Draft Well & Pile Foundation PDF
Draft Well & Pile Foundation PDF
Draft Well & Pile Foundation PDF
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
MINISTRY OF RAILWAYS
GUIDELINES ON
DECEMBER 2005
ISSUED BY
1
FOREWORD
20 years have passed since ‘Manual on the Design and Construction of Well
and Pile Foundations” was published in 1985. Since then lots of advances have
occurred in well design and construction. These developments have been captured
in recent A&C slips and editions of IRS Substructure & Foundation Code, IRC:78,
IS:456, and IRS Concrete Bridge Code. Very recently in 2005, Member
Engineering has also issued two technical instructions 1 & 2 for design and
construction of well foundation. All these developments, including learnings from
experiences of renowned ex-civil engineers like Vijay Singh, L. Singh and H.K.L.
Sethi have been captured in this draft guideline. We hope to get further suggestions
and comments from Zonal Railways for making it better.
( Lalloo Singh )
ED/B&S
2
CONTENT
1.0 Introduction 4
2.0 Comparison with Pile foundation 4
3.0 Types of Wells and its Suitability 6
3.1 Circular Well 6
3.2 Double D Well 6
3.3 Double Octagonal well 7
3.4 Rectangular Well 7
3.5 Twin Circular Well 7
3.6 Wells with Multiple Dredge Holes 8
4.0 Well Foundations in Existing Important Railway Bridges 8
4.1 Ganga Bridge at Mokameh 8
4.2 Jogigopha bridge near Jogigopha on River Brahmaputra 9
5.0 Design parameters 9
5.1 Founding Level of Wells Below HFL 10
5.2 Design of Well Steinning 12
5.3 Design of Well Curb 15
6.0 Material to be used 16
6.1 Concrete 16
6.2 Under Water Concreting 18
6.3 Steel 20
7.0 Well Sinking and Sinking Effort 21
7.1 Precautions during Well Sinking 21
8.0 Well Design and Soil Parameters 24
8.1 Preliminary Design 24
8.2 Design and Analysis of Well Foundation by Substructures 25
Code
8.2.1 Design 25
8.2.2 Settlement of Well Foundation 31
References 37
Appendix-A (ME’s Technical Instruction No.2) 38
3
The guidelines on well foundation for Railway Bridges over
Indian Railways
1.0 Introduction:
Well foundations had their origin in India and have been used for hundreds
of years for providing deep foundations below the spring water level for
important buildings and structures. The technique of sinking masonry wells
for drinking water is very ancient and even today small drinking water wells
are constructed all over the country using the same methods as were
prevalent centuries ago. Well foundations were used for the first time for
important irrigation structures on the Ganga canal including solani aqueduct
at Roorkee (India), which were constructed in the middle of the nineteenth
century. With the advent of Railways in India, construction of a large
number of bridges across major rivers became necessary and it was
recognized very soon that much bigger and deeper well foundations were
required for their piers and abutments.
4
v) The size of well foundations cannot be reduced indefinitely as the dredge
hole must be enough to enable a grab to work and the steining must have the
thickness necessary to provide the required sinking effort. It is, therefore,
not economical to use well foundations for very small loads and pile
foundations are more suitable for them.
vi) Wells are hollow at the center and most of the material is at the periphery.
This provides a large section modulus with the minimum cross-sectional
area. They can resist large horizontal forces and can also take vertical loads
even when the unsupported length is large. The section modulus of
individual piles in a cluster is small and cannot carry large horizontal force
or vertical loads when the unsupported length is considerable as in case of
bridge piers and abutments in scourable riverbeds.
vii) The bearing capacity of a pile is generally uncertain. In most cases, it is not
possible to determine the exact strata through which each individual pile has
passed. It can not be said with confidence in the case of bearing piles if they
have gone and rested on the strata taken into account while designing them
or if they are resting only on an isolated boulder.
