This document discusses the potential for offshore wind energy systems in Malaysia. It investigates the technical and economic feasibility of offshore wind farms in several Malaysian sites. The analysis compares two types of wind turbine models and calculates the cost of energy production. One site was found to have average wind speeds of 4.1 m/s and a cost of energy of RM 0.40. The analysis also found that feed-in tariff policies can reduce energy costs and increase profitability of wind farms.
This document discusses the potential for offshore wind energy systems in Malaysia. It investigates the technical and economic feasibility of offshore wind farms in several Malaysian sites. The analysis compares two types of wind turbine models and calculates the cost of energy production. One site was found to have average wind speeds of 4.1 m/s and a cost of energy of RM 0.40. The analysis also found that feed-in tariff policies can reduce energy costs and increase profitability of wind farms.
This document discusses the potential for offshore wind energy systems in Malaysia. It investigates the technical and economic feasibility of offshore wind farms in several Malaysian sites. The analysis compares two types of wind turbine models and calculates the cost of energy production. One site was found to have average wind speeds of 4.1 m/s and a cost of energy of RM 0.40. The analysis also found that feed-in tariff policies can reduce energy costs and increase profitability of wind farms.
This document discusses the potential for offshore wind energy systems in Malaysia. It investigates the technical and economic feasibility of offshore wind farms in several Malaysian sites. The analysis compares two types of wind turbine models and calculates the cost of energy production. One site was found to have average wind speeds of 4.1 m/s and a cost of energy of RM 0.40. The analysis also found that feed-in tariff policies can reduce energy costs and increase profitability of wind farms.
Copyright:
Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1/ 28
Potential Offshore Wind Energy Systems
By
Danaraj CHANDRASEGARAN KGH070029 Abstract
Recent developments have shown the Malaysian government is giving serious
consideration for renewable energy sectors. Wind energy is one of solution which offers an alternative to the fossil fuels. Furthermore, substantial investments are ploughed in to develop the technologies for worldwide use.
In this paper, preliminary technical and economical feasibility of offshore wind
farms are investigated in the Malaysian region. This study indicates the best sites in Malaysian region for offshore wind farms with the cost of energy calculated. Also, two types of wind turbine models are compared to provide the better selection. In Site 2, which corresponds to average wind speed of 4.1 m/s, the cost of energy is at RM 0.40. Moreover, the analysis shows the feed-in tariff policy reduces the cost of energy and increases the profitability of the wind farms. INTRODUCTION 4
LITERATURE REVIEW 5
Characteristics of Offshore Wind Energy Systems 5
Offshore Wind Energy Technology and Components 5
Wind Turbine Generators 6
Electrical System 6
Environmental Impacts 7
PRELIMINARY FEASIBILITY OF OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY IN MALAYSIA 9
SELECTED SITES IN MALAYSIA 14
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 15
Comparison of selected sites 15
Comparison of WTG models 15
Sensitivity analysis 15
CONCLUSION 17
REFERENCES 18
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES 19
Introduction Wind energy systems are dynamic energy source, which are becoming more significant in recent years. Wind energy facilities have since more than doubled compared to yesteryears, particularly in Australian and European Continents. This trend is expected to be followed by the rest of the world in the near future. Worldwide capacity has reached 121 188MW in 2008 and compared to 7 480MW in 1997, signifying substantial development in this type of energy source [1].
Pursuant to worldwide development for wind energy resources, offshore wind
energy facilities have grown in recent years. Nevertheless, this only accounts for about 1% of the total wind energy facilities and all of it is located in the European continent.
Meanwhile in Malaysia, wind energy is being given serious consideration in
future developments [2]. Rapid development in Malaysia contributes to the ever increasing energy consumption. Malaysian government has targeted to generate 5% of the country’s electricity by renewable energy sources, but on 0.3 % was achieved. National Green Technology Policy launched in April 2009 seeks to provide guidance and creating opportunities for businesses and industries towards higher economic growth. Nevertheless, fossil fuels are expected to be dominant part of the energy mix in the future but renewable energy sources share are expected to increase significantly.
