
II of the Vakataka dynasty. Chandragupta II probably concluded this alliance with the Vakatakas before
attacking the Sakas so as to be sure of having .a friendly power to back him up in Deccan. After the death
of Rudrasena II, Prabhavatigupta acted as a regent on behalf of her two minor sons. During her regency,
 which lasted over twenty years, and even after that, the relations
between the Guptas and Vakatakas remained friendly and close.

His foremost success was his victory over the mighty Sakas dynasty.
The annexation of their prosperous kingdom comprising Gujarat and
part of Malwa not only strengthened the Gupta Empire but also
brought it into direct touch with western sea ports. This gave a
tremendous impetus to overseas trade and commerce. Ujjain, a great
centre of trade, religion and culture, became the second capital of the
Gupta Empire after the conquest. Perhaps it was after this victory over
Sakas, that Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya, which
became popular in the legends as a patroniser 'of learned men and a
great liberator who overthrew the yoke offoreign rule. The
identification of Chandragupta II with Vikramaditya is doubted by some
scholars. Chandragupta II issued dated silver coins to commemorate
his victory over Saka kshatrapas.

The Mehrauli iron pillar inscription erected originally in front of a temple

of Vishnu (near Qutub Minar in Delhi) records the exploits of a king
named Chandra. He is said to have vanquished the group of enemies
in Vanga (Bengal), perfumed the southern ocean by the breeze of his ‘Lion Slayer Type’ Coin,
prowess and overcome the Vahlikas (across the Indus river). This king Chandragupta Ii;
Chandra of iron pillar is generally identified as Chandragupta II. This
would mean his kingdom extended from Bengal to the north-west
frontiers.
Other than his conquests, Chandragupta II's reign is remembered for
his patronage of literature and arts and for the high standard of artistic
and cultural life. Kalidas the great Sanskrit poet was a member of his
court. Fa-Hien, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim visited India between
A.D. 405 and A.D. 411 collecting Buddhist manuscripts and text and
studying at Indian monasteries. He described the country as a happy
and prosperous one.
Prabhavatigupta

Her father was Chandragupta II of the Gupta Empire and her

mother was Kuberanaga. She married Rudrasena II of the
Vakataka. After his death in 385 CE, she ruled as regent for her
young sons for twenty years. In this, she was supported by her
father and the Vakatakas were practically part of the Gupta empire.
This period is often referred to as the Vakataka-Gupta age.

‘Archer Type’ Coin,

Kumaragupta I Kumaragupta I; Lakshmi
Seated on Lotus
Chandragupta II died about A.D. 413 and was succeeded by his son
Kumaragupta I, who enjoyed a reign of more than forty years. Like his grandfather, Samudragupta, he
issued Ashvamedha type of coins. He may have performed an Ashvamedha sacrifice, though we do not
know of any of his military achievements. The epigraphic records, however, show that he organised the
administration of vast empire and maintained its peace, prosperity and security for a long period of forty
years. This is no small credit upon his tact and ability. At the end of Kumaragupta's reign, the Gupta
Empire was challenged by the Pushyamitras, a community living on the banks of the Narmada.
Skandagupta, son of Kumaragupta I and future king fought and subdued them and restored peace.
Skandagupta
Kumaragupta I died in A.D. 455 and was succeeded by his son Skandagupta. His succession to the
throne was not peaceful and perhaps there was a struggle between him and his brother Purugupta.
Skandagupta's reign seems to have been full of wars. His greatest enemies were the Hunas, a ferocious
barbarian horde which lived in central Asia and were at this very time threatening also the mighty Roman
Empire in the west. One branch of them, known as white Hunas, occupied the Oxus valley and advanced
against both Persia and India. They crossed the Hindukush, occupied Gandhara and defied the Gupta
Empire. Skandagupta inflicted such a terrible defeat upon the Hunas that for half a century they dared
not disturb the Gupta empire, though they to wrought havoc on Persia during this period. Another
important event of Skandagupta's reign is the restoration and repair of the dam on Sudarsana Lake which
had been built during Chandragupta Maurya's reign. We have seen above that this lake was previously
repaired during the reign of Saka kshatrapa Rudradaman I.

Decline of the Guptas

The Gupta dynasty, no doubt continued to be in existence for
more than 100 years after the death of Skandagupta in A.D. 467.
He was succeeded by his brother Purugupta. Nothing is known
about his achievements and perhaps there were none to his
credit. Thereafter, the only Gupta ruler who continued to rule
fairly a large part of the empire was Budhagupta, whose
inscriptions have been found from Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh
and Madhya Pradesh. His successors were not able to handle
the administration, rebellions of some governors and officials
and the Huna invasion. Though the Huna rule was one of the
shortest instances of foreign rule over India, the Gupta Empire
suffered much from it. The Hunas once more attacked under the
leadership, of Toramana in A.D. 512. They conquered a large
part of north India upto Gwalior and Malwa. Toramana was
succeeded by his son Mihirakula who established his capital at The Alchon Huns under Toramana
Sakala (Sialkot). The Huna, rule in India was very short lived. and his son Mihirakula (here)
Hiuen-Tsang describes how Mihirkula invaded Magadha, was contributed to the fall of the Gupta
defeated and captured by the Gupta king Baladitya, and how his Empire.
life was saved at the intercession of the queen mother of Magadha. According to an inscription from
Malwa, Yasovarman, a powerful local ruler of Malwa, also defeated Mihirakula. It is not known whether
he did it independently or as an ally of Baladitya.
Maximum extent of Gupta Empire during Chandragupta II, 414 AD including tributaries
 Polity and Administration

