Cambridge O Level

Physics

David Sang
Graham Jones
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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 Contents

Acknowledgements vi 5 Forces and matter 46

Introduction vii 5.1 Forces acting on solids 46
5.2 Stretching springs 47
5.3 Hooke’s law 49
Block 1: General physics 1
5.4 Pressure 51

1 Making measurements 2
Block 2: Energy and
1.1 Measuring length and volume 3 thermal physics 61
1.2 Improving precision in
measurements 5 6 Energy transformations
1.3 Density 7 and energy transfers 62
1.4 Measuring time 9 6.1 Forms of energy 63
6.2 Energy conversions 66
2 Describing motion 13
6.3 Conservation of energy 67
2.1 Understanding speed 14
6.4 Energy calculations 70
2.2 Distance against time graphs 16
2.3 Understanding acceleration 19 7 Energy resources 75
2.4 Calculating acceleration 21 7.1 The energy we use 75
7.2 Renewables and non-renewables 80
3 Forces and motion 26
3.1 We have lift-off 26 8 Work and power 82
3.2 Force, mass and acceleration 30 8.1 Doing work 82
3.3 Mass, weight and gravity 32 8.2 Calculating work done 83
3.4 Motion with friction 33 8.3 Power 86
3.5 More about scalars and 8.4 Calculating power 87
vectors 35
9 The kinetic model of
4 Turning effects of forces 38
matter 90
4.1 The moment of a force 38
9.1 States of matter 91
4.2 Calculating moments 40
9.2 The kinetic model of matter 93
4.3 Stability and centre of mass 42

Contents iii
 9.3 Forces and the kinetic theory 95 14.3 Reflection and refraction of
9.4 Gases and the kinetic theory 97 waves 162

10 Thermal properties of 15 Spectra 166

matter 102 15.1 Dispersion of light 167
10.1 Temperature and 15.2 The electromagnetic
temperature scales 103 spectrum 168
10.2 Thermal expansion 107
10.3 Heat capacity 109 Block 4: Electricity and
10.4 Specific heat capacity 110 magnetism 173
10.5 Latent heat 113
16 Magnetism 174
11 Thermal (heat) energy 16.1 Permanent magnets 175
transfers 116 16.2 Magnetic fields 177
11.1 Conduction 117
11.2 Convection 119 17 Static electricity 182
11.3 Radiation 121 17.1 Charging and discharging 183
11.4 Some consequences of thermal 17.2 Explaining static electricity 184
(heat) energy transfer 123
17.3 Static electricity–hazards and uses 187
Block 3: Physics of waves 127 18 Electrical quantities 190
12 Sound 128 18.1 Current in electric circuits 191
12.1 Making sounds 129 18.2 Electrical voltage 195
12.2 At the speed of sound 130 18.3 Electrical resistance 196
12.3 Seeing sounds 131 18.4 Electricity and energy 200
12.4 How sounds travel 135
19 Electric circuits 204
13 Light 138 19.1 Circuit components 205

13.1 Reflecting light 139 19.2 Combinations of

resistors 209
13.2 Refraction of light 142
19.3 Electronic circuits 214
13.3 Total internal reflection 146
19.4 Electrical safety 220
13.4 Lenses 148
20 Electromagnetic
14 Properties of waves 156 forces 226
14.1 Describing waves 157
20.1 The magnetic effect of
14.2 Speed, frequency and wavelength 160 a current 227

iv Contents
 20.2 How electric motors are 22.2 Protons, neutrons and electrons 253
constructed 229
20.3 Force on a current-carrying 23 Radioactivity 258
conductor 230 23.1 Radioactivity all around 259
20.4 Cathode rays 233 23.2 The microscopic picture 262
20.5 Using a cathode-ray oscilloscope 23.3 Radioactive decay 266
(CRO) 234 23.4 Using radioisotopes 268

