February 2014

The Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future

Soil Safety Resource Guide

for Urban Food Growers
 1

About the authors Summary

This guide was developed by the The potential health, social, environmental, and economic benefits of urban farms and
Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable gardens are far-reaching. For example, studies have found associations between urban
Future. Our mission is to promote community gardens and increased access to healthy food, opportunities for exercise,
research and to develop and com- stronger social cohesion in neighborhoods, and higher property values. And like any
municate information about the green space, urban farms and gardens offer essential ecosystem services like moderating
complex interrelationships among temperatures and reducing storm water runoff. Perhaps most importantly, urban green
diet, food production, environment spaces provide educational opportunities for urban residents, for whom a farm or garden
and human health, to advance an may be their only regular experience of nature.
ecological perspective in reducing
There are also potential health risks associated with growing food in urban settings.
threats to the health of the public
Urban soils may harbor contaminants such as lead, petroleum products, and asbestos.
and to promote policies that protect
People may come into contact with these contaminants if they work or play in contami-
health, the global environment and
nated soil, or eat food that was grown in it. In some cases, exposure to soil contaminants
the ability to sustain life for future
can increase disease risks, especially for young children.
generations.
Farmers and gardeners can be alerted to the presence of contaminants by testing their soil
and investigating prior uses of their land. Contact with potential contaminants can be
minimized by following best practices, such as locating plots away from busy roads, thor-
oughly washing produce, and peeling root vegetables. While risk exists no matter where
our food comes from, these precautions can keep soil contaminant risks to a minimum.

Acknowledgements What this guide covers Why we wrote this guide

This guide covers some of the basics on In 2012, we partnered with the Communi-
Support for the development of this urban soil contaminants. Detailed infor- ty Greening Resource Network—Baltimore’s
guide was provided by a grant from mation on soil contaminants is already gardening support network—to assess
the Johns Hopkins Urban Health In- provided by other organizations, so rather what gardeners know (and don’t know)
stitute and a gift from the GRACE than duplicating their efforts, we com- about soil contaminants, and what their
Communications Foundation. piled a list of some of the available online concerns are. We used our findings to
resources. help inform city agencies, garden leaders,
local nonprofits, and other groups work-
ing to promote safer gardening practices.
Whom this guide is for A research article based on this study is
available online at PLOS ONE.
This guide was written with urban com-
munity gardeners in mind. It may also be We developed this resource guide, in
of interest to urban farmers, gardening tandem with our research, to help direct
support institutions, agricultural exten- people to information about soil contami-
sion agents, and anyone who is interested nant issues in urban settings.
in learning more about soil contaminant
issues.
Because we are based in Baltimore, Mary-
land, some of the suggested resources are
specific to our city. Most of the informa-
tion, however, can be generalized to any
urban area.
 2

Benefits of urban growing spaces

The table below summarizes some of the evidence linking urban farming and gardening
to health, social, environmental, and economic benefits.

Activity Associated benefits

Participating in a community garden Increased vegetable consumption1–4
Increased access to fresh produce and/or culturally appropriate
food5–7
Increased physical activity8
Stronger communities6,9
Saving money on food 6,7
Gardening Improved cardiovascular health10,11
Mental health benefits12–14

Land type Associated benefits

Community gardens Higher property values15
Urban green spaces Increased attention span16–18
Decreased crime rates19
Ecosystem services, e.g., air filtration, temperature moderation,
reduced storm water runoff, habitats and forage for beneficial
organisms20,21
3

Urban soil contaminants

Urban soils may harbor contaminants, such as lead, petroleum products, and asbestos.
Some soil contaminants, such as trace elements, occur naturally in the environment.
Many of these are mined for use in industrial and agricultural products. Other contami-
nants are synthesized in labs.
Contaminants may be released into the environment by human activities, such as burn-
ing coal, and by natural events, such as volcanic eruptions. Urban soils are often closer
to pollution sources, such as industrial areas, busy roads, waste dumps, demolition sites,
and building fires. As a result, many soil contaminants are present at higher concentra-
tions in urban areas.22
Among trace elements, lead, mercury, arsenic, and cadmium are of particular concern to
human health because of their frequency, toxicity and potential for human exposure.23
These elements are often referred to as “heavy metals”.
Studies suggest urban gardeners are generally familiar with lead.24 There are other poten-
tial soil contaminants, however, that urban farmers and gardeners should also be mindful
of, such as petroleum-based fuels and oils, certain pesticides, flame retardants, refriger-
ants, cleaning solvents, and other industrial chemicals (see examples in the table below).25