Royal Epithets –
From c. 300 CE onwards, political hierarchies can be identified by the titles of rulers, which reflect
relations of paramountcy and subordination. Gupta kings assumed imperial titles such as
maharajadhiraja, parama-bhattaraka, and parameshvara. They also connected themselves with the gods
through epithets such as parama-daivata (the foremost worshipper of the gods) and parama-bhagavata
(the foremost worshipper of Vasudeva Krishna). Some historians have suggested that the Gupta kings
claimed divine status. For instance, the Allahabad prashasti describes Samudragupta as a god dwelling
on earth, as Purusha (the Supreme Being) and as the equal of the gods Dhanada (Kubera), Varuna,
Indra, and Antaka (Yama). Such assertions can be seen as refl ections of an attempt to exalt the king’s
status by comparing him with the gods, rather than as an assertion of the king’s divinity.
Officers –
Seals and inscriptions mention official ranks and designations, whose precise meaning is often uncertain.
The term kumaramatya occurs on six Vaishali seals, which suggests that this title represented a high-
ranking officer associated with an office (adhikarana) of his own. Kumaramatyas were variously attached
to the king, crown prince, revenue department, or a province.
Individuals of the rank of kumaramatya sometimes had additional designations as well, and such ranks
could be hereditary. For example, Harishena, composer of the Allahabad prashasti, was a kumaramatya,
sandhivigrahika, and mahadandanayaka, and was the son of mahadandanayaka Dhruvabhuti.
The Gupta king was assisted by a council of mantrins (ministers). The Allahabad prashasti refers to an
assembly or council, presumably of ministers—known as the sabha. The various high-ranking
functionaries included the sandhivigrahika or mahasandhivigrahika (minister for peace and war), who
seems to have been a high-ranking officer in charge of the conduct of relations with other states, including
initiating war and concluding alliances and treaties.
Several seals and inscriptions of c.300–600 CE mention the names of dandanayakas and
mahadandanayakas, who were high-ranking judicial or military officers. Seals and inscriptions mention
other military designations such as baladhikrita and mahabaladhikrita (commander-in-chief of the army).
The officials connected specifically with the royal establishment included the mahapratihara (chief of the
palace guards) and the khadyatapakita (superintendent of the royal kitchen). The top layer of the
administrative structure also included amatyas and sachivas, who were executive officers in charge of
various departments. The system of espionage included spies known as dutakas.
The ayuktakas were another cadre of high-ranking officers. The term vinayashitisthapaka has been
translated as ‘one who maintains moral and social discipline’, but the precise functions of this officer are
unclear.
Regional Administrative Units –
The Gupta Empire was divided into provinces known as deshas or bhuktis, administered by governors
who were usually designated as uparikas. The uparika was directly appointed by the king and, in turn,
frequently appointed the head of the district administration and the district town board.
Saurashtra was an important province of the Gupta Empire. Skandagupta’s Junagarh inscription provides
details about the Sudarshana Lake that had been built during the Maurya period and repaired in
Rudradaman’s time. It states that Skandagupta appointed Parnadatta as goptri (governor) of Surashtra
(Saurashtra). Parnadatta in turn appointed his son Chakrapalita to govern the city where this inscription
was inscribed. In Gupta year 136 (i.e., 455–56 CE), the Sudarshana lake burst its embankments due to
torrential rain and Chakrapalita had the breach repaired after two years’ work. The inscription thus reflects
the practice of the delegation of official responsibilities from father to son, and the role of the provincial
government in initiating the repair of waterworks.
The provinces of the Gupta Empire were divided into districts known as vishayas, under officers known
as vishayapatis. The vishayapati seems to have been generally appointed by the provincial governor.
Significant details of district-level administration in Bengal are reflected in the Damodarpur copper plates
dated in Gupta year 124 during the reign of Kumaragupta I. These record orders regarding certain land
transactions issued to village officials by the adhikarana of Kotivarsha vishaya. The adhishthana
adhikarana of Kotivarsha had five members the uparika or vishayapati (who was the head), the nagara-
sreshthin (chief merchant/banker), sarthavaha (chief caravan trader), prathama-kulika (chief artisan or
merchant), and prathama-kayastha (chief scribe or an officer in charge of revenue collection). This
indicates that the vishayapati was assisted in his administrative duties by certain prominent members of
the town.
Administrative units below district level included clusters of settlements known variously as vithi, patta,
bhumi, pathaka, and petha. There are references to officials known as ayuktakas and vithi-mahattaras.
At the village level, villagers chose functionaries such as the gramika and gramadhyaksha, and village
elders also had an important role to play in various matters. The Damodarpur copper plate of the reign
of Budhagupta (of Gupta year 163) mentions an ashtakula-adhikarana (a board of eight members)
headed by the mahattara. Mahattara has a range of meanings including village elder, village headman,
and head of a family or community. The Sanchi inscription of the time of Chandragupta II mentions the
pancha-mandali, which may have been a corporate village body.

Taxation Structure –
The Narada Smriti asserts that subjects owe the king revenue as a reward for the protection he provides
them.
Kamandaka’s Nitisara advises the king to be like a florist or milkman in matters of taxation. Just as cows
have to be tended at certain times and milked at others, and just as a florist takes care of his plants and
sprinkles water on them, besides cutting them—similarly the king should help his subjects with money
and provisions at certain times and tax them at others.
Gupta inscriptions mention fiscal terms such as kara, bali, udranga, uparikara, and hiranya.
 Bhaga was a term used for the king’s grain share, which the Narada Smriti describes as 1/6th of the
agricultural produce.
 Bhoga may have referred to the periodical supplies of fruit, firewood, flowers, etc. that villagers were
obliged to give to the king. Kara was a generic term for taxes. However, it has also been variously
interpreted as a specific tax—a property tax, an emergency tax levied on traders, artisans, and others,
an agrarian tax over and above the king’s customary share, or a periodical tax levied on villagers.
 Bali is known from earlier times. It has been interpreted as a generic term for taxes, the king’s grain
share (i.e., the same as bhaga), a tax on the area of land, or a religious cess.
 The uparikara may have been a tax imposed on farmers without any proprietary rights in the soil, a
tax on termporary tenants, or an additional cess.
 Udranga may have been a tax on permanent tenants, or it may have been related to dranga, which,
according to the Rajatarangini, was a watch station. By extension, the udranga may have been a sort
of police tax levied on a district for the maintenance of the local police station. Yet another
interpretation connects udranga to udaka, suggesting it may have been a water tax.
 Hiranya is generally understood as the king’s share of the agricultural produce in cash. It may have
been a levy in addition to the standard tax realized in grain or its cash equivalent.
 Vata-bhuta, may refer to cesses for the maintenance of rites performed for the winds and spirits.
 The term halirakara has been interpreted as a plough tax, or alternatively as an extra tax imposed on
the area that could be cultivated by one plough in a single season.
 Urban sources of revenue included shulka or tolls. The Bihar stone pillar inscription of Skandagupta
refers to an official called the shaulkika—collector of shulka.
 Sources of state income included royal monopolies on treasure trove, deposits, mines, and salt
reserves. Villagers were obliged to provide royal officers on tour with grass for animals, hides for
seats, and charcoal for cooking. Villages made into agraharas were exempted from such obligations.
 Religion - Bhagavatism, Shaivism, Vaishnavism

The development and spread of religions like Buddhism, Jainism, and Brahmanism to foreign countries
testify the high degree of maturity in the mother country. Although the Guptas, Chalukyas, Pallavas and
others were followers of Brahmanism they never imposed their religion as the official religion of the
empire. They encouraged equally the promotion of all religions, including Buddhism and Jainism.

Buddhism
Sanchi, Sarnath, Gaya,
Nalanda continued to be
the great centres of
Buddhism. Buddhism
became much popular not
only in India but in China,
Ceylon and South East
Asia. A large number of
pilgrims and students from
these countries came to
India to study Buddhism
during this period. Some of
the most famous ones are
Fa-Hien, Hiuen-Tsang and
I-tsing. All of them mention
in detail the flourishing
condition of Buddhism and
recount things such as
number of monasteries,
number of students in these
monasteries etc. The King Kanheri: Buddha and Bodhisattva Figures
of Ceylon requested
Samudragupta to build a rest house for Buddhist pilgrims at Gaya. A large number of chaityas, stupas
and viharas were built .during this period. Nalanda, Valabhi and Kanchipuram became important centres
of education. During this period Buddhism assimilated several features of Brahmanism, and Brahmanism
imbibed some of the essential teachings of Buddhism.