21 Electromagnetic induction 238 Appendix 278

21.1 Generating electricity 239
21.2 Power lines and transformers 242 Glossary 280
21.3 How transformers work 245
Index 287
Block 5: Atomic physics 249
22 The nuclear atom 250
22.1 Atomic structure 251

Contents v
 Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements

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vi Acknowledgements
Introduction
Introduction

Studying physics On a more human scale, physicists study materials to

try to predict and control their properties. They study
Why study physics? Some people study physics for the
the interactions of radiation with matter, including the
simple reason that they find it interesting. Physicists
biological materials we are made of.
study matter, energy and their interactions. They might
be interested in the tiniest sub-atomic particles, or Some people don’t want to study physics simply for
the nature of the Universe itself. (Some even hope to its own sake. They want to know how it can be used,
discover whether there are more universes than just perhaps in an engineering project, or for medical
the one we live in!) purposes. Depending on how our knowledge is
applied, it can make the world a better place.
Some people study physics as part of their course
because they want to become some other type of
scientist – perhaps a chemist, biologist or geologist.
These branches of science draw a great deal on ideas
from physics, and physics may draw on them.

Thinking physics
How do physicists think? One of the characteristics of
physicists is that they try to simplify problems – reduce
them to their basics – and then solve them by applying

Physicists often work in extreme conditions. Here, physicists at the UK’s

When they were first discovered, X-rays were sometimes treated as an National Physical Laboratory prepare a dilution refrigerator, capable
entertaining novelty. Today, they can give detailed views of a patient’s of cooling materials down almost to absolute zero, the lowest possible
bones and organs. temperature.

Introduction vii
 The Internet, used by millions around the world. Originally invented by
a physicist, Tim Berners-Lee, the Internet is used by physicists to link
thousands of computers in different countries to form supercomputers
capable of handling vast amounts of data.

particles in motion to predict how traffic will flow, or

how people will move in crowded spaces.
Physics relies on mathematics. Physicists measure
quantities and process their data. They invent
mathematical models – equations and so on – to
explain their findings. (In fact, a great deal of
The Milky Way, our Galaxy. Although we can never hope to see it from mathematics was invented by physicists, to help them
this angle, careful measurements of the positions of millions of stars has
allowed astronomers to produce this computer-generated view. to understand their experimental results.)
Computers have made a big difference in physics.
some very fundamental ideas. For example, you will
Because a computer can ‘crunch’ vast quantities of
be familiar with the idea that matter is made of tiny
data, whole new fields of physics have opened up.
particles that attract and repel each other and move
Computers can analyse data from telescopes, control
about. This is a very powerful idea, which has helped
distant spacecraft and predict the behaviour of billions
us to understand the behaviour of matter, how sound
of atoms in a solid material.
travels, how electricity flows, and so on.
Once a fundamental idea is established, physicists look
around for other areas where it might help to solve Joining in
problems. One of the surprises of 20th-century physics So, when you study physics, you are doing two things.
was that, once physicists had begun to understand You are joining in with a big human project – learning
the fundamental particles of which atoms are made, more about the world around us, and applying that
they realised that this helped to explain the earliest knowledge. At the same time, you will be learning to
moments in the history of the Universe, at the time of think like a physicist – how to apply some basic ideas,
the Big Bang. how to look critically at data, and how to recognise
underlying patterns. Whatever your aim, these ideas
The more you study physics, the more you will come
can stay with you throughout your life.
to realise how the ideas join up. Also, physics is still
expanding. Many physicists work in economics and
finance, using ideas from physics to predict how
markets will change. Others use their understanding of

viii Introduction
Blo
Block 1
General physics
In your studies of science, you will already have come
across many of the fundamental ideas of physics. In this
block, you will develop a better understanding of two
powerful ideas: (i) the idea of force and (ii) the idea of
energy.

Where do ideas in physics come from? Partly, they come

from observation. When Galileo looked at the planets
through his telescope, he observed the changing face
of Venus. He also saw that Jupiter had moons. Galileo’s
observations formed the basis of a new, more scientific,
astronomy.

