CHE-314: Lecture 4. Section 2: The Heat Diffusion Equation and Transport Properties

Chemical & Materials Engineering
Donadeo Innovation Centre for Engineering

Phone: 780-492-2881 | Email: [email protected]
Website: www.cme.engineering.ualberta.ca
CHE-314: Heat Transfer, Fall 2018, UofA, Edmonton, Canada
CHE-314: Lecture 4. Section 2: The Heat

Diffusion Equation and Transport Properties
Dr. P. Nikrityuk
Sep. 12th, 2018
1
Heat Diffusion Equation Transport Properties Problem
Fourier’s law - 3D formulation Different Coordinates Derivation Boundary Conditions
By way of introduction of the heat transfer governed by thermal diffusion ,

which is described by the Fourier’s law , we restricted our attention to
simplified conditions (one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in a plane wall):
*T.L. Bergman, A.S. Lavine, F.P. Incropera, D.P. Dewitt. Fundamentals of Heat and
dT
qx = −k A the heat rate (1)
dx
qx
00 dT
qx = = −k the heat flux (2)
A dx
However, Fourier’s law is applicable to transient, multidimensional conduction in
Mass Transfer. 7th Ed. John Wiley & Sons. 2011.
00
complex geometries. In particular, taking into account that the heat flux q is a
vector quantity, we can write a more general statement of the conduction rate
equation (2) as follows:

00 ∂T ∂T ∂T
~q = −k∇T = −k i +j +k (3)
∂x ∂y ∂z
where T (x, y , z) is the scalar temperature field, ∇ is the three-dimensional del
operator.
An alternative form of Fourier’s law is therefore
00 00 ∂T
~q = qn n = −k n (4)
∂n
00
where qn is the heat flux in a direction n, which is normal to an isotherm , and
n is the unit normal vector in that direction.
2
The heat transfer is always sustained by a temperature

q’’ q’’
gradient along normal to an isotherm n. y n
The heat flux vector can be resolved into components,

e.g. in Cartesian coordinates, the general expression for q’’
00
~q is:
x y
00 00 00 00 n
~q = i qx + j qy + k qz (5)
where i = ~i, j = ~j, k = ~k

Isotherm x
The heat flux vector normal to an isotherm in
00 ∂T 00 ∂T 00 ∂T a two-dimensional coordinate system.
qx = −k ; qy = −k ; qz = −k ; (6)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Direction of heat transfer is
Important Information about Fourier’s law: perpendicular to lines of
Fourier’s law is NOT an expression that may be constant temperature
derived from first principles; it is a generalization (isotherms).
based on experimental evidence.
Heat flux vector may be
In a general case, Fourier’s law is a vector expression resolved into orthogonal
indicating that the heat flux is normal to an isotherm components.
and in the direction of decreasing temperature.
3
Temperature K Vectors of the temeparture gradient

∂T ~ ~j
∂x
i + ∂T
∂y
Example of the heat flux distribution for a complex geometry: the heat flux has
opposite direction referring to the temeparture gradient.
4
Z
Cartesian Coordinates: T (x, y , z)
r
00 ∂T ~ ∂T ~ ∂T ~
~q = −k i −k j −k k
∂x ∂y ∂z T(r , φ , z)
| {z } | {z } | {z }
00 00 00
qx qy qz
y
Cylindrical Coordinates: T (x, φ, z)

φ
00 ∂T ~ 1 ∂T ~ ∂T ~ X
~q = −k i −k j −k k Cylindrical Coordinates.
∂r r ∂φ ∂z
| {z } | {z } | {z } Z
00 00 00
qr qφ qz
Spherical Coordinates: T (x, φ, θ) θ T(r , φ , θ)

00 ∂T ~ 1 ∂T ~ 1 ∂T ~ r
~q = −k i −k j −k k y
∂r r ∂θ r sinθ ∂φ
| {z } | {z } | {z }
00 00
qr qθ 00
qφ φ
X
Spherical Coordinates.
5
The heat diffusion equation (HDE) is a a differential equation whose solution

provides the temperature distribution in a stationary medium. Note, that this
solution depends on conditions imposed on domain boundaries.
To derive the heat diffusion equation we consider a differential control volume