Jainism
Jainism made considerable progress during this period. Some of the Chalukyas, Rashtrakuta, Ganga
and Kadamba kings patronised the Jain religion. It continued to be popular among the merchant
communities of western India. In the sixth century A.D. the second Jaina Council was held at Valabhi
and Jain canon was defined substantially as it exists today.

Hinduism
Buddhism and Jainism both either discarded, or passed over in silence, the doctrine of the existence of
God. But within the Vedic religion there grew certain religious system which attained considerable
popularity within a short time. This system now centered on the idea of a supreme God conceived as
Vishnu, Siva, Sakti and some other form. Salvation was possible through His Grace (prasada) alone and
this could be attained only by bhakti i.e. intense love and devotion leading to complete surrender of self
to the personal God. The chief vehicle of this new system were Bhagavatism, (later came to be known '
as Vaishnavism), Saivism and Saktism.
The three important aspects of Vedic religion became crystallised at this time. The images of gods and
goddesses emerged as the centre of worship and greater stress now began to be laid on dana (gifts)
than on yajnas (sacrifices) although offering to the images remained central to the ritual. This in turn
encouraged bhakti (devotion) where worship of a god became much more the concern of the individual.
They expressed themselves by defining the four ends of life known as Purshartha - religious and the
social laws (dharma), economic well-being (artha), pleasure (kama), and the salvation of the soul
(moksha).

Vaishnavism
Vaishnavism, as the name implies, means religion in
which Vishnu is the object of worship and devotion as the
Supreme God. Originally, it merely laid stress upon the
idea of a supreme God, God of Gods, called Hari, and
emphasised the necessity of worshipping him with
devotion, in preference to other older methods of
sacrifices and austerities. It did not, of course, do away
with either the sacrifice or Vedic literature which
prescribed it. It therefore, can be said that this new system
made an attempt to introduce a religious reform on more
conservative principles than Buddhism and Jainism did.
The Vaishnavism centered on the Vasudeva cult of
Bhagavata religion where Vasudeva Krishna is identified
with the Vedic diety Vishnu.
An important feature of Vaishnavism during this period
was the popular worship of avataras i.e., incarnations of Vishnu Resting on Sheshanaga, Deogarh
Vishnu. It was believed that whenever the social order
faced crisis, Vishnu appeared in an appropriate form to save the earth and humanity. Epigraphic and
literary records of the period throw light on the evolution of the avataras, the roots of this can be traced
to the later Vedic literature.
The number and nature of these avatar as are variously given in different treatises. Gradually, the concept
often avataras became more popular. Through these avutaras we find the biological as well as historical
evolution of life on earth. These are Matsya (fish), Kurma (tortoise), Varah (Boar), Narasimha (man-lion),
Vaman (dwarf), Parasurama (Rama with the axe), Rama ( King of Ayodhya and hero of the Ramayana),
Krishna (Hero of the Mahabharata) , Buddha (the Enlightened one) and Kalki (to appear). Of these,
Krishna was the most popular incarnation of Vishnu because several aspects of Krishna's life occupy an
important position in modern Vaishnavism.
Another feature of Vaishnavism in this period is the conception of Lakshmi or Sri as Vishnu's wife.
Goddess Lakshmi is associated with prosperity. The Gupta kings were followers of Vaishnavism and
called themselves paramabhagavatas. As worshippers of Vishnu, the Gupta emperors introduced the
depiction of his vahana, Garuda, Goddess Lakshmi, and chakra on their coins.
In south India, Vaishnavism became quite popular and the Vaishnava devotees were known as Alvars.
Their Tamil songs are so marked by depth of feeling and true piety that they are looked upon as
Vaishnava Veda. These songs are very popular in south India, and their authors are held in great
veneration. Their images are worshipped side by side with those of Vishnu and his various incarnations.

Saivism
The origin of Saivism may be traced to the conception of
Rudra in the RigVeda. The worship of the Siva-linga in
Harappan civilization also point to the great antiquity of
Saivism. Rudra represented the malignant and destructive
phenomena in nature. We can trace the development of the
worship of Rudra right from the RigVedic times to the period
of Upanishad. Kena Upanishad eulogised Siva and his
consort Uma as supreme deities.
Siva was at fIrst worshipped, not by a particular sect, but by
the Vedic people in general. The existence of the Saiva sect
may be traced as early as the second century B.C. It is
possible that a defInite Saiva system or school was
established, in imitation of the Bhagvata sect. Saiva sect was
earlier known as Lakula, Pasupata or Mahesvara.
The worship of Siva as a sect seems to have spread rapidly
after the Kushana period. By about the sixth century A.D.
Saivism became more popular and spread to south India and
became the predominant religion in Anman and Cambodia
from fifth century onwards. In the fIrst half of the seventh
century A.D. Hiuen-Tsang found followers of Saiva sect as
far west as Baluchistan.
In south India a large number of saints, called Nayanars,
composed their devotional hymns with the highest spiritual
sentiments and set up Saivism on a strong foundation. The
number of these saints is usually given as 63 and their hymns
are still widely read and held in great veneration. Ekamukhalinga
Lingayata was another important sect of
Saivism in south India, whose philosophy
was influenced both by Sankara and
Ramanuja. The Lingayatas gave
prominence to the worship of Linga
(Phallus) and the Nandi (Bull).
The Saiva sect became very popular in
the south under the patronage of the
Rashtrakutas and the Cholas and the
magnificent temples and monastic
establishment still testify its former
grandeur. The Buddhist kings of Pala
dynasty established Saiva temples for the
Pasupata sects.
The small island of Elephanta, off the
coast of Mumbai, was given this name by
the Portuguese after a large elephant
sculpture once located here. Several
caves are scattered over the island. The
most famous of these is Cave 1, dated to
the mid-6th century CE. This large cave,
measuring about 40 m north–south, Mahadeva in the Elephanta Cave
consists of a spacious pillared hall, at the
western end of which is a square shrine containing a linga and yoni. Imposing dvarapalas (doorkeepers)
flank its four entrances. The niches in the walls of the large hall frame several fine relief carvings. One of
these depicts Lakulisha, and this suggests that the caves were associated with the Pashupata sect.
The most spectacular carving in the hall is an over 5 m high relief carving of Maheshvara (Shiva) with
three faces.