Ideas also come from thought. Newton (who was born in

the year that Galileo died) is famous for his ideas about
gravity. He realised that the force that pulls an apple to the
ground is the same force that keeps the Moon in its orbit
around the Earth. His ideas about forces are explored in
this block.

You have probably studied some basic ideas about energy.

However, Newton never knew about energy. This was an In 1992, a spacecraft named Galileo was sent to
photograph Jupiter and its moons. On its way, it
idea that was not developed until more than a century after looked back to take this photograph of the Earth
his death, so you are already one step ahead of him! and the Moon.

Block 1: General physics 1

 1 Making measurements

Objectives
Making measurements of length, volume and time
Increasing the precision of measurements of length and time
Determining the densities of solids and liquids

How measurement improves?

Galileo Galilei is often thought of as the father of modern
science. He did a lot to revolutionise how we think of
the world around us, and in particular how we make
measurements. In 1582, Galileo was a medical student in
Pisa. During a service in the cathedral there, he observed
a lamp swinging (Figure 1.1). Galileo noticed that the
time it took for each swing was the same, whether the
lamp was swinging through a large or a small angle. He
realised that a swinging weight – a pendulum – could be
used as a timing device. He went on to use it to measure a
person’s pulse rate, and he also designed a clock regulated
by a swinging pendulum.
In Galileo’s day, many measurements were based on
the human body – for example, the foot and the yard
(a pace). Weights were measured in units based on
familiar objects such as cereal grains. These ‘natural’
units are inevitably variable – one person’s foot
is longer than another’s – so efforts were made to
standardise them. (It is said that the English ‘yard’ was
defined as the distance from the tip of King Henry I’s
nose to the end of his outstretched arm.)
Today, we live in a globalised economy. We cannot
rely on monarchs to be our standards of measurement.
Instead, there are international agreements on the
basic units of measurement. For example, the metre is
defined as follows:
The metre is the distance travelled by light in Figure 1.1 An imaginative reconstruction of Galileo with the lamp
1 second in a vacuum. that he saw swinging in Pisa Cathedral in 1582.
299 792 458
Laboratories around the world are set up to check that
measuring devices match this standard.

2 Block 1: General physics

 Figure 1.2 shows a new atomic clock, undergoing
development at the UK’s National Physical Laboratory.
Clocks like this are accurate to 1 part in 1014, or one-
billionth of a second in a day. You might think that this is
far more precise than we could ever need. In fact, you
may already rely on ultra-precise time measurements if
you use a GPS (Global Positioning Satellite) system.
These systems detect satellite signals, and they work out
your position to within a fraction of a metre. Light
1
travels one metre in about second, or
300 000 000
0.000 000 003 second. So, if you are one metre further
away from the satellite, the signal will arrive this tiny
fraction of a second later. Hence the electronic circuits of
Figure 1.2 Professor Patrick Gill of the National Physical Laboratory
is devising an atomic clock that will be one-thousand times more the GPS device must measure the time at which the
accurate than previous types. signal arrives to this degree of accuracy.

1.1 Measuring length and volume • Look at the markings on the rule. They are probably
1 mm apart, but they may be quite wide. Line one end
In physics, we make measurements of many different
of the wire up against the zero of the scale. Because of
lengths – for example, the length of a piece of wire, the
the width of the mark, this may be awkward to judge.
height of liquid in a tube, the distance moved by an
object, the diameter of a planet or the radius of its orbit.
• Look at the other end of the wire and read the scale.
Again, this may be tricky to judge.
In the laboratory, lengths are often measured using a rule
(such as a metre rule). Now you have a measurement, with an idea of how
Measuring lengths with a rule is a familiar task. But precise it is. You can probably determine the length of
when you use a rule, it is worth thinking about the the wire to within a millimetre. But there is something
task and just how reliable your measurements may else to think about – the rule itself. How sure can you
be. Consider measuring the length of a piece of wire be that it is correctly calibrated? Are the marks at the
(Figure 1.3). ends of a metre rule separated by exactly one metre? Any
error in this will lead to an inaccuracy (probably small)
in your result.