In this paper, the technical and economical features of off-shore wind farms are summarized and a methodology is described for evaluating the expected annual energy yield and the cost of produced energy. This methodology is applied to six sites in the Malaysian region, which offer promising potentials. The investigation is carried out based selected wind turbine generator models suitable for off-shore applications. Literature review
Characteristics of Offshore Wind Energy Systems
Over the past decade offshore wind energy resources have emerged as potential energy source and practiced widely in European continent. Nevertheless, its competitiveness are being improved further and to make it feasible all over the world [1,3].
Offshore wind energy systems are different from on-shore installation due to several reasons: a) Offshore wind turbines generate mote power than onshore installations because the wind speeds are higher and steadier. In addition, the wind turbine generators are of larger diameters and rated power. b) The plants are inaccessible during period of high winds c) The installation and maintenance of the facilities require high investment cost. d) Submarine electrical transmission to the shore is considered as a major portion of the works involved.
In addition, offshore environment are more uncertain and difficult than onshore sites. Therefore, it presents more costs and risks to the parties involved.
The pertinent characteristics of this energy system are further elaborated in the subsequent sections based on Ref. [4,5].
Offshore Wind Energy Technology and Components
Development of offshore wind energy systems covers a wide range of area of discipline such as mechanical, civil and electrical. Research and development of offshore wind power began in 1970s and focused in Europe and United States. A summary of key technologies involved in offshore wind farms is shown in Table 1[5]. Wind Turbine Generators Basically, offshore wind energy system workings are similar to the onshore installations with distinct requirements due to the reason stated earlier. To illustrate this, wind turbines converts the wind energy to the kinetic energy and subsequently to electricity. However, for offshore installations, key considerations are given to the size and reliability to maximize the energy generated.
Principle components for the offshore wind turbine are illustrated in Figure 1 based on offshore wind farm in Denmark [6]. These are mainly concerns of rotor, turbine assembly, tower and foundation which support the tower. Rotor refers to the blades and blade hub. Turbine assembly includes the gearbox and the generator. These are enclosed in a shell or nacelle. Meanwhile, tower supports the turbine assembly and houses the remaining components and facilitates the maintenance access. Apart from this, foundation or special structure required to support the whole turbine and tower assembly.
Due to the fact that wind velocities are higher and steadier in offshore area, offshore wind turbines are substantially larger with blade length of about 30 - 40m and tower heights of about 60 – 80m. Apart from this factor, demanding climates and servicing constraints need to be considered as well. Towers shall be strengthened to cope with wind and wave loading to the structures and also the corrosive nature of the sea environment. In addition, an offshore installation requires corrosion protections, internal climate control systems and internal cranes for servicing.
Characteristics indicated here are only snapshots of the requirements. However,
detailed engineering are required to finalize it as it may change due to the nature of the environment, costs and localities factors.
Electrical System Firstly, deployment of offshore wind farms requires dedicated offshore electrical system. This can be established by sub-sea cabling to the onshore grid from the offshore substation. Figure 2 shows the AC grid connection of an offshore wind farm. At the moment, offshore grid networks are being developed in Northern Europe. In addition, High Voltage Direct Current grid technologies are being utilised as well [7] .
Substations required for offshore installations concern with higher requirement
due to the nature of operating area and servicing conditions. For example, the following listed have been considered and installed in an offshore wind farm substation in Denmark apart from the switchgears and transformers; (a) Emergency diesel generator with fuel storage; (b) Sea water-based fire-extinguishing equipment; (c) Staff and service facilities; (d) Helipad; (e) Crawler crane; (f) MOB boat (Man Over Board) [6].
Characteristics indicated here are only snapshots of the requirements. However,
detailed engineering are required to finalize it as it may change due to the nature of the environment, costs and localities factors.
Environmental Impacts As with any other potential energy source, environmental impacts are also given substantial considerations as well. Nevertheless, wind energy is described as green energy irrespective it’s either on the land or offshore. Currently, environmental studies are conducted prior to the construction and subsequently any resulting recommendation will implemented during the succeeding project phase. The following paragraphs summarize the potential environmental consideration during the development and operation of the offshore wind energy installations [7,8].
During construction phase, sedimentation, noise and vibration will be the
concerns. Technologies are available to mitigate these impacts and preparation of component away from the wind site also helps. In addition, oil spills and other contaminants also present risks to water quality.