Shaktism and other cults

The other sects that became popular during this period are Saktism, Kartikeya and Ganapati.
Mother Goddesses have been worshiped in India right from prehistoric periods onwards. During the
Gupta period, the Goddesses Durga, Kali, and Parvati were associated with the Sakti, as the strength or
potency of her male counterpart. These goddesses were worshipped as wives of gods and played an
active and positive role in the life of human beings in their benevolent aspects such as Lakshmi,
Annapurna, and Saraswati. Ardhanarisvara, a figure, half Siva and half Parvati, representing the union
of the God with his sakti, was an important development of this period. The Siva and Sakti were
worshipped in benign as well as terrible forms.
The numerous solar deities of the Vedas were merged into a single God usually known as surya (the
sun). Several temples in northern and western India were built during this period dedicated to the Sun
God. The Mandsor inscriptiort of the time of Kumaragupta I mentions the construction and repair of Sun
Temple by the guild of weavers.
In the epic and puranic mythology, Kartikeya and Ganapati are usually described as the two sons of Siva
and Parvati. Kartikeya was the war-God known as Kumara, Skanda, and Subramanya. Ganapati or
Ganessa is venerated and worshipped first among the Gods by every Hindu. He is considered as
Vighnaharta (remover of all obstacles).
 Nalanda
Certain Buddhist monasteries achieved fame as educational centres. Nalanda was one of the most
renowned and celebrated of these. The literary references to Nalanda date to the 6th/5th century
BCE and suggest the possibility that Ashoka may have established a vihara at this place. However,
excavations at Bargaon, which marks the site of the Nalanda monastery, did not reveal any pre-
Gupta remains. Faxian does not mention Nalanda, but Xuanzang does, and states that he stayed
there for quite some time. Therefore, it was thought that the monastery may have been built during
the late Gupta period. Recent excavations at the site have, apparently, revealed pre-Gupta
remains. Nalanda enjoyed royal patronage in post-Gupta times too, during the reigns of
Harshavardhana and the Palas, and was destroyed by the Turks in the course of the 12th and 13th
centuries.
 Gupta period - Art & Architecture

The economic prosperity of the

country led to the all-round
development in the field of
sculptural art, architecture and
painting. The manuals on the
construction of stone temples were
written during this period giving
minute details of construction
which were faithfully followed by
the craftsmen.

The age of the Guptas is often

described as a classical age in the
sphere of cultural developments.
The basis of such a description is
the fact that during c. 300–600 CE,
an exceptionally fine aesthetic ideal
is apparent in many parts of the
subcontinent. Art and literature Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh
both reveal parallels in their ideals
of beauty, displaying a fi ne balance between the sensual and spiritual. While appreciating the artistic
production of these centuries, we can, at the same time, question whether it indeed represents ‘the best’
of Indian literature, sculpture, and architecture—which is implied in the use of the term ‘classical age’—
or whether it marks one of several epochs that saw impressive developments in artistic creativity.

The early Gupta phase has been described as a successful combination of the paradoxes of earthiness
and daintiness, strength and elegance, the sublime and the grotesque. These features were fused into a
graceful and harmonious style in the Gupta period proper. In the late Gupta period, the representation of
the human body became more slender and the poses of the figures more stylized. The brief period
between the early and later Gupta periods produced some of the world’s finest art, characterized, among
other things, by a unique elegance and an ability to effectively express higher spiritual states. Guptas
may have been responsible more for the extent of the spread of a common artistic idiom than its precise
form. The art of this period is imbued with a strong intellectual flavour, displaying a fi ne balance between
representational credibility and abstracting tendencies.

Temple types - Nagara, Dravida, Vesara

The period c. 300–600 CE represents an important stage in the history of Indian temple architecture.
Most of the surviving temples are located in the hilly areas of Madhya Pradesh and are in a ruined state.
The stone temples include the Vishnu temple at Tigawa, the Shiva temples at Bhumara and Khoh, the
Parvati temple at Nachna-Kuthara, and the Buddhist shrines at Sanchi. Outside central India, there is the
Buddhist temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar and the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh in Jhansi district (UP).
There are also ruins of a temple of this period at Dah Parbatia on the banks of the Brahmaputra in Assam.
Apart from these stone temples, there are brick temples at Bhitargaon (Kanpur district, UP), Paharpur
(Rajshahi district, Bangladesh), and Sirpur (Raipur district, Chhattisgarh)

The early temples were small. The square garbha-griha (sanctum), about 10 x 10 ft, was just large enough
to house the image. There was a small portico and the roof was usually flat. Temple walls tended to be
plain, but the doorways were often intricately and profusely carved. Later temples—those of the late 5th
and 6th centuries—reveal some changes. The temple was now built on a raised plinth and had a shikhara
(spire). The Dashavatara temple at Deogarh and the temple at Bhitargaon, both of which probably had
curvilinear shikharas, are examples.

Temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all regions during ancient India. The distinct
architectural style of temple construction in different parts was a result of geographical, climatic, ethnic,
racial, historical and linguistic diversities.

Ancient Indian temples are classified into three broad types. This classification is based on different
architectural styles, employed in the construction of the temples. Three main styles of temple architecture
are the Nagara or the Northern style, the Dravida or the Southern style and the Vesara or Mixed style.
But at the same time, there are also some regional styles of Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan areas.
Though the basic nature of the Hindu temple remains the same, with the essential feature an inner
sanctum, the garbha griha or womb-chamber, where the primary Murti or the image of a deity is housed
in a simple bare cell. Around this chamber, there are often other structures and buildings, in the largest
cases covering several acres. On the exterior, the garbhagriha is crowned by a tower-like shikhara, also
called the vimana in the south. The shrine building often includes an ambulatory for parikrama
(circumambulation), a mandapa congregation hall, and sometimes an antarala antechamber and porch
between garbhagriha and mandapa. There may be further mandapas or other buildings, connected or
detached, in large temples, together with other small temples in the compound.
Hindu temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and the way
of life cherished under Hinduism. A temple is a place for Tirtha - pilgrimage. All the cosmic elements that
create and celebrate life in Hindu pantheon, are present in a Hindu temple - from fire to water, from
images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from kama to artha, from the fleeting
sounds and incense smells to Purusha - the eternal nothingness yet universality - is part of a Hindu
temple architecture. The form and meanings of architectural elements in a Hindu temple are designed to
function as the place where it is the link between man and the divine, to help his progress to spiritual
knowledge and truth, his liberation it calls moksha.

The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are described in Shilpa Shastras and Vastu
Sastras. The Hindu culture has encouraged aesthetic independence to its temple builders, and its
architects have sometimes exercised considerable flexibility in creative expression by adopting other
perfect geometries and mathematical principles in Mandir construction to express the Hindu way of life.

Basic form of a Hindu temple

Hindu Temple Architecture was a gradual evolution starting from the rock-cut- cave temples to monolithic
rathas which finally culminated in structural temples.
The basic form of a Hindu structural temple consists of the following –

1. Garbhagriha - It literally means ‘womb-house’ and is a cave-like sanctum. In the earliest temples,
it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance. Later it grew into a larger complex. The
Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the focus of much ritual
attention.
2. Mandapa - It is the entrance to the temple. It may be a portico or collonaded (series of columns
placed at regular intervals) hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers. Dances
and such other entertainments are practised here. Some temples have multiple mandapas in
different sizes named as Ardhamandapa, Mandapa, and Mahamandapa.
3. Shikhara or Vimana - They are mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple. Shikhara is
found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South Indian temples. Shikhara has a
curving shape while vimana has a pyramidal-like structure.
4. Amalaka - It is a stone disc-like structure at the top of the temple and they are common in North
Indian temples.
5. Kalasha - It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian temples.
Antarala (vestibule) - Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple’s
main hall (mandapa).
6. Jagati - It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.
7. Vahana - It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or Dhvaj
which is placed axially before the sanctum.