The point here is to recognise that it is always important

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
to think critically about the measurements you make,
however straightforward they may seem. You have to
Figure 1.3 Simple measurements – for example, finding the length consider the method you use, as well as the instrument
of a wire – still require careful technique.
(in this case, the rule).

• The wire must be straight, and laid closely alongside

the rule. (This may be tricky with a bent piece of More measurement techniques
wire.) If you have to measure a small length, such as the
• Look at the ends of the wire. Are they cut neatly, or thickness of a wire, it may be better to measure
are they ragged? Is it difficult to judge where the wire several thicknesses and then calculate the average.
begins and ends? You can use the same approach when measuring

Making measurements 3
 500 sheets Measuring volumes
There are two approaches to measuring volumes,
13
depending on whether or not the shape is regular.
For a regularly shaped object, such as a rectangular
12

block, measure the lengths of the three different sides

and multiply them together. For objects of other regular
11

shapes, such as spheres or cylinders, you may have to

make one or two measurements and then look up the
10

formula for the volume.

9

For liquids, measuring cylinders can be used. (Recall

that these are designed so that you look at the scale
8

horizontally, not at an oblique angle, and read the level

Figure 1.4 Making multiple measurements.
of the bottom of the meniscus.) Think carefully about
the choice of cylinder. A one-litre cylinder is unlikely to
be suitable for measuring a small volume such as 5 cm3.
something very thin, such as a sheet of paper. Take a You will get a more accurate answer using a 10 cm3
stack of 500 sheets and measure its thickness with a rule cylinder.
(Figure 1.4). Then divide by 500 to find the thickness of
one sheet.
Units of length and volume
For some measurements of length, such as curved lines, In physics, we generally use SI units (this is short for
it can help to lay a thread along the line. Mark the thread Le Système International d’Unités or The International
at either end of the line and then lay it along a rule to System of Units). The SI unit of length is the metre (m).
find the length. This technique can also be used for Table 1.1 shows some alternative units of length, together
measuring the circumference of a cylindrical object such with some units of volume.
as a wooden rod or a measuring cylinder.

Quantity Units
length metre (m)
1 centimetre (cm) = 0.01 m
1 millimetre (mm) = 0.001 m
1 micrometre (µm) = 0.000 001 m
1 kilometre (km) = 1000 m

volume cubic metre (m3)

1 cubic centimetre (cm3) = 0.000 001 m3
1 cubic decimetre (dm3) = 0.001 m3
1 litre (l) = 0.001 m3
1 litre (l) = 1 cubic decimetre (dm3)
1 millilitre (ml) = 1 cubic centimetre (cm3)

Table 1.1 Some units of length and volume in the SI system.

4 Block 1: General physics

 QUESTIONS beam main scale

1 A rectangular block of wood has dimensions 0 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10

240 mm × 20.5 cm × 0.040 m. Calculate its 0 10

vernier scale

volume in cm3.
2 Ten identical lengths of wire are laid closely side-by-
sliding jaw
side. Their combined width is measured and found
to be 14.2 mm. Calculate:
a the radius of a single wire
b the volume in mm3 of a single wire if its length is fixed jaw

10.0 cm. (Volume of a cylinder = r 2h, where r = main scale

radius and h = height.)
vernier scale
3 4

1.2 Improving precision

in measurements 0 10

A rule is a simple measuring instrument, with many

uses. However, there are instruments designed to give Figure 1.5 Using vernier callipers.

greater precision in measurements. Here we will look at

how to use two of these.