Impacts on marine life and birds have to be evaluated diligently. At times,
foundation supports may act as an artificial reef and promote species around it. However, this may also stimulate the bird population, subsequently resulting in collision between the towers and birds. In addition, it also has similar consequences towards migrating birds by causing navigational disorientation. Wind farms also can diminish essential habitats for seabird, as they have restricted areas which thay can successfully feed. Electromagnetic fields due to the submarine cabling, support pilings and anchoring devices may also affect the underwater species and diminish its habitat. For example, this may affect fish’ perception of electric and magnetic field for orientation and prey detection.
Another concern would be the visual impact of the wind turbine installations. However, this impact diminishes as the distance to the shores increases. Also, the wind turbines may interfere with shipping routes, fishing areas and recreational uses of the selected area.
Therefore, environmental impacts need to be studied prior and subsequent
recommendation taken into account to ensure proper mitigation of suspected impacts. Preliminary Feasibility of Offshore Wind Energy in Malaysia
In the succeeding sections, the main technical and economical aspects for offshore wind farm developments are appraised. The methodology of the appraisal is based on Ref. [9].
Annual energy yield assessment, E
The evaluation of annual energy, E (GWh/ year) for an offshore wind farm requires the following steps.
a) Offshore wind flow prediction.
Predictions of wind flow for a particular site plays a crucial role in determining the feasibility of the project. Therefore, a detailed knowledge of wind characteristics and historical data is required for efficient planning and implementation of wind farms. These data can be sourced from meteorological department of the locality and marine surface observation reports. For this study, the wind flow data is obtained from Ref. [10]. Sites selected are shown in Figure 3 and the water depth of the sites is indicated in Figure 4.
b) Gross energy assessment
Gross energy , EG (GWh/ year) contributed by each of the wind turbine can be calculated using software tools with wind flow information and the wind turbine generators (WTGs) power curve. In this paper, the HOMER software used considering the WTGs power curves, prevailing wind directions and the Weibull distribution parameter on the basis of values in Table 2 and Ref [10]. c) Wind farm design
Offshore wind farm layouts can be optimized for energy generation. However, the water depth and sea bed conditions shall be considered as well to reduce the overall project costs. In this paper, the available space is assumed to be 2km2. Layout is composed by arrays with distance between columns (dc) and rows (dr) of 8D and 6D. With these assumptions, the number of WTGs in the wind farm can be summed as: N = A/ (48. D2) Also, the array efficiency, ηL if often assessed using software tools considering the sheltering effects of the WTGs and wind flow characteristics. In this paper, the value is assumed at 0.9.
d) Wind farm electrical system
Based on Ref. [9], an AC 20kV transmission line is the best solution for a wind farm size of 10-20 MW with estimated distance to coast of 0.5 – 2.0 km. Considering the same case for this paper, the electrical transmission losses coefficient ηE is expressed as: ηE = 0.98 – (d/ 600)
with d is distance to shore (km)
e) Wind farm availability, ηA
Wind farm availability, ηA refers availability of the plant to produce electricity in
percentage. Studies have shown that availability of the plant has significant effect on the costs of electricity. Hence, the system shall be sufficiently designed using high quality and reliable components. Overall, wind farm availability considers both electrical system availability and WTGs availability. In this paper, the availability is assumed to be 95% of the annual energy yield. On the basis of previous assumptions, the annual gross energy yield, E (GWh/ year) can be summed as E = EG x N x ηL x ηE x ηA
Investment, operation and maintenance costs
The evaluation of economical aspects for offshore wind energy system is described here and estimated investment and costs are provided. The total investment costs comprised of the following items.
a) Wind turbine costs, CT
The costs include the tower, shell and electrical devices of the WTGs. It mainly depends on the size, hub height of the WTG and particularly increases to adapt the WTGs to the sea conditions. For this study, value of CT is in the range of RM 3,750,000 to 4,500,000/ MW, according to literature data is assumed.
b) Support and installation costs, CS
This cost comprises of material, construction and installation cost. The foundation material cost is factored by hub height and site conditions such as water depth and climate. Meanwhile the installation cost is a function of number of WTGs erected. For the present study this costs is expressed as CS = (H/0.5) 0.3 [(1700 W2 - 9455W+ 21836)/ 1000]
Where, W = water depth
H = WTG hub height
c) Grid Connection Cost, CG
Grid connection costs is subject to the distance involved to the onshore point, type of transmission system and the electrical system within the wind farm. The cost of 20kV/ 150kV transformer is assumed of RM42,500/ MW and the additional costs of other devices is of RM500,000/ MW, according to literature data. d) Operation and Maintenance Cost, CM This cost is ties up with the overall operational and maintenance strategy employed by the plant operator. In addition, distance from shore points and plant reliability influences it as well. Here, value of RM250,000/ MW is considered, according to literature data.
e) Project and Development Cost, CP
The project and development cost is assumed to be 4% of the investment cost.