The Nagara or North Indian Temple Style

The style of temple architecture that became popular in northern India is known as Nagara. Features of
this style are as follows –

1. Entire temple to be built on an upraised stone platform with steps leading up to it.
2. It does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
3. While the earliest temples had just one tower or shikhara, later temples had several.
4. The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.
5. The temples generally followed the Panchayatan style of temple making.
6. The mandap is present in front of the principal shrine.
7. There is no water tanks or reservoirs present in the temple premise.
8. The Portico has a pillared approach.

The Shikharas are of 3 types –

1. 'Latina' or the Rekha-Prasada type of shikhara - It is the most common name for the simple
shikhara which is square at the base and whose walls curve or slope inward to a point on top.

2. Phamsana - Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than latina ones. Their roofs are
composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre of the building.

3. Valabhi type - These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber. The
edge of this vaulted chamber is rounded, like the bamboo or wooden wagons that would have
been drawn by bullocks in ancient times. They are usually called ‘wagon-vaulted buildings’.
The Dravida or the South Indian Temple Style

Dravidian
architecture is an
architectural idiom
in Hindu temple
architecture that
emerged in the
southern part of
the Indian
subcontinent or
South India,
reaching its final
form by the
sixteenth century.
It consists primarily
of Hindu temples
where the dominating feature is the high gopura or gatehouse; large temples have several. Mentioned
as one of three styles of temple building in the ancient book Vastu shastra, the majority of the existing
structures are located in the Southern Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu
and Telangana. Various kingdoms and empires such as the Cholas, the Cheras, the Kakatiyas, the
Pandyas, the Pallavas, the Gangas, the Rashtrakutas, the Chalukyas, the Hoysalas, and Vijayanagara
Empire among others have made a substantial contribution to the evolution of Dravidian architecture.
This style of architecture can also be found in parts of North India (Teli ka Mandir Gwalior, Bhitargaon
Baitala Deula, Bhubaneshwar), Northeastern and central Sri Lanka.

Composition and structure

1. The porches or Mandapas, which always cover and precede the door leading to the cell. Gate-
pyramids, Gopurams, which are the principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that
surround the more notable temples. Gopurams are very common in Dravidian temples.
2. Pillared halls (Chaultris or Chawadis) are used for many purposes and are the invariable
accompaniments of these temples. Besides these, a South Indian temple usually has a tank called
the Kalyani or Pushkarni – to be used for sacred purposes or the convenience of the priests –
dwellings for all the grades of the priesthood are attached to it, and other buildings for state or
convenience.

Salient Features –

1. Unlike the Nagara temple, the Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall. The front wall
has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as Gopura/Gopuram.
2. The shape of the main temple tower is known as Vimana (shikhara in Nagara style). The Vimana
is like a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically rather than the curving Shikhara of north
India. In south India, the word Shikhara is used only for the crowning element at the top of the
 temple which is usually shaped like a small stupika or an octagonal cupola (this is equivalent to
the amalaka or kalasha of north Indian temples).
3. In north Indian temples, we can see images such as Mithunas (erotic) and the river goddesses,
Ganga and Yamuna guarding the temple. But in the Dravida style of temple architecture, instead
of these sculptures, we can see the sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or doorkeepers guarding the
temple. A large water reservoir or a temple tank enclosed in the complex is general in south Indian
temples.
4. Subsidiary shrines are either incorporated within the main temple tower or located as a distinct,
separate small shrine beside the main temple. The north Indian idea of multiple shikharas rising
together as a cluster was not popular in Dravida style.
5. At some of the most sacred temples in south India, the main temple in which the garbhagriha is
situated has, in fact, one of the smallest towers. This is because it is usually the oldest part of the
temple. When the population and the size of the town associated with the temple increased, it
would have become necessary to make a new boundary wall around the temple (and also
associated structures). An example of this is the Srirangam temple at Thiruchirapally, which has
as many as seven concentric rectangular enclosure walls, each with gopurams.
6. The outermost is the newest while the tower right in the centre housing the garbhagriha is the
oldest.
7. Just as the nagara architecture has subdivisions, dravida temples also have subdivisions. These
are basically of five different shapes: square, usually called kuta, and also caturasra; rectangular
or shala or ayatasra; elliptical, called gaja-prishta or elephant backed, or also called vrittayata,
deriving from wagon-vaulted shapes of apsidal chaityas with a horse-shoe shaped entrance
facade usually called a nasi; circular or vritta; and octagonal or ashtasra.
8. Generally speaking, the plan of the temple and the shape of the vimana were conditioned by the
iconographic nature of the consecrated deity, so it was appropriate to build specific types of
temples for specific types of icons. It must, however, be remembered that this is a simplistic
differentiation of the subdivisions. Several different shapes may be combined in specific periods
and places to create their own unique style.

Difference between Nagara and Dravidian Architecture

Feature Nagara architecture Dravidian architecture

Main temple Shikhara above sanctum Vimana that may be multistorey (talas),
spire (tower) the top of which is called the shikhara

Mandapa spire Yes No

(tower)

The curvature of Curvilinear centred over the Straight-edged pyramidal, sometimes

the spire sanctum, also straight-edged curvilinear centred over the sanctum
pyramidal

Sanctum Single or multi-storey Typically single (Vimana may be multi-

storey)
Plan Mandapa, sanctum and tower plans same, plus Prana Vikara
are predominantly Chaturasra
(square); uncommon: Ashtasra,
Vritta, Ayatasra, Ayata Ashtasra,
Ayata Vritta, Hasti Prishta,
Dwayasra Vrita

Gopuram Not a prominent feature Characteristic, but not essential; after the
10th century often higher than the
vimana. Maybe several, on all sides of the
compound, serving as landmarks for
pilgrims

Other features sacred pools, fewer pillared sacred pools, many-pillared mandapas in
mandapas in temple grounds temple grounds (used for rites of passage
(separate dharmashala), prakara ceremonies, choultry, temple rituals),
walls rare (e.g. Odisha after the 14th prakara walls became common after the
century), single or multiple 14th century, single or multiple entrances
entrances into the temple into the temple

Major sub-styles Latina, Phamsana, Sekhari, Valabhi Tamil (upper and lower Dravidadesa),
Karnata, Andhra

Geography northern, western, central and southern parts of the Indian subcontinent,
eastern parts of the Indian Southeast Asia
subcontinent

Chronology of Late Kushana era, early Gupta: Late Gupta era: rudimentary; 6th-10th
surviving stone- rudimentary archaic; 6th-10th century: zenith
masonry century: zenith
monuments
 Stone sculpture

In the domain of sculpture, the Gupta period witnessed the highest development of art in India. The period
is known as the "classical period"
because it saw the culmination of
spirituality, idealism and art into
one.

The figures of Buddha, found in

large numbers at Sarnath and
other places, show a fully
developed form of Buddhist art
and came to be regarded as the
model for succeeding ages. They
exhibit at once, grace and
refinement as well as delicacy
and repose, and offers a unique
combination of perfection in
technique with the expression of
the highest spiritual conception
which makes them
masterpieces.