Vernier callipers Micrometer screw gauge

The callipers have two scales, the main scale and the
Again, this has two scales. The main scale is on the shaft,
vernier scale. Together, these scales give a measurement
and the fractional scale is on the rotating barrel. The
of the distance between the two inner faces of the jaws
fractional scale has 50 divisions, so that one complete
(Figure 1.5).
turn represents 0.50 mm (Figure 1.6).
The method is as follows:
• Close the callipers so that the jaws touch lightly but 0 20
15
firmly on the sides of the object being measured.
• Look at the zero on the vernier scale. Read the main
scale, just to the left of the zero. This tells you the
length in millimetres.
• Now look at the vernier scale. Find the point where 0 20
one of its markings is exactly aligned with one of 15

the markings on the main scale. Read the value

on the vernier scale. This tells you the fraction of
a millimetre that you must add to the main scale Figure 1.6 Using a micrometer screw gauge.
reading.
For the example in Figure 1.5: The method is as follows:
thickness of rod • Turn the barrel until the jaws just tighten on the
= main scale reading + vernier reading object. Using the friction clutch ensures just the right
= 35 mm + 0.7 mm pressure.
= 35.7 mm

Making measurements 5
• Read the main scale to the nearest 0.5 mm.
• Read the additional fraction of a millimetre from the
QUESTIONS
fractional scale. 3 State the measurements shown in Figure 1.8 on the
scale of
For the example in Figure 1.6:
a the vernier callipers
thickness of rod b the micrometer screw gauge.
= main scale reading + fractional scale reading
= 2.5 mm + 0.17 mm a

= 2.67 mm
0 cm 1 2 3

Activity 1.1 Precise measurements

Practise reading the scales of vernier callipers and 0 10
micrometer screw gauges.

Measuring volume by displacement b

It is not just instruments that improve our
measurements. Techniques also can be devised to help.
Here is a simple example, to measure the volume of an 0 25
irregularly shaped object: 20

• Select a measuring cylinder that is somewhat (three

or four times) larger than the object. Partially fill it
Figure 1.8 For Question 3.
with water (Figure 1.7), enough to cover the object.
Note the volume of the water.
• Immerse the object in the water. The level of water in 4 Figure 1.9 shows how the volume of a piece of wood
the cylinder will increase. The increase in its volume (which floats in water) can be measured. Write a
is equal to the volume of the object. brief paragraph to describe the procedure. State the
volume of the wood.
This technique is known as measuring volume by
displacement.
cm3 cm3
80 80
70 70
cm3 cm3
100 100 60 60
50 50
40 40
volume
of object 30 30
water 20 20
10 10
object to be volume
0 0
measured of water steel block wood

Figure 1.9 For Question 4.

Figure 1.7 Measuring volume by displacement.

6 Block 1: General physics

1.3 Density In everyday speech, we might say that lead is heavier
than wood. We mean that, given equal volumes of lead
Our eyes can deceive us. When we look at an object, we
and wood, the lead is heavier. In scientific terms, the
can judge its volume. However, we can only guess its
density of lead is greater than the density of wood. So we
mass. We may guess incorrectly, because we misjudge
define density as follows:
the density. You may offer to carry someone’s bag, only
to discover that it contains heavy books. A large box mass M
of chocolates may have a mass of only 200 g, a great density = D=
volume V
disappointment!
The mass of an object is the amount of matter it is made The SI unit of density is kg/m3 (kilograms per cubic
of. Mass is measured in kilograms. But density is a metre). You may come across other units, as shown in
property of a material. It tells us how concentrated its Table 1.2. A useful value to remember is the density of
mass is. (There is more about the meaning of mass and water (Table 1.3):
how it differs from weight in Chapter 3.) density of water = 1000 kg/m3

Unit of mass Unit of volume Unit of density Density of water

kilogram, kg cubic metre, m3 kilograms per cubic metre 1000 kg/m3
kilogram, kg litre, l kilograms per litre 1.0 kg/litre
kilogram, kg cubic decimetre, dm3 kilograms per cubic decimetre 1.0 kg/dm3
gram, g cubic centimetre, cm3 grams per cubic centimetre 1.0 g/cm3

Table
T bl 1.2
12 U
Units
it off d
density.
it

Material Density / kg/m3 Material Density / kg/m3

gases air 1.29 solids ice 920
hydrogen 0.09 wood 400–1 200
helium 0.18 polythene 910–970
carbon dioxide 1.98 glass 2 500–4 200
liquids water 1 000 steel 7 500–8 100
alcohol (ethanol) 790 lead 11 340
mercury 13 600 silver 10 500
gold 19 300

Table 1.3 Densities of some substances. For gases, these are given at a temperature off 0 °C and
d a pressure off 1.0 105 Pa.