Contaminant Potential sources

Lead Burning coal, lead-acid batteries, leaded gasoline, lead-based
paints, solder
Cadmium Burning coal, rechargeable batteries, TVs, steel, phosphate fertil-
izer, galvanized water pipes
Arsenic Certain pesticides, iron and steel production, treated lumber,
burning coal
Chromium Metal plating, treated lumber
Organic chemicals Fuels, oils, pesticides, plastics, lubricants, refrigerants, cleaning
solvents, preservatives, flame retardants
Asbestos Attic and wall insulation, insulated water pipes, roofing shingles,
ceiling and floor tiles, cement, automobile parts
Biohazards Untreated human and animal waste, septic tanks, municipal
waste water

Adapted from: Brevik EC (2013) Soils and human health: an overview. In: Brevik EC, Burgess LC, editors. Soils and human health.
CRC Press. pp. 29–56.
 4

How people can be exposed soil contaminants

Growers can be exposed to contaminants by inadvertently ingesting soil, inhaling con-
taminated dust, or via direct skin contact. Soil ingestion is of particular concern among
children, who may ingest larger quantities of soil than adults (e.g., by putting their hands
in their mouths), absorb higher levels of certain contaminants into their bloodstream,27
and are generally more sensitive to their effects.
People who eat produce grown in contaminated soil may also ingest soil particles on the
surfaces of plants.28 Peeling root vegetables, removing outer leaves, and thoroughly wash-
ing produce can remove surface contaminants.
In cases where crops are grown in highly contaminated soils, certain contaminants may
accumulate inside the tissues of certain plants. Because contaminants tend to accumulate
in root tissues, this is generally more of a concern for root vegetables.29–31

Investigating levels of soil contaminants

There are ways to investigate levels of contaminants in a farm or garden plot. The follow-
ing steps should always be taken before undertaking an urban growing project.

Investigating site history

Knowing the past uses of a farm or garden site can alert growers to the presence of po-
tential contaminants.
A vacant lot, for example, may be the former site of a dry cleaning operation that may
have left behind a legacy of carcinogenic cleaning solvents. Adjacent land use is also
important. A potential garden site, for example, may have at one time neighbored a gas
station, factory, or the site of a chemical spill.
Many urban growers learn about prior land use from first-hand knowledge, or from
people living in the community.24 While oral histories are a good starting point, there are
other resources that can supplement local knowledge, such as federal and state envi-
ronmental agencies. Some information on historical land use can be found via Sanborn
Maps, which include building information since 1867 for over 12,000 U.S. towns and
cities. Some Sanborn Maps are free to the public and available online, though maps dated
after 1970 may require purchase.
For residents of Baltimore City, the Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future provides
an interactive map showing the locations of community gardens, school gardens, and ur-
ban farms in Baltimore City along with current and prior hazardous waste sites identified
by the Environmental Protection Agency or the Maryland Department of the Environ-
ment.
See Resources on page 7, below, for more information on site history.
5

Testing soil for contaminants

A number of institutions offer affordable soil testing. This process usually involves
requesting a test kit, collecting soil samples, and mailing the samples in for analysis.
Because levels of contaminants can vary spatially across a farm or garden, it is important
to collect samples from multiple locations within a site.32
The results of a soil test may reveal levels of contaminants that are too high to grow food
safely. Questions of exactly what levels are safe, however, are difficult to answer. Farmers
and gardeners often refer to screening levels set by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency. Sites with contaminants above these levels, however, are not necessarily unsafe
for gardening, particularly if children are not active in the garden and steps are taken to
minimize exposure to contaminants.
It is important to note that soil testing labs often only test for lead and other more
common contaminants. They do not test for every possible contaminant. For this reason,
one cannot assume a negative test result is a “clean bill of health” without considering
the presence of other contaminants. This is why investigating site history is an important
complement to soil testing.
See Resources on page 7, for more information on soil testing.