This high quality was generally

maintained 'in the images of
Brahmanical gods also as is
illustrated by the images of Siva,
Vishnu and others in the
sculptured panels of the Deogarh temples and other places. These divine images not only possess
beauty and charm, but are also beaming with a radiant spiritual expression.

The Gupta artists and craftsmen were no less capable in working with metals. The famous iron pillar at
Delhi, near Qutub Minar, is a marvel in metallurgical skill and technology. The art of casting copper
statues, coins, and copper seals etc, on a large scale shows the handling of metal work at its best. A
copper image of Buddha, about 80 feet high was erected at Nalanda in Bihar, and a fine Sultanganj
Buddha, 72 feet high, can still be seen in Birmingham Museum. Coins were finely struck and dies were
carefully engraved. Seals attached to copper-plates are also examples of fine workmanship.
Udayagiri near Vidisha has 20 rock-cut caves belonging to this period. They indicate that the basic
elements of Hindu iconography were in place by this time. Cave 5 has a huge, impressive relief scene
measuring 7 × 4 m, depicting Vishnu rescuing the earth from the waters.
 Paintings

The tradition of paintings in India can

be traced from prehistoric rock art
painting found at Bhimbetaka,
Mirzapur and various other sites.
Literary evidence also leaves no
doubt that the art of painting was
cultivated in India from very remote
times. The paintings were used for
the decoration of walls. The best
examples of paintings in India in
Ajanta and Bagh caves were done
between the first and the seventh
century A.D. At Ajanta of the 29
caves traces of paintings can be
seen in sixteen caves. In Ajanta the
surface of the caves were first
covered by a mixture of clay,
cowdung, fine pulverised traprock,
and then a thin coating of fine white
plaster. The ground thus prepared
was carefully smoothened and kept
moistened. This produced a surface
on which the design was first
sketched and then painted.

The usual colours used are white,

red, brown, green and blue in
various shades. The pictures depict
figures of Buddha and various
episodes of his present and past
lives i.e., Jataka stories. Animals and
vegetables are is drawn in profusion
for the sake of ornamentation. The
designs are as varied and graceful
as they are fanciful. The painting on
the rock-cut temple at Kailasa and
the adjoining caves contain
paintings of a somewhat different
type and style from those of Ajanta
and Bagh.

The cave temple of Sittannavasal in

Pudukottai (Madras) contains some fine paintings ofthe time of the Pallava king Mahendravarman. They
are elegant and beautiful, and show the degree of excellence
which the art had attained during Pallava era.
 Science and Technology
In the field of mathematics, astronomy and medicine, India had much advanced knowledge during this
period in comparison to any other country in the world. These developments in science and technology
in India were first borrowed by Arabs and then by the western world.
In Ancient India, mathematics and astronomy originated and developed in Vedic times itself. In
mathematics, Aryabhata wrote the book Aryabhattiya, in Kusumpura (Pataliputra) when he was 23 years
old. Aryabhattiya is divided into four parts. As regards geometry, Aryabhata considers among other
topics, an area of a triangle, the theorem on similarity of triangles, the area of circle and the theorem
relating to rectangles contained by the segments.
One of the most important features of Aryabhata's mathematical system is his unique system of notation.
It is based on the decimal place-value system, unknown to other ancient people, but now in use
throughout the civilized world. The other famous mathematician was Brahmagupta who wrote
Brahmsiddhanta in c. A.D. 628 His other well-known work was Khandakhadya probably composed in
A.D. 665. He developed rules for operating with negative qualities and with zero. He began to apply
Algebra to astronomical problems.
Astronomy
Astronomy and Astrology are included in ancient India in a term known as Jyotisa. Varahamihira, who
flourished in the court of Chandragupta II, has preserved in his Panchasiddhantika, written in A.D. 505,
the accounts of five astronomical works which were evidently regarded as authority in his own time.
These five works or siddhantas are known as Paitamaha, Romaka, Paulisa, Vasishtha and Surya. The
Suryasiddhanta is the most important and complete work on the astronomy of the period. In the field of
astrology, we are also much indebted to Varahamihira. He has, in his encyclopaedic work Brihatsamhita,
preserved a considerable amount of ancient knowledge on the subject. His Brihatsamhita, besides being
the most important textbook on natural astrology, is a veritable compendium of Ancient Indian learning in
the field of science. Varahamihira's son, Prithuyashas too was an ardent student of astronomy, and wrote,
in about A.D. 600, a work called Harashatpanchashika.
As in mathematics, so too in astronomy, Aryabhata was an outstanding scholar of the Gupta age. His
most original contribution was however, that the eclipses were not the work of Rahu, as believed by some
astrologers, but caused by the shadow of the earth falling on the moon, therefore, asserting the
movement of earth on its own axis around the sun, as was known in Vedic times. Aryabhata was the first
to utilize sign functions in astronomy. He discovered an accurate formula to measure the decrease or
increase in the duration of two consecutive days.
Medicine
Ayurveda, the name of Indian medical sciences, literally means science of longevity. Its origin dates back
to Vedic times. Over seven hundred hymns in the Vedas particularly in Atharvaveda refer to the topics
connected with Ayurveda. The great writer of this period is Vagabhata, who ranks only next to Charaka
and Susruta. The two famous works of the period are Astanga-sangraha and the Astangahirdaya-
samhita assigned to two different authors by the same name i.e., Vagabhata. There were also treatises
on the diseases of animals. The best known is Hastyayurveda. It deals elaborately with the diseases
peculiar to elephants. A similar treatise on the horse known as Asvasastra was written by sage Salihotra.
Metallurgy
Another science which developed along with medicine is chemistry. Nagarjuna, the great Mahayanist, is
reputed to have distinguished himself also in chemistry. Besides medicine, chemistry must have
substantially helped in the development of metallurgy. The Mehrauli iron pillar remains a living monument
that shows the progress in metallurgy achieved 1500 years ago by Indians. This is 7.32 meters high with
a diameter of 40 cm at the base to 30 cm. at the top and weigh about 6 tonnes. It has withstood all the
vagar ies of nature such as rains, heat and cold for over all these 1500 years without rusting.

