Reflections and Reviews

Losing Consciousness: Automatic Infiuences

on Consumer Judgment, Behavior,
and i\/iotivation
JOHN A. BARGH*

Consumer research has largely missed out on two key developments in social
cognition research: the growing evidence that much of social judgment and be-
havior occur without conscious awareness or intent and the substantial moderating
Influence of social- and self-related goal pursuits on basic cognitive and reasoning
processes. This evidence is described and its implications are drawn for non-
conscious—including subliminal—influences on consumer behavior. The con-
sumer research domain appears ideal for the necessary next wave of this research:
the assessment of how much of a role nonconscious influences play in real life in
decisions and behavior that are of real consequence to the individual.

T o what extent are people aware of and in control of

the influences and reasons for their purchasing and con-
sumption behavior? Although in the past decade of con-
much of human behavior (see, e,g,. Alba 2000; Loewenstein
1996), However, much of the previous discussion within
consumer research has treated nonconscious influences as
sumer research there has been increasing attention to the hedonic impulses, which, if they reach expression in be-
possibility that there may be automatic or nonconscious in- havior, reflect a failure of volitional control or a weakness
fluences on choices and behavior, the field still appears dom- of will (Alba 2000, p, 3; Baumeister 2002), Instead, I seek
inated by purely cognitive approaches, in which decisions to expand the consideration of nonconscious motivations
and actions are made deliberately. Not only does the role beyond hedonic impulses and physiological need states
of nonconscious processes seem underplayed, relative to (such as in addiction) to the operation of any kind of goal
contemporary social psychological models, so too do di- or motivation a person can have consciously, such as self-
rective motivational influences on reasoning and behavior. protective motivation, performance- or achievement-related
My own goal in this article is to describe briefly the recent motivation, and interpersonal goals.
developments in automatic and nonconscious research in According to the recent major surveys of consumer re-
social cognition, consider their relevance to consumer be- search (Cohen and Chakravarti 1990; Jacoby, Johar, and
havior, and then consider their implications for future di- Morrin 1998; Simonson et al, 2001), the major emphasis is
rections in consumer research, on purchase decisions, with a dominant cognitive approach
I am not the first to point to the nonconscious nature of to understanding how they are made. This cognitive ori-
entation takes two main forms, social cognition and behav-
*John A. Bargh is professor and director of the Graduate Program in ioral decision theory. The most influential social cognition
Social Psychology at New York University, 6 Washington Place, Seventh models are the elaboration likelihood model (ELM; Petty,
Hoor, New York, NY 10003 ([email protected]). This essay was pre-
pared while the author was a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in Cacioppo, and Schumann 1983) and the heuristic-systematic
the Behavioral Sciences and supported as well by a Cuggenheim Fellow- model (HSM; Chaiken 1980); the predominant paradigm of
ship and by grant MH-60767 from the National Institute of Mental Health. decision research is an information-processing model. All
He thanks Rashmi Adaval, Gavan Fitzsimons, and David Mick for their of these major approaches posit consciously made, delib-
advice and comments on an earlier version.
erate choices and decisions. The social cognition models are
280

© 2002 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc.* Vol. 29 • September 2002