Recommended best practices

for growing food in urban settings
Even if urban growers don’t know exactly what is in their soil, they can take precautions
to minimize their exposure to any contaminants that may be present. Not every recom-
mended practice is necessary for every site.
• Wear gloves, and wash hands after working in soil and before eating.
• Take care not to track dirt from the farm or garden into the house.
• Thoroughly wash produce before storing or eating.
• Peel root crops, and remove outer leaves of leafy vegetables.
• Build plots away from existing roads and railways, or build a hedge or fence to
reduce windblown contamination from mobile sources and busy streets.
• Cover existing soil and walkways with mulch, landscape fabric, stones, or
bricks.
• Use mulch in plots to reduce dust and soil splash, reduce weed establishment,
regulate soil temperature and moisture, and add organic matter.
• Use soil amendments to maintain neutral pH, add organic matter, and improve
soil structure.
• Add topsoil or clean fill from certified soil sources. State or local environmental
programs, extension services, or nurseries may be able to recommended safe
sources for soil and fill.
• Build raised beds or container gardens. Raised beds can be made by mounding
soil into windrows or by building containers. Sided beds can be made from
wood, synthetic wood, stone, concrete block, brick, or naturally rot-resistant
woods such as cedar and redwood.
Adapted from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011.33
 6

Cautions about raised beds

Surveys suggest urban gardeners may view raised beds as an easy and effective solution to
managing soil contaminant risks.24 Although raised beds can greatly reduce exposure to
contaminants, they have some limitations that urban growers should be mindful of:
• Raised beds built in contaminated areas do not remedy the presence of contam-
inated soil surrounding the beds, which may be kicked up by people working or
playing around the beds. People may inhale or accidentally ingest contaminated
soil once it is airborne.34 These risks are generally higher for children.
• When building a raised bed, care must be taken to ensure it is filled with clean,
uncontaminated soil, and that safe materials are used for containers of sided
beds. Railroad ties and copper arsenate treated lumber, for example, have been
shown to leach harmful chemicals into the surrounding soil.35
• Depending on the depth of a raised bed and the plants grown in it, roots may
extend into contaminated soils below the bed. A water-permeable fabric cover or
geotextile may be installed as the bottom layer of a raised bed to further reduce
exposure to underlying soil.26
See Resources on page 7, below, for more information on best practices.
7

Resources
The Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future is not responsible for the content of
the following documents and websites. The following is not a comprehensive listing of
resources on soil contaminant issues.

General
Urban Soil Safety.
The Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future, 2014.
www.jhsph.edu/clf/urbansoilsafety/

Urban Gardening: Managing the Risks of Contaminated Soil.

Environmental Health Perspectives, 2013.
http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/121-a326/

Soil Facts: Minimizing Risks of Soil Contaminants in Urban Gardens.

North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, 2012.
www.soil.ncsu.edu/publications/Soilfacts/AG-439-78_Urban_Soil_Contaminants.pdf

Brownfields and Urban Agriculture: Interim Guidelines for Safe Gardening Practices.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011.
www.epa.gov/swerosps/bf/urbanag/pdf/bf_urban_ag.pdf

Problem Soils.
University of Massachusetts Extension. 2011.
extension.umass.edu/landscape/fact-sheets/problem-soils

Reusing Potentially Contaminated Landscapes: Growing Gardens in Urban Soils.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011.
www.clu-in.org/download/misc/urban_gardening_fact_sheet.pdf

Soil Contaminants in Community Gardens.

University of Wisconsin Extension, 2011.
learningstore.uwex.edu/Assets/pdfs/A3905-03.pdf

Urban Gardens and Soil Contamination: A Gardener’s Guide to Healthy Soil.

University of Minnesota Extension, 2010.
misadocuments.info/Urban_Soil_Contaminants.pdf

Container and Raised Bed Gardening.

Purdue Extension, 2009.
www.hort.purdue.edu/ext/ho-200.pdf

Soil Contaminants and Best Practices for Healthy Gardens.

Cornell Waste Management Institute, 2009.
cwmi.css.cornell.edu/Soil_Contaminants.pdf
 8

The Use of Soil Amendments for Remediation, Revitalization and Reuse.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2007.
http://www.clu-in.org/download/remed/epa-542-r-07-013.pdf

Urban Soil Primer.

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2005.
http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs142p2_052835.pdf

Soil Contamination and Urban Agriculture.