Making measurements 7
Values of density Measuring density
Some values of density are shown in Table 1.3. Here are The easiest way to determine the density of a substance is
some points to note: to find the mass and volume of a sample of the substance.
• Gases have much lower densities than solids or For a solid with a regular shape, find its volume by
liquids. measurement (see page 4). Find its mass using a balance.
• Density is the key to floating. Ice is less dense than Then calculate the density.
water. This explains why icebergs float in the sea,
Figure 1.10 shows one way to find the density of a
rather than sinking to the bottom.
liquid. Place a measuring cylinder on a balance. Set the
• Many materials have a range of densities. Some types
balance to zero. Now pour liquid into the cylinder. Read
of wood, for example, are less dense than water and
the volume from the scale on the cylinder. The balance
will float. Others (such as mahogany) are more dense
shows the mass.
and sink. The density depends on the composition.
• Gold is denser than silver. Pure gold is a soft metal, so
jewellers add silver to make it harder. The amount of 100 100

silver added can be judged by measuring the density.

• It is useful to remember that the density of water is
1000 kg/m3, 1.0 g/cm3 or 1 kg/litre.

Calculating density
To calculate the density of a material, we need to know
the mass and volume of a sample of the material.
Figure 1.10 Measuring the density of a liquid.

Worked example 1
A sample of ethanol has a volume of 240 cm3. Its
mass is found to be 190.0 g. What is the density of
Activity 1.2 Measuring density
ethanol?
Make measurements to find the densities of some
Step 1: Write down what you know and what you
blocks of different materials.
want to know.
mass M = 190.0 g
volume V = 240 cm3
density D = ?
Step 2: Write down the equation for density, QUESTIONS
substitute values and calculate D. 5 Calculate the density of mercury if 500 cm3 has a
M mass of 6.60 kg. Give your answer in g/cm3.
D=
V 6 A steel block has mass 40 g. It is in the form of
190 a cube. Each edge of the cube is 1.74 cm long.
=
240 Calculate the density of the steel.
= 0.79 g/cm3

8 Block 1: General physics

 7 A student measures the density of a piece
of steel. She uses the method of displacement
to find its volume. Figure 1.11 shows her
measurements. Calculate the volume of the steel
and its density.

cm3
200 cm3
200
steel
block

Figure 1.12 The female athletics coach uses a stopwatch to time

100 a sprinter, who can then learn whether she has improved.
100

In the lab, you might need to record the temperature of

a container of water every minute, or find the time for
which an electric current is flowing. For measurements
0
0 like these, stopclocks and stopwatches can be used.
When studying motion, you may need to measure the
time taken for a rapidly moving object to move between
two points. In this case, you might use a device called a
light gate connected to an electronic timer. This is similar
to the way in which runners are timed in major athletics
events. An electronic timer starts when the marshal’s gun
Figure 1.11 For Question 7.
is fired, and stops as the runner crosses the finishing line.
There is more about how to use electronic timing
instruments in Chapter 2.

Measuring short intervals of time

1.4 Measuring time The time for one swing of a pendulum (from left to right
The athletics coach in Figure 1.12 is using her stopwatch and back again) is called its period. A single period is
to time a sprinter. For a sprinter, a fraction of a second usually too short a time to measure accurately. However,
(perhaps just 0.01 s) can make all the difference between because a pendulum swings at a steady rate, you can
winning and coming second or third. It is different in a use a stopwatch to measure the time for a large number
marathon, where the race lasts for more than two hours of swings (perhaps 20 or 50), and calculate the average
and the runners are timed to the nearest second. time per swing. Any inaccuracy in the time at which
the stopwatch is started and stopped will be much less
significant if you measure the total time for a large
number of swings.