All rights reserved. 0O93-530l/20O3/2902-0O10$10.OO
LOSING CONSCIOUSNESS 281

mainly concerned with the conditions under which people For example, if you present a subject with adjectives re-
do, versus do not, engage in careful, effortful processing of lated to politeness, in the course of an ostensible language
the information contained in persuasive messages. In this test in which she constructs grammatical sentences out of
research, even when the experimental participant is not pro- series of words presented in a scrambled order, and then
cessing effortfully but instead is relying on simplifying give her a chance to behave in a polite manner (e.g., waiting
shortcuts, she is still focusing her attention on the message, patiently for the experimenter to end a conversation with
intentionally processing it, and then reporting a consciously another person), she will exhibit greater politeness (i.e., wait
formed attitude or opinion. longer before interrupting) than will participants in a control
Since 1980, however, there have been two important de- condition (Bargh et al. 1996, experiment 1).
velopments in social cognition research that would appear Motivations and goal pursuits can be activated and put
to be highly relevant to consumer research. These are the into operation in the same way (Bargh et al. 2001). For
substantial role played by nonconscious processes (and the example, priming the concept of achievement causes par-
minimal role played by deliberate, effortful processes) in ticipants to work harder and score higher on a verbal task,
psychological and behavioral phenomena and the central and while priming the concept of cooperation causes them to
modifying role of needs and goal pursuits. Because of the return more of a common resource (flsh in a smallish lake)
continued reliance of consumer research on the t980-era in order to maintain and continue that resource for all. Not
models, these new developments have not yet had much only are people unaware that these goals have been activated
impact. However, to the extent that consumers are behaving but they also are unaware of their operation, even though
without conscious awareness and guidance, models that as- they are behaving in ways to attain that very goal. Moreover,
sume the consumer's deliberate and effortful scrutiny of the nonconscious goal pursuits display all of the same features
choice or behavior will likely miss much of the character as does (volitional) conscious goal pursuit, such as flexi-
and flavor of consumer behavior in situ. bility, persistence, and effects of success and failure on mood
(Chartrand and Bargh 2002).
CONSCIOUSNESS DETHRONED One might object that these findings are only the results
of clever tricks in contrived experimental settings and are
The early social-cognitive models were based mainly on not typical of normal, "real world" functioning. Indeed,
research in controlled, quiet, distraction-free settings in Clore and Ketelaar (1997) have suggested that these dem-
which the participant gave his or her full attention to the onstrations of nonconscious influences are analogous to hot-
particular stimuli presented, had plenty of time to consider wiring a car: "Automobiles, for example, are not designed
his or her response, and tried reasonably hard to follow the to be started with a screw driver and wire clippers, but we
instructions given explicitly by the experimenter. But soon, all know that the design of a car allows such hot-wiring to
researchers began to ask to what extent these models applied happen" (p. 116). To this reasonable point two rejoinders
to the real, complex, noisy, and busy world outside of the can be made. First, the evidence in support of nonconscious
laboratory and to what extent people spontaneously pursued goal pursuit is obtained under conditions that as much as
the particular goals given to them by psychology experi- possible mimic those in the real, nonlaboratory world. Ide-
menters. As it turned out, the main feature that dropped out ally, the dependent measure is taken when the participant
of these models as they were studied under more naturalistic believes he or she is entirely outside of an experimental
conditions was the role played by deliberate conscious situation—when arriving, when between different studies,
choice processes (see Bargh and Chartrand 1999 for a re- or when leaving the lab. In one study, for example (Bargh
view). For example, Fazio et al. (1986) showed that eval- et al. 1996, experiment 2), participants were first primed,
uations of the objects and events in one's environment were or were not primed, with stimuli related to the elderly ster-
made in an immediate, automatic manner, upon the mere eotype, and the dependent measure was how quickly they
presence or occurrence of that object or event. Causal at- walked down the hall when leaving the experiment. Other
tributions were found to be made substantially through au- studies of nonconscious goal pursuit employed natural set-
tomatic and nonconscious means (e.g., Gilbert 1989), and tings that were expected to automatically activate that goal,
behavior in social interactions was found to be influenced such as priming power-related goals by having the partici-
automatically by social-perceptual mechanisms (Bargh, pant sit in the professor's versus the guest chair in the pro-
Chen, and Burrows 1996). fessor's office (Chen, Lee-Chai, and Bargh 2001).
The most recent developments have been in the area of
social behavior and goal pursuit. What is most striking about Second, the original priming studies from the 1960s and
these varied demonstrations of nonconscious influences is t970s were not laboratory studies but were carried out in
that the effects are obtained by the mere, passive activation the field. These concerned the impact of the presence of
of the relevant mental concepts, such as intelligent, polite, aggressive cues such as weapons on subsequent aggressive
power, cooperation, and achievement. Most research has behavior (Turner, Layton, and Simons 1975), the impact of
produced the activation of these concepts through priming exposure to television violence on aggressiveness in children
manipulations that typically involve exposure to the concept (Belson 1978), and the impact of witnessing helpful acts on
and close synonyms in the context of an allegedly unrelated subsequent likelihood to help a person in need, such as a
prior experiment. stranded motorist (Bryan and Test 1967). Those studies
282 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH

showed consistently strong influences of contextual primes health-related goals, and the person should evaluate gro-
on behavior in real world settings; indeed, the model of ceries in terms of his or her health values and their impli-
aggressive cues developed in the laboratory holds even more cations; activate gratification or hedonistic goals, and the
strongly when it is tested in the field (Bushman and An- food's tastiness will dominate the evaluations (see Rama-
derson 1998). nathan and Menon 2001). Competition goal operation
Still, much more needs to be done to test the extent of should cause one to evaluate status-oriented products more
influence that the recently discovered forms of nonconscious positively, while egalitarian or responsibility-related goals
processes have in normal, everyday functioning. The realm would cause a more negative evaluation of those same prod-
of consumer research would seem to be the ideal playing ucts, and so on.
field on which to establish whether the new models of au- My point is that all of these goals can be activated, and
tomatic goal pursuit and automatic evaluation processes do, then operate, all outside of awareness. If they are operating
indeed, apply in the real world, for consumer research in- nonconsciousiy, the person will not be aware of their influ-
volves the study of circumstances in which the person is ence on his evaluations and behavior. The above research
motivated and involved, where his or her money is on the shows that the technology and knowledge now exist to ac-
line, and where the outcome of choices matters to his or tivate these goals without the person's awareness.
her health or happiness.