McGill School of Environment, McGill University, 2002.
www.ruaf.org/sites/default/files/guide%20on%20soil%20contamination.pdf

Urban Community Gardeners’ Knowledge and Perceptions of Soil Contaminant Risks.

Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future, 2014.
http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0087913

Lead
Home Gardens and Lead: What You Should Know about Growing Plants in Lead-Con-
taminated Soil.
University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources, 2010.
anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/8424.pdf

Lead in the Home Garden and Urban Soil Environment.

University of Minnesota Extension, 2010.
http://www.extension.umn.edu/garden/yard-garden/soils/lead-in-home-garden/

Evaluating and Reducing Lead Hazard in Gardens and Landscapes.

Oregon State University Extension Service, 2008.
http://extension.oregonstate.edu/news/release/2008/04/reducing-lead-hazard-garden-and-
landscape-soils/

Lead in Garden Soils.

Maryland Cooperative Extension, 2001.
https://extension.umd.edu/sites/default/files/_images/programs/hgic/Publications/HG18_Lead_
in_Garden_Soils.pdf

Site history in Baltimore, Md., and the greater U.S.

Cleanups in My Community. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Maps of areas where hazardous waste is being or has been cleaned up throughout the U.S.
www.epa.gov/cimc/

Baltimore City Farms, Food Gardens, and Environmental Remediation Sites Map.
The Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future.
www.jhsph.edu/clf/urbansoilsafety/
9

Land Restoration Project Map. Maryland Department of the Environment.

Map of hazardous waste sites in Maryland: www.mde.state.md.us/programs/Land/Maryland-
BrownfieldVCP/mapping/Pages/programs/landprograms/errp_brownfields/mapping/index.aspx
Details on individual sites: www.mde.state.md.us/programs/Land/MarylandBrownfieldVCP/map-
ping/Pages/programs/landprograms/errp_brownfields/mapping/errp_factsheets.aspx

Digital Sanborn Maps, 1867-1970.

http://sanborn.umi.com/
Tutorial on using Sanborn Maps: www.prattlibrary.org/special/camtasia.aspx?id=1316

Maryland Land Use / Land Cover maps. Maryland Department of Planning. www.mdp.
state.md.us/OurWork/landuse.shtml

The Geography of Baltimore City: Sources. Baltimore City Archives. baltimorecityhistory.

net/research-at-the-baltimore-city-archives/the-geography-of-baltimore-city-sources/

Soil testing guidance

Understanding Your Test Results: Lead in Soil and Chicken Eggs.
Cornell University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences and Cooperative Extension,
2012.
http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/healthysoils.htm

Understanding Your Test Results: Metals in Garden Soils and Vegetables.

Cornell University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences and Cooperative Extension,
2012.
http://cwmi.css.cornell.edu/healthysoils.htm

Guide to Soil Testing and Interpreting Results.

Cornell Waste Management Institute, 2009.
cwmi.css.cornell.edu/guidetosoil.pdf

Selecting and Using a Soil Testing Laboratory.

University of Maryland Cooperative Extension, 2008.
https://extension.umd.edu/hgic/soils/selecting-and-using-soil-testing-laboratory-hg-110

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency soil screening levels

Screening Levels: http://www.epa.gov/region9/superfund/prg/

Soil Screening Guidance: www.epa.gov/superfund/health/conmedia/soil/index.htm#fact

Soil testing labs

Agricultural Analytical Services Laboratory, Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences.
http://agsci.psu.edu/aasl
 10

Soil and Plant Tissue Testing Laboratory, UMASS Amherst.

soiltest.umass.edu/

Soil Testing Program, University of Delaware.

ag.udel.edu/dstp/

Farming and gardening support institutions in Baltimore, Md.

Baltimore Farm Alliance.
www.farmalliancebaltimore.org/

Baltimore Green Space.

baltimoregreenspace.org/

Baltimore Office of Sustainability.

www.baltimoresustainability.org/

Baltimore Orchard Project.

http://www.baltimoreorchard.org/

Baltimore Urban Agriculture Task Force.

www.baltimoreurbanag.org/

Community Greening Resource Network (CGRN).

www.parksandpeople.org/greening/resource-network/

Maryland Master Gardeners.

https://extension.umd.edu/mg

Power in Dirt.
www.powerindirt.com/
11

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