(CV) applying the energy conservation requirement.
Conservation of energy for a control volume:
Ėin − Ėout + Ėg = Ėst (7)
qz+dz
T(x,y,z)
qy+dy
∂qx
qx+dx = qx + dx
∂x
∂qy
qy +dy = qy + dy
∂y
dz
Eg ∂qz
E st
qz+dz = qz + dz
qx qx+dx ∂z
z
y
x dy
qy
dx
qz
Differential control volume, dVvol = dx · dy · dz, for conduction analysis in Cartesian
coordinates. 6
Ėg is the rate of thermal energy generation inside the CV:
Ėg = q̇ · dx · dy · dz
| {z }
dVvol
where q̇ is the rate at which energy is generated per unit volume of the medium
(W/m3 ).
The energy storage term
∂T
Ėst = ρ cp · dx · dy · dz
∂t
ρ cp ∂T
∂t
is the time rate of change of the sensible (thermal) energy of the
medium per unit volume.
The energy inflow Ėin and outflow Ėout :
Ėin = qx + qy + qz ; Ėout = qx+dx + qy +dy + qz+dz
Substituting equations for Ėg , Ėst , Ėin and Ėout into eq. (7) we obtain
∂T
qx + qy + qz − (qx+dx + qy +dy + qz+dz ) + q̇ · dVvol = ρ cp · dVvol (8)
∂t
7
Eq. (8) can be rewritten in the form:
∂qx ∂qy ∂qz ∂T

− dx − dy − dz + q̇ · dVvol = ρ cp · dVvol (9)

∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂qx
due to qx+dx = qx + ∂x
dx, ....., see slide 5.
The conduction heat rates in an isotropic1 material may be evaluated from
Fourier’s law,
∂T ∂T
qx = −k · dy · dz ; qy = −k · dx · dz
| {z } ∂x ∂y
Ax
∂T
qz = −k · dx · dy (10)
∂z
Substituting equations (10) into eq. (9) and dividing out the dimensions of
the control volume (dVvol = dx · dy · dz), we obtain the heat diffusion
equation written in the general form in Cartezian coordinates:

∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T
k + k + k + q̇ = ρ cp (11)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t
1
For an isotropic medium, the value of the thermal conductivity is independent of
the coordinate direction. 8
Remarks to the Heat Diffusion equation

∂
The term ∂x k ∂T
∂x
is related to the net conduction heat flux into the control
volume for the x-coordinate direction:

∂ ∂T 00 00
k dx = qx − qx+dx (12)
∂x ∂x
If the thermal conductivity, k, is constant, the heat equation is
1 ∂T ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T q̇

= + + + (13)
α ∂t ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k
k
where α = ρ cp
is the thermal diffusivity (m2 /s).
One-Dimensional (1D) conduction in a planar medium with constant properties
and no heat generation:
1 ∂T ∂2T
= (14)
α ∂t ∂x 2
Steady-state, one-dimensional conduction with no energy generation:

∂ ∂T
k =0 (15)
∂x ∂x
The important implication of this equation is that the heat flux is a constant in
00
dqx
the direction of transfer = 0.
dx 9
1 ∂T ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T q̇

= 2
+ 2
+ + (16)
α ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z 2 k
Since heat equation (16) has first order derivatives in time, to solve it we have
to specify an initial temperature distribution, e.g. in 1D case
T (x, t)t=0 = T (x, 0)
Since heat equation is second order in space, two boundary conditions must be
specified for each direction.
T T or dT/dy = 0
Y initial temeparture
T0
TL TR
or
dT/dx = 0
TB
X
10
Basic boundary conditions

1. Dirichlet condition, or a boundary condition
Ts
of the first kind: the surface is maintained
at a fixed temperature T = Ts . T(t,x)
Constant Surface Temperature - Dirichlet b.c.

2. Neumann condition, or a boundary
condition of the second kind: zero or
00 q’’
s
non-zero constant heat flux, qs , at the
q’’=0
s
surface: T(t,x) T(t,x)
∂T 00
−k = qs
∂x x=0
X X
00
Constant Heat Flux: Applied Flux, qs 6= 0, &
00
Insulated Surface, qs = 0, - Neumann b.c.
3. Robin condition, or a boundary condition T(t,0)

of the third kind: corresponds to the
existence of convection heating (or cooling) h T(t,x)
at the surface.
T X
−k
∂T
= h (T∞ − T (t, 0)) 8
Convection - Robin b.c.
∂x x=0 11
The impact of geometry
400
380
channel#1
channel#2
360
T, K
340
Channel#1
320
300
0 2 4 6 8 10
x, m
Temperature profile along the symmetry
line.
Applied to the channel#2 qx