EXPANDING THE STUDY OF NONCONSCIOUS INELUENCE:

CONSUMER MOTIVATIONS SPECTER AND REALITY
In order to bring the study of nonconscious motivation
into the consumer realm, the range of consumer motivations There are two ways to deliver nonconscious primes: either
that are considered needs to be expanded. Perhaps as a leg- subliminally, in which case the primes themselves are not
acy of the influential ELM and HSM models of the early accessible to the person's awareness, or supraliminaily, in
t980s, the motivation to engage (or not to engage) in ef- which case the person is aware of the primes but not of
fortful consideration of a decision or judgment (based on their potential influence. Both forms have been shown to
economic calculations of personal cost and benefit for doing be successful in influencing judgments, motivations, and
so) seems to be the dominant kind of goal or motive studied behaviors in social cognition research (Bargh 1992).
in contemporary consumer research (for an important recent Subliminal advertising and subliminal influence attempts
exception, see Ratneshwar, Mick, and Huffman 2000). But more generally have a controversial and checkered past.
in the real world, people have many other goals and needs. Indeed, one reason why consumer research seemed to shy
Aside from (occasionally) being motivated to effortfully away from the study of motivational influences over the past
process product-relevant information or advertising content 40 years is the legacy of Vance Packard's 1957 book The
or to deliberately make choices about which products to Hidden Persuaders. Packard proclaimed that market re-
buy, people have things they need to get done and pressing searchers of that time were able to determine people's un-
concerns on their minds. We want others to like us and to conscious motives and that the consumer was powerless to
want to be with us; we want to perform well and to achieve resist these techniques. As evidence, he trumpeted claims
success, to ensure our family's safety and security, and to of powerful subliminal advertising effects in movie theaters.
present ourselves to others in a positive, attractive light. The book, published in an era of prisoner of war brain-
Social cognition research over the past 20 years has em- washing attempts and cold war paranoia, was a sensation
phasized the moderating role of these varied motivations and gave the scientific study of consumer motivations an
for cognitive processes such as attention and judgment (e.g., unsavory public image.
Tesser, Martin, and Cornell 1996). However, the early reports of subliminal ads in movie
The importance of including these various motivations in theaters turned out to be a hoax, and then the first reviews
the research mix is that the particular goal in place changes of the effectiveness of subliminal advertising showed weak
everything—the focus of attention and the evaluation of effects at best (Moore 1982). Next, experimental tests of the
objects and events, as well as memory for events (e.g., effectiveness of commercially available subliminal self-help
Bruner 1957; Lazarus 1991). For instance, the currently op- tapes found them to be no more effective than placebo tapes
erating goal drives appraisal and evaluation of objects and (Greenwald et al. 1991).
events in the current environment (Ferguson and Bargh, Today, most people remain concerned about the possi-
forthcoming). To the extent that these help to satisfy the bility of being influenced by subliminal messages (Wilson
goal, they are positively evaluated and approached; to the and Brekke 1994), and perhaps now, finally, they should
extent that they thwart or interfere with goal pursuit, they be. Contemporary researchers are consistently obtaining
are negatively evaluated and avoided. Activate intimacy subliminal effects on consumption and product evaluation.
needs or goals, and then products that can help one become What has changed?
more attractive, such as cosmetics or grooming products, The main reason for the recent success is that researchers
should be more positively evaluated than otherwise; activate are taking the consumer's (experimental participant's) cur-
LOSING CONSCIOUSNESS 283