Ancient Manuscripts
In 1881, a fragmentary manuscript consisting of 70 birch bark leaves was discovered about 70 miles
from Taxila. It is now known as the Bakshali Manuscript. Written in the Gatha language (a refined
version of old Prakrit) and the Sharada script, it may belong to around the 3rd or 4th century. This
manuscript is the only extant work which gives a comprehensive account of the mathematical concepts
prevalent at the time. It discusses topics such as fractions, square roots, arithmetic and geometric
progressions, simple equations, and the rational approximation for the square root of a number which
is not a perfect square. It also deals with advanced topics such as the summation of complex series
and simultaneous linear equations.
In 1890, a British lieutenant named Hamilton Bower was camped at Kuqa on the northern fringe of the
Gobi desert while hunting down the Afghan assassin of a Scottish trader. He was approached by a
man who offered to sell him some ancient manuscripts, supposedly found in a nearby stupa. Bower
bought them, and they ultimately reached Calcutta These manuscripts came to be known as the Bower
Manuscript. The Bower Manuscript was actually a collection of fragmentary manuscripts that seem to
originally have belonged to a Buddhist monk named Yashomitra living in the monastery of Qum Tura,
close to Kuqa, and were buried in a memorial stupa dedicated to this monk when he died. They included
seven treatises—three on Ayurveda, two on divination by using dice, and two on incantations to be
used against snakebite. The manuscript belonged to the late 4th or early 5th century CE and proved to
be an invaluable source for the history of ancient Indian medicine.
 Literature and language

The period marked the brilliant phase of Indian literature whether in poetry, drama, grammar or prose.
The wonderful corpus of literature is the visible product of the system of education and learning. The
Puranas, eighteen in number, preserved the traditions, legends, moral codes, religious and philosophical
principles and itihas. The smritis are metrical texts containing the rules and regulations and laws for the
guidance and governance of society. They are based on dharmasutras and grihyasutras of Vedic
literature. But additions and alterations have been done to make them suitable to the changing conditions
of society. They are written in verse. The phase of writing of commentaries on the smritis –begins after
the Gupta period.

The compilation of the two great epics, Ramayana arid Mahabharata was completed by the fourth century
A.D. The philosophical works of the period are many and varied in character such as philosophic works
of Mahayana and other schools of Buddhist thoughts and those of various Saiva and Vaishnav School.

In the field of kavya or poetical works, the name of Kalidas stands foremost in the history of Indian
literature. He is credited with having written the best works in poetry, dramma as well as in prose. His
kavyas such as Meghaduta, Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhava, and dramas such as
Abhijnashakuntalam are considered to be among the best literary works in the world and have been
translated into many languages. Kalidas graced the court of Vikramaditya, the king of Ujjayini, who has
been identified with Chandragupta II. A few inscriptions of the period also possess, in some degree, most
of the characteristics features of Sanskrit kavya. The Allahabad pillar inscription by Harisena, Mandsor
inscription composed by Vatsabhatti, Junagarh rock inscription, Mehrauli Pillar inscription, Aihole
inscription by Ravikriti etc. are fine examples of literary expression.

In the field of drama, Bhasa, Sudraka, Kalidas and Bhavabhuti are the most noteworthy. Sudraka is the
author of Mrichchakatika - 'Little clay cart'. His play deals with the love of a brahman with the beautiful
daughter of a courtesan; it is considered one of the best plays of ancient India. Vishakhadatta wrote two
plays: Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam, which are the two best known historical plays.
Malavikagnimitram, Abhijnanashakuntalam and Vikramorvasiyam the three famous plays written by
Kalidas. Bhavabhuti's works are Uttararama-charita, Malati-Madhava etc.

In prose, earliest notable works are Dasakumaracharita by Dandin and Vasavadatta of Subandhu. One
of the most famous works is Panchatantra, written by Vishnu Sharma, which was translated into Persian
and Arabic in the eighth century A.D. and has been translated in almost all European languages since
then. The popular work Hitopadesa is based on the Panchatantra. The biography of Harsha,
Harshacharita, written by Banabhatta, is an outstanding work of the period.

This period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and Patanjali. Mention may
also be made of three Shatakas of Bhartrihari. He has also been credited for writing the commentary on
the Mahabhasya of Patanjali. This period is particularly memorable for the compilation of the Amarakosha
by Amarasimha, who was a luminary in the court of Chandragupta II. This lexicon is memorised by heart
by the students who learn Sanskrit.

The Prakrit was as much popular in this period as it was earlier. The Shvetambara Jain canon was written
in Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit and religious texts of the Digambara Jain of the south were written in the Mahar
ashtri and Sauraseni Prakrits. The commentaries on Buddhist texts were written in Pali. The well-known
Prakrit and Pali grammar works of the period are Prakritaprakasha written by Vararuchi and
Prakritalakshana written by Chanda. The book on grammar of Pali is Katyayanaprakarna.

Tamil Literature

The Tamil literature of the period consists of large number of works resembling those of the Sangam Age.
The development of devotional songs of the Saiva and Vaishnava saints are characterised alike by the
depth and sincerity of feeling and the beauty of literary expression. Among the Nayanar saints, Tirumular
occupies a very high position. The hymns composed by them were collected into eleven Tirmurais which
are held in great venerations by the people of India. Another important work contains the lives of sixty-
three Saiva saints.

The Vaishnava saints known as Alvars are traditionally twelve in numbers. The collection of their works
known as Nalayiraprabandham, consists of 4,000 stanzas. It is considered the most sacred text in Tamil
and celebration of it in special festivals in all prominent temples of south India raised the status of Tamil
as language of religious writing.

Two Tamil Epics

The Silappadikaram (The Song of the Anklet) by Ilankovatikal (prince ascetic) consists of 30 cantos
arranged in three books. The outline of the story is as follows: Kovalan (the son of a wealthy merchant)
and Kannaki are a young, happily married couple living in Puhar. Kovalan falls in love with a beautiful
courtesan named Madhavi and abandons his wife. He eventually returns home after quarrelling with
Madhavi. Kannaki welcomes him back and offers him her golden anklet to raise some money. They
travel to Madurai, capital of the Pandya king, accompanied by a Jaina nun named Kavundi. Kovalan
goes off to sell his wife’s anklet. He is accused of stealing the queen’s anklet, which looks just like
Kannaki’s, and is executed. Kannaki is devastated. She proves her husband’s innocence by bursting
open her other anklet—it contains a ruby, whereas the queen’s was fi lled with pearls. The king, who
had executed a man unjustly, dies of remorse; his wife dies of grief. Kannaki tears off her left breast
and hurls it onto the city in fury. Madurai is engulfed in flames. Kannaki joins her husband in heaven;
on earth she comes to be worshipped as the ideal wife.
The epic’s complex treatment of guilt and evil is one of its strengths. So are its multi-layered characters
with human flaws and frailties, which evolve as the story progresses. The anklet has an important
symbolism— Kannaki wears her anklets in the beginning of the story, when she is happy; she removes
them after she is abandoned by Kovalan. The anklet is the cause of Kovalan’s tragic end and the
symbol of truth which ultimately proves his innocence. When Kannaki is united with her husband in
heaven, she again wears both her anklets. Although the epic no doubt catered to an elite, educated
audience, it tells us a great deal about the lives of ordinary people of the time.
The Manimekalai (The Jewel Belt) of Sattanar consists of 30 cantos and a preamble. The outline of
the story is as follows: Prince Udayakumara is in love with Manimekalai, who is not interested in him
because she wants to renounce the world and become a Buddhist nun. In order to escape the
attentions of the prince, Manimekalai assumes the form of a woman named Kaya-Chandikai. She
distributes food to the needy people of Madurai, using a magic alms-bowl. The husband of the real
Kaya-Chandikai sees Manimekalai with the prince and kills him in a fi t of jealousy. Manimekalai is put
in prison, where she survives many ordeals to which she is subjected. Realizing that she is a saintly
person, the queen begs forgiveness and sets her free. Manimekalai eventually reaches Kanchi, where
a famine is raging and feeds the poor with her magic alms-bowl. She ultimately fulfils her heart’s desire
by joining the Buddhist sangha.
The Manimekalai is often considered somewhat inferior to the Silappadikaram in terms of its formal
literary features. While the Silappadikaram has a Jaina flavour, the Manimekalai has a strong, strident
Buddhist tone. Its characters are either good or bad, with few shades of grey, and the narrative is
marked by many more miracles and supernatural interventions.