(heat rate in x-direction) is
approx. constant. Thus,
Ax dT
dx
is approx. constant
Channel#2
too.
That is why any increase in
Ax leads to decrese in dT
dx
.
12
Example
A long copper bar of rectangular cross section, whose width w is much greater
than its thickness L, is maintained in contact with a heat sink at its lower
surface, and the temperature throughout the bar is approximately equal to that
of the sink, T0 . Suddenly, an electric current is passed through the bar and an
airstream of temperature T∞ is passed over the top surface, while the bottom
surface continues to be maintained at T0 . Obtain the differential equation and
the boundary and initial conditions that could be solved to determine the
temperature as a function of position and time in the bar.
Cooper bar (k, a)

T(x,y,z,t) ~T(x,t)
Air
T ,h
8
w
Air
L
T ,h
8
T(L, t) Heat sink

T
q x
I x
z
L
y
T =T(0, t)
Scheme of the setup. Due to w >> L this problem can be considered as 1D, see left figure.
13
The temperature distribution is governed by 1D heat equation:

1 ∂T ∂2T q̇
= +
α ∂t ∂x 2 k
The boundary conditions:

∂T
x = L :=⇒ −k = h (T (L, t) − T∞ )
∂x x=L
x = 0 :=⇒ T (0, t) = T0
The initial condition
T (x, 0) = T0
Using all conditions, 1D heat transfer equation can be solved numerically using
Euler explicit or implicit scheme. Central difference approximation of the spatial
2
derivative, ∂∂xT2 , can be used.
14
Thermal Conductivity Thermal Diffusivity Measurement of k
Properties of matter are generally referred to as thermophysical properties and

include two distinct categories: transport and thermodynamic properties.
The transport properties include the diffusion rate coefficients such as k, the
thermal conductivity (for heat transfer), and ν, the kinematic viscosity (for
momentum transfer).
Thermodynamic properties characterise the equilibrium state of a system. E.g.

density, ρ, and specific heat, (cp ), are two such properties used extensively in
thermodynamic analysis.
The product ρ cp (J/m3 K), commonly termed the volumetric heat capacity,
defines the ability of a material to store thermal energy.
Because substances of large density are typically characterized by small specific

heats, many solids and liquids, which are very good energy storage media, have
comparable heat capacities (ρ cp > 1 MJ/m3 K).
Because of their very small densities, however, gases are poorly suited for
thermal energy storage (ρ cp ≈ 1 kJ/m3 K).
15
Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a material’s ability to transfer thermal

energy by conduction.
The thermal conductivity associated with conduction in the x-direction is
00
defined as k ≡ qx / ∂T
∂x
For an isotropic material the thermal conductivity is independent of the
direction of transfer, kx = ky = kz ≡ k.
1000
Pure Metals
Zn
100 Nonmetalic
Solids Ni
k, W/m K
Brick
10
Insulators Rock
Food
1 ICE
Gases Sand
Wood
0.1
Air Glas fiber
CO 2 Urethane
0.01
3
1 10 10 2 10 10 4
3
density, kg/m 16
Fluids and Gases

Details on the thermal conductivity of solids can be found in Section 2.2. of
the course book (Incropera).

The effect of temperature, pressure, and chemical species on the thermal
conductivity of a gas may be explained in terms of the kinetic theory of gases.
From this theory it is known that the thermal conductivity is directly
proportional to the density of the gas, the mean molecular speed c̄, and the
mean free path λmfp , which is the average distance traveled by an energy
carrier (a molecule) before experiencing a collision:
1
k≈ cv ρ c̄ λmfp
3
For an ideal gas, the mean free path may be expressed as
kB T
λmfp = √
2π d 2 p
where kB is Boltzmann’s constant, kB = 1.381 · 10−23 (J/K), d is the diameter

of the gas molecule, p is the pressure.
17
Micro- and Nanoscale Effects

As for the solid state, the bulk thermal conductivity of a fluid may be modified
when the characteristic dimension of the system becomes small, e.g. if
L/λmfp ≤ 1 (L is characteristic size of a system under investigation, λmfp is the

molecular mean free path).
The molecular mean free path is restricted when a fluid is constrained by a small
physical dimension, affecting conduction across a thin fluid layer. Critical
thickness of such layer is order of 100 nm = 10−7 m.
Mixtures of fluids and solids can also be formulated to tailor the transport
properties of the resulting suspension.
For example, nanofluids are base liquids that are seeded with nanometer-sized
solid particles.
Their very small size allows the solid particles to remain suspended within the
base liquid for a long time.
From the heat transfer perspective, a nanofluid exploits the high thermal
conductivity that is characteristic of most solids (e.g. k ≈ 200 W/m K) to
increase the relatively low thermal conductivity of base liquids, typical values of
which k ≈ 0.5 (W/m K).
Typical nanofluids involve liquid water seeded with nominally spherical

nanoparticles of Al2 O3 or CuO. 18
Thermal Diffusivity , α: A measure of a material’s ability to respond to

changes in its thermal environment. It is used in an analysis of transient heat
transfer.
1 ∂T ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T q̇