rent goals and needs into account.' Lewin's influential field There are, however, situations and contexts in which we
theory (1951) held that one could not induce in people goals are aware of attempts to influence us and even of how that
they do not already have themselves, but you could influence attempt might operate. Millions of people watch the Super
them by activating or manipulating the goals that they al- Bowl football telecast in part to see the new (and very
ready possessed. The most recent work on subliminal in- expensive) ads^ fully aware while watching them that they
fluence exploits this principle by matching the subliminal are trying very hard to influence us in some way. We know
stimulus with the subject's current goal or need state; it also full well that repeated ads asking, "What is mLife?" without
makes use of known effective primes. Thus, Berridge and ever telling us are trying to incite us to go to the displayed
Winkielman (forthcoming) subliminally presented subjects internet address to find out (and so we can resist this im-
with a happy, a neutral, or an angry face. Those who had pulse). These are the very cases in which subliminal influ-
been shown the happy face subsequently evaluated a fruit- ence attempts will likely prove to be more successful than
flavored drink more favorably and also drank substantially supraliminal (conscious) ones.
more of it than did neutral-primed participants. Those who
had been shown the angry face drank least of all. Most
important, these effects held only for those participants who THE USE AND ABUSE OF
were thirsty (having been instructed not to drink anything NONCONSCIOUSNESS
for hours before the experiment); the evaluations and drink-
ing behavior of nonthirsty participants were unaffected by It would be naive to think that recent advances in knowl-
the same subliminal primes. edge of nonconscious processes will never be exploited to
Strahan, Spencer, and Zanna (forthcoming) subliminally serve a company's or a government's purposes against the
primed thirstiness and caused thirsty, but not nonthirsty, interests of consumers or citizens. Therefore, within the field
participants to drink more of a purportedly thirst-quenching of consumer research, there are choices to be made con-
beverage ("SuperQuencher") than of a purportedly energy- cerning how to approach the study of nonconscious influ-
giving beverage ("PowerPro"). In another study, they ences. Here the question neatly becomes. Who is the in-
primed sadness and thereby caused participants to prefer tended consumer of that research? Who is the master being
listening to a CD purported to put them in a good mood served?
rather tlian to a CD of music described as strong and pow- Nearly 40 years ago, Robert Perloff (1964) wrote that in
erful. Again, in both studies non-goal-primed participants the first half-century of industrial psychology's existence,
did not show these effects. For the subliminal effects to the overwhelming amount of research treated the consumer
occur required the match between the needs and goals of "as an individual whose attention and purchasing behavior
the participant and the needs that the product was alleged are coveted to serve ends . . . determined by advertising
to satisfy (see also Dijksterhuis et al., forthcoming). and the mass media" (p. 33). According to the recent reviews
With subliminal primes, the individual has no chance of of the field, not much has changed, and most research still
controlling the influence; as they used to say of Bob Feller's is devoted to influences on purchase decisions (Simonson
fastball, you can't hit what you can't see. But most stimuli et al. 2001, p. 255). Perloff concluded that the benefits of
in real life as well as in advertising are in one's plain view. consumer research for the individual in society would be
Supraliminal influence attempts, including goal activation, greatly multiplied if researchers directly and explicitly tar-
can be as effective—if not more effective—than subliminal geted the consumer's motives and needs.
priming. What is critical is that people not be aware of how In Perioff's day, the idea of "hidden persuaders" was
the primes might affect them. Given our general overcon- indeed a matter of bluff and, to some extent, hysteria. But
fidence in our ability to be aware of the important influences no longer. If researchers had a responsibility in 1964 to serve
on our judgments and behavior, as well as in our ability to the consumer, how much more of a responsibility is there
control any unwanted influence, this condition is met much today, when methods to thwart or bypass the consumer's
of the time. After all, almost all external, environmental defenses against influence are becoming ever more pow-
influences on our behavior involve stimuli and messages erful, and yet he remains as ignorant of these influences and
that are in plain view, yet either we do not realize that the as overconfident of his control as in the past?
influence is taking place (Wilson and Brekke 1994) or we There is a way that contemporary consumer researchers
are overconfident as to our ability to control any such in- can live up to this responsibility. In social cognition research,
fluences (Bargh 1999b). As an example, we routinely be- the t980s saw growing evidence of the nonconsciousness
moan negative or "dirty" political campaign advertising and of stereotyping and prejudice—of these being automatic,
insist that such ads do not affect our own vote, yet the reason unintended, and possibly even uncontrollable influences on
such ads do not go away, and even increase in frequency judgment and behavior toward the stereotyped group. The
each election season, is that they are, in fact, quite effective. response of the field was a massive research effort, that
continues today, into ways in which people could overcome
these influences and regain control (see Bargh 1999a). Per-
'The other reason is that priming researchers are using techniques that
work, such as multiple presentations of the subliminal prime instead of
haps consumer research should begin to balance studies of
just one and using single words instead of entire sentences that need to how to influence the consumer's choices and behavior with
be parsed (see Dijksterhuis, Aarts, and Smith, forthcoming). studies of how she can defend against and control such
 284 JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH

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