Making measurements 9
 Activity 1.3 The period of a pendulum QUESTIONS
Figure 1.13 shows a typical lab pendulum. Devise a 8 Many television sets show 25 images, called ‘frames’,
means of testing Galileo’s idea that the period of a each second. What is the time interval between one
pendulum does not depend on the size of its swing. frame and the next?
9 A pendulum is timed, first for 20 swings and then for
50 swings:
time for 20 swings = 17.4 s
time for 50 swings = 43.2 s
Calculate the average time per swing in each case.
The answers are slightly different. Can you suggest
any experimental reasons for this?

Summary
Rules and measuring cylinders are used to
measure length and volume.
Clocks and electronic timers are used to
measure intervals of time.

mass
Density =
Figure 1.13 A simple pendulum.
volume
Measurements of small quantities can be
improved using special instruments (for
example, vernier callipers and micrometer
screw gauge) or by making multiple
measurements.

End-of-chapter questions
1.1 An ice cube has the dimensions shown in
Figure 1.14. Its mass is 340 g. Calculate:
a its volume [3] 5.5 cm
b its density. [3]

8.4 cm

8.0 cm

Figure 1.14 A block of ice – for Question 1.1.

10 Block 1: General physics

1.2 A student is collecting water as it runs into a 1.4 The inside of a sports hall measures 80 m
measuring cylinder. She uses a clock to long by 40 m wide by 15 m high. The air in
measure the time interval between measurements. it has a density of 1.3 kg/m3 when it is cool.
Figure 1.15 shows the level a Calculate the volume of the air in the
of water in the cylinder at two times, together with sports hall, in m3. [3]
the clock at these times. Calculate: b Calculate the mass of the air. State the
a the volume of water collected between equation you are using. [3]
these two times [2]
b the time interval. [2] 1.5 A geologist needs to measure the density
of an irregularly shaped pebble.
a Describe how she can find its volume
by the method of displacement. [4]
55 60 55 60
b What other measurement must she
5 5
50 10 50 10
45
40 20
15 45
40 20
15
make if she is to find its density? [1]
35 30 25 35 30 25

1.6 An O-level student thinks it may be

cm3 cm3
100 100 possible to identify different rocks
90 90 (A, B and C) by measuring their densities.
80 80 She uses an electronic balance to measure
70 70 the mass of each sample and uses the
60 60 ‘displacement method’ to determine the
50 50
volume of each sample. Figure 1.16 shows
40 40
her displacement results for sample A.
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0

cm3
cm3
Figure 1.15 For Question 1.2.
100 100

80 80
1.3 A student is measuring the density of a
liquid. He places a measuring cylinder 60 60
pebble
on a balance and records its mass. He then pours
40 40
liquid into the cylinder and records
the new reading on the balance. He also 20 20
records the volume of the liquid.
Mass of empty cylinder = 147 g
Mass of cylinder + liquid = 203 g V1 V2
Volume of liquid = 59 cm3
Figure 1.16 For Question 1.6.
Using the results shown above, calculate
the density of the liquid. [5]

Making measurements 11
 ...... ... ... V Density
Sample m/g
/...... /... ... /... ... /... ...
B 144 80 44 ...... ......
C 166 124 71 ...... ......

Table 1.4 For Question 1.6.

a State the volume shown in each Table 1.4 shows the student’s readings
measuring cylinder. [2] for samples B and C.
b Calculate the volume V of the rock d Copy and complete the table by
sample A. [2] inserting the appropriate column
c Sample A has a mass of 102 g. Calculate headings and units, and calculating
its density. [3] the densities. [12]

12 Block 1: General physics