In case of wells sunk by dewatering or pneumatic sinking, it is possible to
visually examine the strata through which sinking is done in its natural state
and the material on which they are finally founded. Even when sinking is
done by dredging, the dredged material gives a fairly good idea of the strata
through which the well is sunk. Drilled piles and caisson piles also have this
advantage over the driven piles.
viii) Masonry in the steining wells is done under dry conditions and the quality of
masonry or concrete is much better than in case of cast in situ piles for
which concreting is done below the ground level and in many cases below
the water level, where it can not be inspected. Even in case of precast piles,
the concrete is subjected to a lot of hammering and damage to it cannot be
ruled out.
ix) In case of wells raising of the well steining and sinking are done in stages
and a decision about the foundation level can be taken as the work
progresses piles and the strata conditions become known . In case of precast
piles, a decision about the depth has to be taken in advance. If the bearing
5
capacity of the piles at the design depth is found to be less than the
calculated value after testing, it may become necessary to redesign the
foundation and the piles of short length already cast may have to be rejected
or additional number of piles may have to be provided in each cluster. On
the other hand if the strata is too hard, it may not be possible to sink them to
the design depth and the piles may have to be cut which is costly and
wasteful. This does not apply to cast in situ piles.
This type of well is used most commonly and the main points in its favour
are its strength. Simplicity in construction and ease in sinking. It requires
only one dredger for sinking and its weight per sq. metre of surface is the
highest due to which the sinking effort for this well is also high. The
distance of the cutting edge from the dredge hole is uniform all over and the
chances of tilting are the minimum for this type of well. The well is
generally adopted for piers of single track railway bridges and those of
bridges on narrow roads. When the piers are very long the size of circular
wells becomes unduly large, which makes them costly and disadvantageous
hydraulically also as they cause excessive obstruction to the flow of water.
Nine metres is generally considered as the maximum diameter of circular
wells. Allowing cantilever of one metre on either side the maximum length
of the pier resting on this type of well is about 11 metres.
This type of well is most common for the piers and abutments of bridges
which are too long to be accommodated on circular well. The shape is
simple and it is easy to sink this type of well also. The dimensions of the
well are so determined that the length and the width of the dredge holes are
almost equal. It is also recommended by some engineers that the overall
6
length of the well should not be more than double the width. The
disadvantage of this type of well is that considerable bending moments are
caused in the steining due to the difference in the earth pressure from outside
and water pressure from inside which result in vertical cracks in the steining
particularly in the straight portions where join the partition wall.
These type of wells are free from the shortcoming of double D-well. Blind
corners are eliminated and bending stresses in the steining are also reduced
considerably. They, however, offer greater resistance against sinking on
account of the increased surface area. Masonry in steining is also more
difficult than in case of double D wells.
7
however, advantageous where the length of the pier is considerable and the
sizes of the double D or octagonal wells become unduly large to
accommodate the pier. If , however, the soil is weak, the larger size of
double D or double octagonal wells may be required to keep the bearing
pressure on the soil within limits. Twin circular wells are advantageous only
when the depths of sinking is small and the foundation material is soft rock
or kankar or some other soil capable of taking fairly high loads. Design of
well caps for the twin circular wells also requires special care. Allowance is
made for relative settlement of the two wells and this adds to its cost. The
possibility of development of cracks in the pier due to relative settlement can
not be ruled out inspite of the heavy design of the cap except where the
wells are founded on rock or other incompressible soils.
For piers and abutments of very large sizes, wells with multiple dredge holes
are used. Wells of this type are not common in India. Wells of this type
were, however, used for the towers of Howrah Bridge. The size of these
wells is 24.8m x 55m and there are 21 dredge holes in each of them, In the
United States wells of this type are more common. The overall dimension of
the largest well are 60.5m x 29.6m and they support the piers of San
Francisco okland bridge. Each well has 55 square dredge holes of 5.2m x
5.2m size.
Well for the foundation has been fixed to be at 53 ft. 6 inch x 32 ft. size
with semicircular ends. It has two dredge holes 14 ft. D shaped. They are
covered by a 6 ft. deep well raft. The well curbs of the main piers were
made of mild steel and are 14 ft 10 inch in height and weight about 125 ton
each. The well curb were designed in steel instead of reinforced concrete.