On the basis of previous assumptions, the total investment cost, I can be summed up as: I = N [PR (CT + CG + CM +CP) + CS] Where PR is the WTG rated power
f) Operation and Maintenance Annual Cost, O
For this study, the annual O & M cost is assumed to be 2% of the total investment, I.
Economical Feasibility This section described the methodology to calculate the costs of energy from the offshore wind farm.
The total operating cost is the sum of the annual operation and maintenance (O&M) costs, total fuel cost, and annualized replacement cost minus the annualized salvage value. For grid-connected systems, the operating cost includes the annualized cost of grid purchases minus grid sales.
The total net present cost of a system (NPC) is the present value of all the costs that it incurs over its lifetime, minus the present value of all the revenue that it earns over its lifetime. Costs include capital costs, replacement costs, O&M costs, fuel costs, emissions penalties, and the costs of buying power from the grid. Revenues include salvage value and grid sales revenue. This can be summed as: NPC = Total annualized cost of the system/ CRF Where, CRF = Capital recovery factor = i(1+i)n/[(1+i)n – 1] i = discount rate n = number of years
Levelized cost of energy (COE) is defined as the average cost per kWh of useful electrical energy produced by the system. To calculate the COE, the annualized cost of producing electricity (the total annualized cost minus the cost of serving the thermal load) divided by the total useful electric energy production. Therefore COE can be summed up as: COE = Total annualized cost of the system/ Total electricity produced.
For this study, the economic parameters are defined in Table 3.
Selected Sites in Malaysia
The main parameters of selected sites for this study are described in Table 2. These sites face the South China Sea and present a potential offshore wind resource. Figure 3 shows the sites, indicated by numerical identification of 1, 2, 3, 4, 8 and 13. Wind speeds at these sites reach more than 5 m/s during the northeast monsoon season and the rest of the year marked low. The directions of the wind are from the northeast and east quadrant during the northeast monsoon season and south and southwest during the southwest monsoon season [10].
Currently, there is no available precise bathymetry survey conducted in South
China Sea concerning these sites. Also, a general survey shown in Figure 4 indicates the water depth for the sites are less than 50m. However, for the purpose of this study, the wind farms are estimated to be 20m water depth, within a distance of 5km from the shore. Results and discussion
Comparison of selected sites
The economic feasibility analysis described in the preceding sections is applied on the selected sites in Malaysia described in Table 2, considering the wind turbine models described in Table 4.
The results are tabulated in Table 5. The lowest cost of energy system is achieved at Site 2. Meanwhile, highest cost of energy system is found on Site 8. This is due to the differences in the wind resources available in the particular site.
Figure 5 shows the monthly average electricity production in Site 2 using both WTG models. The results confirm that electricity production is highest during the northeast monsoon season and low for the rest of the year.
Comparison of WTG models
For all the sites, two models of WTGs were assessed. The results are shown in Table 5 as well. It results that larger sized WTG produces higher energy output compared to the smaller sized WTG, corresponding to Site 1, 4, 8 and 13. However, the variances are between the two models is less than 5%. Meanwhile, net specific production results in having smaller rated WTG with higher value for all sites as shown in Figure 6. Table 6 shows the COE, for both models of WTG in all the investigated sites. The results confirm that the higher rated WTGs are more competitive at approximately 33% lower against the lower rated WTGs, due to their lower energy system cost.
Sensitivity analysis The influence of the feed-in tariffs in the cost of energy for Site 2 and for the V- 80 WTG model is explored in the sensitivity analysis. Table 7 describes the variation of the cost of energy as a function of feed-in tariff. The initial values in the table are those considered in Table 7. The analysis shows that feed-in tariff ratio of 2.38 would represent the break even point for the energy system cost. Any subsequent increase in feed-in tariff ratio would be present an attractive climate for private sectors to invest. Conclusion
In this paper, a preliminary feasibility study of offshore wind farms to 6 selected
sites in Malaysia was conducted. The results indicate that Site 2 as the best location due high wind resources availability.
The 2 MW rated wind turbines, provides the lowest energy cost at RM0.40. However, higher net specific production is provided by the 0.66 MW rated wind turbine.
The sensitivity analysis confirms that the feed-in tariff is a significant factor in determining the feasibility of the offshore wind farm in Malaysia. Feed-in tariff higher than the break even point would attract private sectors to invest on this type of energy system. Nevertheless, the uncertainty in the renewable energy policies and wind farm availability shall make it difficult to forecast the cost of energy for this type of applications.
In summary, the main obstacle in the Malaysian offshore wind farm deployment would be the feed-in tariff policy. An attractive policy would determine the profitability of an investment in the offshore wind farms and encourage private sectors to invest here. References
[1] World Wind Energy Association. “World Wind Energy Report 2008”. February 2009 [2] Tick Hui Oh, Shen Yee Pang, Shing Chyi Chua. “Energy policy and alternative energy in Malaysia: Issues and challenges for sustainable growth”. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 14, pp1241–1252, 2010. [3] Gaetano Gaudiosi. “Offshore Wind Energy Prospects”. Renewable Energy, Vol. 16, pp828-834, 1999. [4] Minerals Management Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. “Wind Energy Potential on the U. S. Outer Continental Shelf”. May 2006. [5] Wang Zhixin, Jiang Chuanwen, Ai Qian, Wang Chengmin. “The key technology of offshore wind farm and its new development in China”. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 13. pp216–222, 2009. [6] Dong Energy. (undated). [Online]. Viewed 2010 March 15. Available http://www.hornsrev.dk/ [7] Brian Snyder, Mark J. Kaiser. “Ecological and economic cost-benefit analysis of offshore wind energy”. Renewable Energy, Vol. 34, pp1567–1578, 2009. [8] European Wind Energy Association. “Oceans of Opportunity: Harnessing Europe’s largest domestic energy resource”. September 2009. [9] Antonio Pantaleo, Achille Pellerano, Francesco Ruggiero, Michele Trovato. “Feasibility study of offshore wind farms: an application to Puglia region”. Solar Energy, Vol. 79, pp321-331, 2005. [10] E. P. Chiang, Z. A. Zainal, P. A. Aswatha Narayana and K. N. Seetharamu. “Potential of Renewable Wave and Offshore Wind Energy Sources in Malaysia”. Marine Technology Seminar, pp1-7, 2003. List of Figures and Tables
Figure 1 - Offshore Wind Turbine Installation
Figure 2 - AC grid connection of an offshore wind farm. Figure 3 -Selected Offshore Wind Farm Sites Figure 4 - Bathymetry for South China Sea Areas Figure 5 - Monthly Average Electric Production Figure 6 - Net Specific Production for Different Sites
Table 1 - Key Technologies of Offshore Wind Farm [5]
Table 2 - Main Parameters of Selected Site Table 3 - Economic Parameters Table 4 - Main Wind Farm Parameters Table 5 - Investment and O & M Costs Table 6 - Energy Costs Table 7 - Sensitivity Analysis for V-80 model, Site 2 Figure 1 - Offshore Wind Turbine Installation Figure 2 - AC grid connection of an offshore wind farm.
Figure 3 -Selected Offshore Wind Farm Sites
Figure 4 - Bathymetry for South China Sea Areas Monthly Average Electric Production 8,000 Wind Grid
6,000 Power (kW)
4,000
2,000
0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
V-47 Monthly Average Electric Production 8,000 Wind Grid
6,000 Power (kW)
4,000
2,000
0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
V-80 Figure 5 - Monthly Average Electric Production
Net Spec Production for Different Site
1600 1400 1200 MWh/ MW
1000 800 600 400 200 0 1 2 3 4 8 13 Site
V-47 V-80
Figure 6 - Net Specific Production for Different Sites
Key technologies Contents and characteristics 1. Foundations 1. Bearing hydrodynamic and aerodynamic load, considering factors as wind and wave load, support construction and dynamic characteristics of wind turbines and response to unit control system etc. 2. Types of foundations: (1) gravity, mature construction and installation technologies, suitable for water depths about 0–10 m. The disadvantages are seabed needed and hard to remove with large weight and size; (2) mono pile foundation, no need of seabed preparation, simple to manufacture, be considered for depth of 0–30 m. The disadvantage is special installation equipment is needed. (3) tripod foundation, seabed preparation is little needed, suitable to water depths higher than 20 m. 3. IEC61400-3 based 2. Selection of site Considered factors: (1) wind resources; (2) permission to project construction; (3) rights of using farm site; (4) grid situations, location and voltage levels of transformer station, accessible largest capacity and grid plan, etc.; (5) sites situations, scope, water depths, wind resources and marine geological conditions; (6) environment constraints. Negative impact on tourism, birds, fishing and coast defense. 3. Wind measurement (1) Primary evaluation of wind resources: evaluate power generation through weather station, oil drilling platform, etc. (2) Installing wind measure tower about 50–80 m or beacon wind measurement. In addition, Ultrasonic radar wind measurement instrument can also be adopted. Its character is that the installation is under the low plane and measurement is on the flow platform. 4. Investigation (1) Sonar is used to survey sites, water depths, and drawing water depths maps. These provide basis for microsite and design of outlines; (2) collecting soil data of surface layer; (3) seabed exploration drilling depth is 20–40 m under sea geological conditions. (4) Measured waves, tides and currents and other data used to calculate the foundation of hydrodynamic loads of underwater structures. 5. Wind turbines of offshore (1) Greater diameter and lower rated speed of the same rated power generating units; (2) the little rate of change of wind farm wind speed with the variable height; (3) the speed of units increase by 10–30%. Power generation is increased and torque is decreased as well as decreased weight and cost of system; (4) corrosion protection standards are enhanced, such as internal closed measurement. In addition, dehumidification equipment is installed in the cockpit and tower; (5) new structures are used, which include double-blades, down wind direction, high-voltage transmission, etc. 6. Hoisting Slifting vessels currently used are mainly modified boats. A2SEA modified ship, mayflower ship , jump-firecrackers are in operation. Among them, mayflower ship is constructed by Shanghaiguan shipyard. It has 6 extendable stents and
35 m operation deep, and can be installed at the base without assistance. Moreover, the whole lifting and installation method has been adopted. 7. Electrical transmission (1) Offshore wind turbines are arranged in a certain way with the information of an independent group series technology connected with booster substations. Silicon resin cooling transformer is specially developed with good sealing property. (2) HVDC is used to decrease network loss and improve power quality. 8. Access and stability Network access and grid-connection technology of offshore wind farm, which includes stability of grid, reliability and operation of system control strategy.
Table 1 - Key Technologies of Offshore Wind Farm [5]
Site Air Weibull k Average Available Mean Coast Density parameter Wind Area Water Distance Speed Depth kg/ m3 m/ s km2 m km 1 1.08 2 3.5 2 20 2 2 1.08 2 4.1 2 20 2 3 1.08 2 3.8 2 20 2 4 1.08 2 3.3 2 20 2 8 1.08 2 3.1 2 20 2 13 1.08 2 3.8 2 20 2 Table 2 - Main Parameters of Selected Site
Parameter Value (unit)
Economic lifetime 20 years Discount rate 4% Electricity Price RM 0.29 Feed-in- Tariff RM 0.29 * corresponds to Malaysian Industrial Tariff and current policy Table 3 - Economic Parameters
V-47 V-80 Investment cost (RM) 162,828,000 132,750,000 CT (%) 36 56 CS (%) 50 26 CG (%) 9 10 CM (%) 2 3 CP (%) 3 5 O&M cost (RM/yr) 3,258,000 2,658,000 Table 5 - Investment and O & M Costs Site Model Wind Initial capital Operating cost Total NPC COE E Net Specific Farm Production Capacity
Quality and Reliability Aspects in Nuclear Power Reactor Fuel Engineering: Guidance and Best Practices to Improve Nuclear Fuel Reliability and Performance in Water Cooled Reactors
Quality and Reliability Aspects in Nuclear Power Reactor Fuel Engineering: Guidance and Best Practices to Improve Nuclear Fuel Reliability and Performance in Water Cooled Reactors