= 2
+ 2
+ +
α ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z 2 k
Heat conduction k
α= =
Heat storage ρ cp
Note: k defines how well a material conducts heat, and the heat capacity, ’ρ cp ’,
represents how much energy a material stores per unit volume.
Thus, the thermal diffusivity of a material is a ratio of the heat conducted
through the material to the heat stored per unit volume.
The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation of heat into the
medium.
A smal value of thermal diffusivity leads to absorption of the heat by the
material and a small amount of heat is conducted further in time.
Property Tables (Incropera’s book):
Solids: Tables A.1 – A.3
Gases: Table A.4
Liquids: Tables A.5 – A.7
19
An apparatus for measuring thermal conductivity uses

an electrical heater ’sandwiched’ between two identical
samples of diameter D=30 mm and length H=60mm, Insulation Plate

which are pressed between plates maintained at a T0
uniform temperature T0 = 77 o C by a circulating fluid. D
H ∆ T1
A conducting grease is placed between all the surfaces
to ensure good thermal contact.

Heater
Differential thermocouples are imbedded in the samples leads
with a spacing of 15 mm.
The lateral sides of the samples are insulated to ensure ∆ T1

onedimensional heat transfer through the samples.
1. With two samples of SS316 in the apparatus, the

heater draws 0.353 A at 100 V, and the differential Plate
thermocouples indicate ∆T1 = ∆T2 = 25 o C . What is Insulation T0
the thermal conductivity of the stainless steel sample
Apparatus to measure the thermal
material? Compare your result with the thermal
conductivity.
conductivity value reported in the literature (e.g. Table
A.1.).
20
2. What is the average temperature of the samples?
3. What is the advantage in constructing the apparatus with two identical samples
sandwiching the heater rather than with a single heater–sample combination?
When would heat leakage out of the lateral surfaces of the samples become
significant? Under what conditions would you expect ∆T1 6= ∆T2 ?
Solution
Assumptions: (1) One-dimensional heat transfer in samples, (2) Steady-state

conditions, (3) Negligible contact resistance between materials.
1. Due to the symmetry (two identical samples on the top and bottom) half the
heater power will pass through each of the samples which are presumed
identical. Using Fourier’s law:
∆T q ∆x
q = k AC ; =⇒ k =
∆x AC ∆T
0.5 · (100 · 0.353) · 0.015

k= = 15 W /m K
(0.03)2
π 4
· 25
Tabulated value: Stainless steel 316 (SS316): k = 15.2 W/m K for T = 400 K.
21
2. To define the average temperature of the sample we use one dimensionality of

the temperature distribution in the sample.
First we calculate gradient of T, which is constant:
dT ∆T 25
= = = 1666.67
dx ∆x 0.015
The same gradient can be calculated as follows:

dT T − T0 dT
= h ; =⇒ Th = To +H· = (77+273)+0.06·1666.67 = (177+273)K
dx H dx
The average temperature of the sample:
Th + T0 177 + 77
T = = = 127 o C = 400 K
2 2
3. Strickly speaking, we do not need the second sample. We could replace it by

insulation. However, the second sample enables us to verify the temperature
measurements on the first sample and provides thermal symmetry, which
reduces experimental error.
Moreover, in the case of one sample, if insulation works not properly heat could
flow from the backside of the heater even though insulation.
22
Problem1 Problem2
A large, thin concrete slab of thickness L is ’setting’. Setting is an

exothermic process that releases q̇ (W/m3 ). The outside surfaces
are kept at the ambient temperature, so Tw = T∞ . What is the
q
maximum internal temperature? Tw Tw
X
Setup scheme.
Write the heat diffusion equation:
1 ∂T ∂2T ∂2T ∂ 2 T q̇
= 2
+ 2
+ +
α ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z 2 k
| {z } | {z }
=0,since steady =0,since 1D
Thus,
∂2T q̇
=−
∂x 2 k
Obtain the general solution of this equation:
∂2T q̇ q̇ q̇
Z Z
∂T
dx = − dx; =⇒ = − x + C1 ; =⇒T = − x 2 + C1 x + C2
∂x 2 k ∂x k 2k
23
Problem1 Problem2
C1 and C2 can be found from the boundary conditions: Tw = T∞