Faxian
Faxian’s Gaoseng Faxian zhuan (A Record of
Buddhist Kingdoms), the earliest firsthand
Chinese account of Buddhist sites and
practices in India, played an influential role in
moulding Chinese perceptions of this land.
Faxian was over 60 years old when he left
Chang’an on his long overland journey to
India, and about 77 when he returned to
China. His main aim was to obtain and bring
back texts containing monastic rules. Not
surprisingly, his account focuses mainly on
Buddhist monasteries in various parts of
north India, the number of monks and their
practices, descriptions of places of Buddhist
pilgrimage, and legends associated with
them. There are very few descriptions of the
lives of ordinary people and these tend to be
rather idealized. Here are two excerpts:
[At Mathura]: All south from this is named the Middle Kingdom. In it the cold and heat are finely
tempered, and there is neither hoarfrost nor snow. The people are numerous and happy; they do not
have to register their households, or attend to any magistrates and their rules; only those who cultivate
the royal land have to pay (a portion of) the gain from it. If they want to go, they go; if they want to stay
on, they stay. The king governs without decapitation or [other] corporal punishments. Criminals are
simply fined, lightly or heavily, according to the circumstances [of each case]. Even in cases of repeated
attempts at wicked rebellion, they only have their right hands cut off. The king’s bodyguards and
attendants all have salaries. Throughout the whole country, the people do not kill any living creature,
nor drink intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic. The only exception is that of the Chandalas. That
is the name for those who are [held to be] wicked men, and live apart from others. When they enter
the gate of a city or a marketplace, they strike a piece of wood to make themselves known, so that men
know and avoid them, and do not come into contact with them. In that country, they do not keep pigs
or fowl, and do not sell live cattle; in the markets there are no butchers’ shops and no dealers in
intoxicating drink. In buying and selling commodities they use cowries. Only the Chandalas are
fishermen and hunters, and sell flesh meat.
[At Pataliputra]: The cities and towns of this country are the greatest of all in the Middle Kingdom. The
inhabitants are rich and prosperous, and vie with one another in the practice of benevolence and
righteousness. Every year, on the eighth day of the second month they celebrate a procession of
images. They make a four-wheeled cart, and on it erect a structure of five storeys by means of bamboos
tied together. This is supported by a king-post, with poles and lances slanting from it, and is rather
more than twenty cubits high, having the shape of a stupa. White and silk-like cloth of hair is wrapped
all round it, which is then painted in various colours. They make figures of devas with gold, silver, and
lapis lazuli grandly blended and having silken streamers and canopies hung out over them. On the four
sides are niches, with a Buddha seated in each, and a bodhisattva standing in attendance on him.
There may be twenty carts, all grand and imposing, but each one different from the other. On the day
mentioned, the monks and laity within the borders all come together; they have singers and skilful
musicians; they express their devotion with flowers and incense. The Brahmanas come and invite the
Buddhas to enter the city. These do so in order, and remain two nights in it. All through the night they
keep lamps burning, have skilful music, and present offerings. This is the practice in all the other
kingdoms as well. In the cities, the heads of the Vaishya families establish houses for dispensing charity
and medicines. All the poor and destitute in the country, orphans, widowers, and childless men,
maimed people and cripples, and all those who are diseased, go to those houses and are provided
with every kind of help, and doctors examine their diseases. They get the food and medicines they
require and are made to feel at ease; and when they are better, they go away of their own accord.

Natyashastra
The Natyashastra tells us that natya (drama) was created as a plaything (kridaniyaka) to give pleasure
and divert minds weary of the problems, conflicts, and miseries of daily life. The fi rst chapter of the
work describes the gods requesting Brahma for something playful or pleasant. The first play is said to
have been performed in heaven in front of the gods and demons on the occasion of the Indra festival.
The text tells us that the Natyashastra was passed on by Brahma to a sage named Bharata as a fifth
Veda in order to save the world from evil passions by a means which, unlike the four Vedas, was
accessible to all people. This origin myth clearly aimed at giving legitimacy to the text.
The Natyashastra is a composite work reflecting the codification and compilation of earlier material
which may have been current among actors over many centuries. This may have initially existed in the
form of oral traditions, and later in the form of prose sutras, to which verses and commentary were
subsequently added. Abhinavagupta’s commentary on the Natyashastra mentions three recensions of
the text, of which only one has survived in the form of two versions.
The Natyashastra deals with all aspects of dramatic performances. It discusses abhinaya, i.e., the
ways in which actors can communicate a dramatic experience to the audience through speech,
expressions, and various movements of the body, props, costumes, and ornaments. It also discusses
topics such as the construction of the theatre, types of plays, the plot and structure of plays, characters,
dialogues, the ideal time of performances, and the ideal qualities of actors and audiences. Elaborate
props and a drop curtain are noticeably absent. Song and dance were important elements of plays and
there are references to street plays.
One of the central concepts discussed in the Natyashastra is rasa (discussed specially in Chapter 6 of
the work). The text uses the analogy of cooking to explain the art and effect of drama. The combination
of various foodstuffs, vegetables, sweetners, and spices gives food a taste and flavour, which in turn
produces delight and satisfaction. Similarly, in drama, the combination of the causes and effects of
emotions give rise to a particular rasa or aesthetic experience in the audience, leading to pleasure and
satisfaction. The text lists eight rasas associated with eight corresponding basic emotions:
1. the sensitive shringara rasa associated with love
2. the comic hasya rasa associated with humour
3. the compassionate karuna rasa associated with grief
4. the furious raudra rasa associated with anger
5. the heroic vira rasa associated with energy
6. the apprehensive bhayanaka rasa associated with fear
7. the horrific bibhatsa rasa associated with disgust
8. the marvellous adbhuta rasa associated with astonishment
Rasa is different from bhava (feeling). The actors depict certain emotions (bhava); the audience
experiences corresponding aesthetic experience (rasa). The actors imagine and represent the
emotions of the characters they portray; the audience reacts to their portrayal. For instance, when the
actors act as though they were in love, the audience does not experience the pangs or joys of love,
but the sensitive shringara rasa. Similarly, when the actors act out grief, the audience does not
experience grief but compassion.
According to the Natyashastra, death should never be portrayed on stage, nor should it be reported.
Other activities generally not to be shown on stage include eating, fighting, kissing, and bathing. The
hero was supposed to triumph at the end of the play. Unlike Greek drama, Sanskrit drama does not
have a tradition of tragedy. There may be plenty of sorrow and suffering in the course of the play, but
it usually ends on a positive note.