1
HKL Sethi 1963
8
The wells were designed in mass concrete with 9 ft. thick steining. The
wells were provided with cement concrete plugs both at the top and at the
bottom, the intermediate portion being filled up with sand. A grip equal to
one third of the maxm. scour was required, while according to Gales a grip
of 65 ft. should be provided. Keeping in view the enormous discharge and
the importance of this bridge, a grip of 65 ft. was provided. This gave a
depth of 126 + 65 = 191 ft. below the HFL. Two wells next to abutments
were sunk 10 ft. deeper to counter the extreme scour conditions, which may
be experienced around them.
2 L. Singh 1998
3 ME’s Technical Note No.1
9
5.1 Founding Level of Wells Below HFL:
Rivers with scourable beds increase their cross sections when they are in
flood by the rise in the water level and also by scouring their beds thus
increasing the depth of flow. Rivers in regime, which flow through
incoherent alluvium and are free to adjust their width of flow and their depth
with equal ease, acquire an elliptical cross section in the straight reaches
with the highest flood level as their major axis.
The depth of well foundations is decided with respect to the maximum scour
and stability. The depth of foundation should not be less than 1.33 times the
deepest scour below HFL, and it should be so selected that it provides
necessary stability with respect to overturning and sliding. The method of
determining foundation depth is explained in following paras:
Where f is the silt factor for representative sample of bed material obtained
from scour zone, and value of f for different bed material is given in para
4.6.5 of IRS Substructure Code (applicable for medium sand) = 1.76 √m (m
being diameter of bed material in mm over scourable depth),
• Before applying Lacey’s equation for scour depth, the width of the
channel should be measured and checked with the width calculated
by the following equation given by the Lacey:
L = 4.85√Q
10
Where L = Linear watering in metres, Q = maximum flood discharge in
m3/sec.
If actual width is lesser than the width given by Lacey’s equation on account
of restraint on the river due to non-scourable banks or if it is proposed to
construct a bridge having a lesser water way than that given by Lacey’s
equation, the scour depth worked out by Lacey’s equation should be
0.61
⎛ w ⎞
increased by multiplying with factor ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , where wc is the constricted
⎝ wc ⎠
water way and w is the Lacey’s regime width. Alternatively; For design
discharge intensity in cumecs due to constriction of waterway on account of
pier width, as per provisions of IRS Substructure Code {DL = 1.34 (q2/f)1/3}
where q is the discharge intensity in cubic metre per second per meter width
and f is the silt factor
• When the bridge piers are placed in the flow due to obstructions
caused by them, the scour increases around them. The multiplying
factor is given in para 4.6.6 of IRS Substructure Code. Increase in
depth of scour for design of foundation due to local scour around
nose of piers = 2DL
This, however, needs to be checked from observed scour around piers as per
hydraulic model study. Scour depth reported by model study need not be
doubled as in case of calculations done for normal scour.
• Grip length = one third of 2DL. However, adequacy of grip length should be
checked for stability of well pressure including safe bearing capacity of soil
with all vertical and horizontal loads as applicable under normal conditions.
11
moments for seismic forces as per dynamic analysis carried out by approved
methods like one done by IIT/ Kanpur or Roorkee etc.
N = SPT value.
For calculating Bending moment both active and passive soil pressures
around the well should be considered.
12
sectional area and ties of about 0.04% of the volume per unit length is found
to be adequate and should be adopted. Check against tensile stresses in
steining causing cracking should be made using following formula both for
seismic and non seismic conditions.
M P
F = -
Z A
M = Moment in t –m.
The above was used in checking stresses in Mokamah bridge over River
Ganga. Details in Technical Paper No. 336 ‘Ganga Bridge at Mokamah’ by
Shri H.K.L. Sethi.
Axw ⎧ H1 ( w − δ ) H 2 ( w − δ )
f= ⎨ + X + }
P ⎩ H3 w H3 w
Where,
13
f= Average sinking effort in t/m2.
Axw ⎧ { w − δ }
Hence f = ⎨
P ⎩ w
4 w
This is nearly taken as x
7 P
The skin friction of soil varies at different level and is dependent upon type
of soil also. This can be calculated by using following formula:
2Φ
F =1 / 2 ka.( Z − 2Cka ) tan
3
Where,
14
Ka = Active pressure coefficient
Φ = Angle of shearing resistance of soil (degrees)
C = Half of unconfined compressive strength.
Z = Depth of foundation below Scour level (m)
r = Density of soil in t/m3.
This is calculated below LWL. But empirical values are also safely used
with fair degree of confidence.
Stiff and soft = 0.73 to 2.93 t/m2
Clay = 4.88 to 19.53 t/m2
Very soft clay = 1.23 to 3.42 t/m2
Dense sand = 3.42 to 6.84 t/m2
Dense gravel = 4.88 to 9.76 t/m2
For alluvial deposits, minimum sinking effort required is of the order of
5t/m2.
Thus using the Formula available, sinking effort can be verified from (f =
4/7 W/P).
c) Grade of Concrete
Most important element of well curb is the cutting edge. This is designed
from consideration of following:
• It should be able to cut through hard strata.
• It should be able to stand on a single point in case of a sloping rock/
large boulder, tree trunk etc. without getting damaged.
• It should be able to withstand additional forces caused by occasional
blasting.
15
There is no known methodology for the design. More commonly is to use a
design which has proved itself for various important Railway bridges under
very difficult conditions. For a typical circular and Double ‘D’ well for
large well foundations, know design is available as per the enclosed sketch.
Double D type is more prone to tilt and shift due to unsymmetrical shape
and possible unequal dredging. Thus, it is essential that the well is heavy in
deep foundation.
Only part of the well curb should be armoured, may be 1 to 1.5 metres level
from the cutting edge level, as shown in the sketch.
Well curb should have an offset (7.5sm in Jogigopha bridge) all around the
well steining. This is for the purpose of reducing skin friction during
sinking operation by keeping the soil close to the steining in disturbed
condition. Cutting edge inner angle was 24o upto 2m height in Jogigopha
bridge.
6.1 Concrete
a) Type of mix, that is, design mix concrete as nominal mix concrete.
b) Grade designation
16
c) Type of cement
d) Maximum nominal size of aggregate.
e) Minimum cement content (for design mix concrete)
f) Maximum water cement ratio.
g) Workability
h) Mix proportion (for nominal mix concrete)
i) Exposure conditions – As guided by table No. 4 & 5 of IS-456:2000.
j) Maximum temperature of concrete at the time of placing.
k) Method of placing and
l) Degree of supervision.
The protection of the steel in concrete against corrosion depends upon an
adequate thickness of good quality of concrete. The free water cement ratio
is an important factor in governing the durability of concrete and should
always be the lowest value. Cement content not including fly ash and
ground granulated blast furnace slag in excess of 450 kg/m3 should not be
used unless special consideration has been given in design to the increased
risk of cracking due to drying shrinkage in thin sections as to early thermal
cracking and to the increased risk of damage due to alkali silica reactions.
(Clause N0. 5.2.1 of IRS CBC) When the designer wishes to have an
estimate of the tensile strength from compressive strength, the following
expression may be used.
fcr = 0.7 f ck
where,
17
maximum particle size, the cement content shall be at least 350 kg/m3 of
concrete.
(Clause No. 708.3.1 IRC 78:2000) In case of plain concrete wells, the
concrete mix for the steining shall not normally be leaner than M-15. In
case of marine or other similar conditions of adverse exposure, the concrete
in the steining shall not be less than leaner than M-20 with cement not less
than 310 kg/m3 of concrete and the water cement ratio not more than 0.45.
(Clause No. 708.7.3 IRC 78:2000) The well curb shall invariably be in
reinforced concrete of mix not leaner than M-25.
(Clause No. 708.8.2 IRC 78:2000) The mix used in bottom plug shall have
a minimum cement content of 330 kg/m3 and a slump of about 150mm to
permit easy flow of concrete through tremie to fill up all cavities. Concrete
shall be laid in one continuous operation till dredge hole is filled to required
height. For under water concreting the concrete shall be placed gently by
tremie boxes under still water condition and the cement contents of mix be
increased by 10 percent.
(Clause No. 708.8.3 IRC 78:2000) In case grouted concrete, e.g. concrete is
used, the grout mix shall not be laner than 1:2 and it shall be ensured by
suitable means, such as, controlling the rate of pumping that the grout fills
up all inter stices upto to the top of the plug.
(Clause No. 708.10.1 IRC 78:2000) A 300mm thick plug of M-15 cement
concrete shall be provided over the filling.
6.2 Under water concreting: (Clause N0. 14.2 & 14.2.4 of IS-456:2000)
18
Concrete cast under water should not fall freely through the water.
Otherwise it may be leached and become segregated. Concrete shall be
deposited continuously until it is brought to the required height. While
depositing, the top surface shall be kept as nearly level as possible and the
formation of seams avoided. The method to be used for depositing concrete
under water shall be one of the following-
i) Tremie- The concrete is placed through vertical pipes the lower end
of which is always inserted sufficiently deep into the concrete which
has been placed previously but has not set. The concrete emerging
from the pipe pushes the material that has already been placed to the
side and upwards and thus does not come into direct contact with
water.
19
is started and until all the concrete is placed, the lower end of the
teremie pipe shall be below the top surface of the plastic concrete.
This will cause to the concrete to build up from below instead of
flowing out over the surface, and thus avoid the formation of laitance
layers. If the change in the tremie is lost while depositing, the tremie
shall be raised above the concrete surface and unless sealed by a
check valve, it will be replugged at the top end, as at the beginning,
before refilling for depositing concrete.
ii) Direct placement with pumps – As in the case of tremie method, the
vertical end piece of the pipe line is always inserted sufficiently deep
into the previously cast concrete and should not move to the side
during pumping.
iii) Drop bottom bucket – The top of the bucket shall be covered with a
canvas flap. The bottom doors shall open freely downward and
outward when tripped. The bucket shall be filled completely and
lowered slowly to avoid backwash. The bottom door shall not be
opened until the bucket rest on the surface upon which the concrete
is to be deposited and when discharged, shall be withdrawn slowly
until well above the concrete.
6.3 Steel: (Clause No. 708.3.4 IRC 78:2000) For plain concrete wells, vertical
reinforcements (whether mild steel or deformed bars) in the steining shall
not be less than 0.12 per cent of gross sectional area of the actual thickness
provided. This shall be equally distributed on both faces of steining. The
vertical reinforcements shall be tied up with hoop steel not less than 0.04
percent of the volume per unit length of the steining.
(Clause No. 708.3.5 IRC 78:2000) In case where the well steining is
designed as a reinforced concrete element, it shall be considered as a column
section subjected to combined axial load and bending. However, the amount
of vertical reinforcement provided in the steining shall not be less than 0.2
percent (for either mild steel as deformed bars) of the actual gross section
area of the steining, on the inner face, a minimum of 0.06 percent of gross
20
area steel shall be provided. The transverse reinforcement in the steining
shall be provided in accordance with the provisions for a column but in no
case shall be less than 0.04% of the volume per unit length of the steining.
(Clause No. 708.6.1 IRC 78:2000) The mild steel cutting edge shall be
strong enough and not less than 40 kg/m to facilitate sinking of the well
through the types of strata expected to be encountered without suffering any
damage. It shall be properly anchored to the well curb. For sinking through
rock cutting edge should be suitably designed.
(Clause No. 708.7.3 IRC 78:2000) The well curb shall invariably be in
R.C. of mix not leaner than M-25 with minimum reinforcement of 72 kg/m3
excluding bond rods. The steel shall be suitably arranged to prevent
spreading and splitting of the curb during sinking and in service.
(Clause No. 708.7.4 IRC 78:2000) In case blasting is anticipated, the inner
faces of the well curb shall be protected with steel plates of thickness not
less than 10mm upto the top of well curb.
i) When the wells to be sunk close to each other and the distances
between them is not greater than the diameter of the wells, they
should be sunk alternately i.e. one sunk ½ the dia in advance of the
other as the wells tend to draw towards each other in case they are
sunk simultaneously. Similarly when two parallel rows of wells
have to be sunk with centers of each at about 1m apart one row
should be sunk before the other or they can be started on different
ends or from the center towards two ends. The purpose of this is to
disturb the least possible area of the soil in the vicinity of well at one
time. It is also advisable to sink the alternate wells in a row in
preference to sinking them one after the other.
21
ii) In sinking of wells joined together, for example, dumb bell shaped
wells, the excavation in both the dredge holes should be carried out
simultaneously and equally to facilitate even sinking.
vi) In sinking a pair of wells through sandy strata there is a tendency for
the two wells to draw closely to each other. These wells may,
therefore get considerably titled. To prevent this timber pieces may
be introduced in between the steining of the two wells.
vii) Generally in case of abutment wells, there is high bank on one side
of the well. The well curb is usually cast by digging up a pit slightly
bigger than the dimensions of the well. This results in surcharge on
one side of the well, which tends to lean away from the bank. In
such cases, it is worth while to spend a little more money in digging
22
the original pit of sufficiently larger sizes leaving about 6.8 metres
clear distance round the well and by not permitting steeper than 1:1
slopes for the walls of the pit.
viii) Sometimes, in case of well situated in the river bed, the river stream
flow along one edge to the coffer dam made for the sinking of the
well. Generally, the dredged material is disposed off on that side
where derrick etc. are situated i.e. the edge close to the bank. This
causes adverse effect and the well tends to tilt towards the side on
which the river current is flowing. Arrangements have therefore to
be made for dumping the dredged material on the river current side.
b) Sinking of wells:
The wells as far as possible be sunk true and vertical. Sinking should not be
started till the steining has been cured far at least 48 hours. A complete
record of sinking operations including tilt and shifts, kentledge, dewatering,
blasting etc. done during sinking shall be maintained.
As far as possible well shall be sunk without any tilt and shift. A tilt of 1 in
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4
Manual on the design and construction well and pile foundation-1985 Cl. No. 15
23
100 and shift of D/40 subject to a minimum of 150mm shall be taken into
account in the design of well foundation (D is the width or diameter of well).
If greater tilts and shifts occur their effects on bearing pressure on soil
steining stress, change in span etc. should be examined individually.
24
ii) Self weight of the wells
iii) Live load
iv) Longitudinal forces
v) Temperature forces
vi) Water forces
vii) Wind load
viii) Seismic force
ix) Buoyancy effect
x) Earth pressure
xi) Skin friction
8.2 Design and Analysis Of Well Foundation By Sub-Structures Code:
8.2.1 Design
The design of well foundations shall be carried out for either of the
following two situations:
For wells resting on non-cohesive soils like sand and surrounded by the
same soil below a maximum scour level, the design of foundations shall be
checked by both Elastic Theory and Ultimate Soil Resistance Methods as
given below which are based on IRC:45-1972 ‘Recommendations for
Estimating the Resistance of Soil below the maximum scour level in the
design of Well Foundation of Bridges.’ Elastic Theory Method gives the
soil pressure at the side and the base under design load, but to determine the
actual factor of safety against failure, the ultimate soil resistance is
computed.
25
The provisions given below shall not apply if the depth of embedment is less
than 0.5 times the width of foundation in the direction of lateral forces.
i) for calculation of base pressures by the elastic theory with the use of
subgrade moduli ; and
i) Elastic Theory
Where,
W = total downward load acting at the base of well, including the self
weight of well.
Where,
I = IB + mIv (1+2µ’ α)
where,
26
L = projected width of the soil mass offering resistance multiplied by
appropriate value of shape factor.
Note: The value of shape factor for circular wells shall be taken as 0.9. For
square or rectangular wells where the resultant horizontal force acts parallel
to a principal axis, the shape factor shall be unity & where the forces are
inclined to the principal axis, a suitable shape factor shall be based on
experimental results :
µ’ = Coefficient of friction between sides and the soil = tan δ, where δ is the
angle of wall friction between well and soil.
B
α = for rectangular well
2D
diameter
= for circular well.
π .D
M
H> (1+ µ µ’) - µ W
r
where,
r = (D/2) (I / m Iv )
µ = coefficient of friction between the base and the soil. It shall be taken as
tan φ
27
mM/I not greater than γ (Kp – KA)
If mM/ I is > γ (Kp – KA), find out the grip required by putting the limiting
value mM/ I = γ (Kp – KA)
Where,
Step 5 : Calculate
σ1 W − μ ' P MB
}= ±
σ2 A 2I
where,
P = M/r
Step 8 : Repeat the same steps for combination with wind and with seismic
case separately.
28
ii) Ultimate resistance method
W = total downward load acting at the base of well, including the self
weight of well, enhanced
Step 2 : Calculate the base resisting moment Mb at the plane of rotation and
side resisting moment Ms by the following formulae :
Mb = QWB tan φ
TABLE -1
NOTE: The values of Q for intermediate D/B values in the above range may
be linearly interpolated.
Ms = 0.10 γ D3 ( KP – KA) L
Where,
29
γ = density of soil (submerged density to be taken for soils under water or
below water table)
Step 3 : Calculate the resisting moment due to friction at front and back
faces (Mf) about the plane of rotation by following formulae :
Step 4: The total resistance moment Mt about the plane of rotation shall be
Where,
M = Total applied external moment about the plane of rotation, viz, located
at 0.2D above the base, taking appropriate load factors as per combinations
given below :
30
1.1 D – B + 1.25 (L + Wc +EP + W or S) ….. (5)
Where,
D = Dead load.
L = Live load including tractive/braking etc.
B = Buoyancy
Wc = Water current force
Ep = Earth pressure
W = Wind force
S = Seismic force
Note : Moment due to shift and tilt of wells and piers and direct loads, if
any, shall also be considered about the plane of rotation.
Step 6 : If the conditions in steps 1 and 5 are not satisfied, redesign the well.
Note : Notation, symbols given in the clause 3.0 of Bridge Substructure &
Foundation Code, Revised in 1985 are not applicable for the above
Appendix-V.
b) Wells resting on cohesive soils
For wells founded in clayey strata and surrounded by clay below max. scour
level, the passive earth pressure shall be worked out by C & φ parameters of
the soil as obtained from UU (unconsolidated undrained) test and for
stability against overturning, only 50% of the passive earth pressure will be
assumed to be Mobilized (Refer para 6.9.3).
In wells through clayey strata, the skin friction will not be available during
the whole life of the structure, hence support from skin friction should not be
relied upon.
• Static loading,
• Deterioration of the foundation structure;
31
• Mining subsidence; and
• Vibration subsidence due to underground erosion and other causes.
ii) Catastrophic settlement may occur if the static load is excessive.
When the static load is not excessive, the resulting settlement may be
due to the following :
32
In the present state of knowledge, the settlement computations at best
estimate the most probable magnitude of settlement.
v) It is presumed that the load on the foundation will be limited to a safe
bearing capacity and, therefore, catastrophic settlements are not
expected. Settlement due to deterioration of foundations, mining and
other causes cannot, in the present state of knowledge, be estimated.
Such methods are not also available for computation of settlement
due to the slip of foundation structure with reference to the
surrounding soils and, therefore, not covered.
For wells constructed in cohesionless soils, the settlement due to dead load
of sub-structure will take place by the time the construction is completed and
the necessary adjustment in the final level can be made before erection of the
girder. In such cases, settlement shall be evaluated only for the dead load of
the super-structure.
When wells are founded in cohesive soil, the total settlement will be
computed as per the provisions of clause 6.4. The settlements in clay occur
over a long period and time rate of settlement will be computed as per the
provisions of clause 6.4.2.3 of Substructure Code.
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• Estimation of secondary consolidation settlement may be
computed as under:
Cc p
Ps = E log 10 c
1 + e0 po
cc = Compression index
Pc= Pre-consolidation
pressure
Po = Initial effective pressure
Ìp = Pressure increment
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i) Three dimensional consolidation i.e. lateral release of excess pore
pressure;
iii) Horizontal permeabilities are usually much higher than the vertical.
It is seen that in many case of back fill of soil having c and Φ, only Φ is
considered and active earth pressure coefficient for Rankine’s formula is
calculated accordingly. This is totally incorrect.
In such cases, the earth pressure may be calculated using Bell’s equation
obtained from Mohr’s failure stress circle.
2c
Pa = r z ka – 2 c√k where Z =
τ ka
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Resultant R and its location y can be calculated by either neglecting tension
zone or altering pressure diagram for overall depth of soil.
Or
1 - sin φ
Where ka = coefficient of active earth pressure for Rankine =
1 + sinφ
R = Density of soil
By neglecting tension crack (Z), the lateral pressure obtained is generally higher and
is considered more conservative.
36
References:
37
Appendix-A
38
39
40
41
42