T (x = 0) = Tw , T (x = L) = Tw
Tw = −0 + 0 + C2 ; =⇒C2 = Tw
q̇ 2 q̇L
Tw = − L + C1 L + Tw ; =⇒C1 =
2k 2k
q̇ 2 q̇L
T =− x + x + Tw
2k 2k
dT
T reaches maximum when dx
= 0:
dT q̇ q̇L L q̇L2
=− x+ = 0; =⇒x = ; =⇒Tmax = + Tw
dx k 2k 2 8k
24
Problem1 Problem2
At a given instant of time, the temperature distribution within an infinite

homogeneous body is given by the function:
T (x, y , z) = x 2 − 2y 2 + z 2 − xy + 2yz
Assuming constant properties and no internal heat generation, determine the

regions where the temperature changes with time.
z T(x,y,z)
y
Infinite medium
x
Solution: Heat Transfer Equation
1 ∂T ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T q̇

= 2
+ 2
+ + (17)
α ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z 2 k
|{z}
=0
To solve this problem we need to substitute T (x, y , z) into the eq. (17). First
find gradients: ∂T
∂x
, ∂T
∂y
, ∂T
∂z
25
Problem1 Problem2
∂ ∂ ∂ 1 ∂T
(2x − y ) + (−4y − x + 2z) + (2z + 2y ) =
∂x ∂y ∂z α ∂t
Performing the differentiations,
1 ∂T ∂T
2−4+2= ; =⇒ =0
α ∂t ∂t
which implies that, at the prescribed instant, the temperature is everywhere
independent of time.
26

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Chemical & Materials Engineering

Donadeo Innovation Centre for Engineering

CHE-314: Heat Transfer, Fall 2018, UofA, Edmonton, Canada

CHE-314: Lecture 4. Section 2: The Heat

By way of introduction of the heat transfer governed by thermal diffusion ,

The heat transfer is always sustained by a temperature

gradient along normal to an isotherm n. y n

The heat flux vector can be resolved into components,

where i = ~i, j = ~j, k = ~k

Temperature K Vectors of the temeparture gradient

Cylindrical Coordinates: T (x, φ, z)

Spherical Coordinates: T (x, φ, θ) θ T(r , φ , θ)

The heat diffusion equation (HDE) is a a differential equation whose solution

To derive the heat diffusion equation we consider a differential control volume

Ėg is the rate of thermal energy generation inside the CV:

Ėin = qx + qy + qz ; Ėout = qx+dx + qy +dy + qz+dz

Eq. (8) can be rewritten in the form:

∂qx ∂qy ∂qz ∂T

− dx − dy − dz + q̇ · dVvol = ρ cp · dVvol (9)

Remarks to the Heat Diffusion equation

volume for the x-coordinate direction:

1 ∂T ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T q̇

1 ∂T ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T q̇

specified for each direction.

Basic boundary conditions

at a fixed temperature T = Ts . T(t,x)

Constant Surface Temperature - Dirichlet b.c.

3. Robin condition, or a boundary condition T(t,0)

The impact of geometry

Applied to the channel#2 qx

Cooper bar (k, a)

T(L, t) Heat sink

The temperature distribution is governed by 1D heat equation:

The boundary conditions:

Properties of matter are generally referred to as thermophysical properties and

Thermodynamic properties characterise the equilibrium state of a system. E.g.

Because substances of large density are typically characterized by small specific

Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a material’s ability to transfer thermal

Fluids and Gases

the course book (Incropera).

For an ideal gas, the mean free path may be expressed as

where kB is Boltzmann’s constant, kB = 1.381 · 10−23 (J/K), d is the diameter

Micro- and Nanoscale Effects

L/λmfp ≤ 1 (L is characteristic size of a system under investigation, λmfp is the

Typical nanofluids involve liquid water seeded with nominally spherical

Thermal Diffusivity , α: A measure of a material’s ability to respond to

1 ∂T ∂2T ∂2T ∂2T q̇

An apparatus for measuring thermal conductivity uses

samples of diameter D=30 mm and length H=60mm, Insulation Plate

to ensure good thermal contact.

The lateral sides of the samples are insulated to ensure ∆ T1

1. With two samples of SS316 in the apparatus, the

2. What is the average temperature of the samples?

sandwiching the heater rather than with a single heater–sample combination?

Assumptions: (1) One-dimensional heat transfer in samples, (2) Steady-state

0.5 · (100 · 0.353) · 0.015

2. To define the average temperature of the sample we use one dimensionality of

The same gradient can be calculated as follows:

The average temperature of the sample: