Supersonic Pitot tube

Pitot tube is used to determine fluid velocity with the help of static and
stagnation pressure.

Experiments show that when flow is supersonic, a curved wave is created

before Pitot tube and flow becomes subsonic.

For supersonic flows therefore appropriate corrections are required for

finding the velocity.

Mach number / velocity of undisturbed flow can be found by following

assumptions:

The curved shock wave is normal to stagnation streamline i.e. Pitot tube
is parallel to uniform flow.

The fluid particles after shock are brought isentropically to rest. The
pressure ratios across shock and stagnation to static pressure ratio (after
shock) are predicted using following relations
 𝑝𝑦 2𝛾 𝛾−1
= 𝑀𝑥2 −
𝑝𝑥 𝛾 + 1 𝛾+1

𝑝0𝑦 𝛾 − 1 2 𝛾⁄(𝛾−1)
= (1 + 𝑀𝑦 )
𝑝𝑦 2

𝑀𝑥2 + 2⁄(𝛾 − 1)
𝑀𝑦2 =
[2𝛾⁄(𝛾 − 1)]𝑀𝑥2 − 1

After solving the above equations:

𝑝0𝑦 𝛾 + 1 𝛾⁄(𝛾−1) 2𝛾 2
𝛾 − 1 1⁄(𝛾−1)
=( ) ⁄( 𝑀 − )
𝑝𝑥 2 𝛾+1 𝑥 𝛾+1

This relation is called Rayleigh Pitot tube equation.

One dimensional flow with friction

The area change, friction, heat transfer and shock wave are the important
factors due to which properties in a flow system change.

In the cases of area change, friction and heat transfer the properties vary
gradually / continuously. Due to shock, however, flow adjusts rapidly to
meet imposed boundary conditions such as downstream pressure.

The effect of area change and normal shock has been discussed in
previous topics.
The friction losses are now considered in a constant-area duct.
To isolate the effects of friction, the following assumptions are made:

The governing equations are:

Continuity: If flow area is constant

Energy: For adiabatic and no work

(i)
Fanno line represents the states with the same mass flux and same
stagnation enthalpy but not necessarily the same value of impulse
function.

On the Fanno line, adiabatic conditions are assumed but frictional effects
are present because in the energy equation there is no friction term.

The differentiation of energy and continuity equations gives

dh+VdV = 0 (i)

ρdV+Vdρ = 0 (ii)

From thermodynamic relation

Tds = dh-dp/ρ

At the point of maximum entropy ds = 0

dh = dp/ρ (iii)

From (i) (ii) and (iii)

dp/dρ = V2

For maximum entropy or constant entropy at a point

𝑑𝑝 𝜕𝑝
=( )
𝑑𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝑠

According to definition the velocity of sound is:

𝜕𝑝
Combining we get ( ) = 𝑉 2 = 𝑎2
𝜕𝜌 𝑠

Therefore at the point of maximum entropy M = 1

Consider points A and B. At both points stagnation temperarure and

enthalpy is asame. At point B kinetic energy is higher which means that
lower branch of curve is supersonic flow.

The upper branch is subsonic flow since velocity here is lower. For any
physically possible (adiabatic) flow entropy should increase.

Momentum equation Assuming there are no other external and body

forces, the momentum equation is:
Entropy change

In the absence of any heat transfer, the entropy of a system can be

changed only by irreversibilities such as friction, whose effect is always to
increase entropy.

The entropy of the fluid, thus, must increase during Fanno flow. The
entropy change in this case is equivalent to entropy generation.

For an ideal gas with constant specific heats it is expressed as

Consider a gas with known properties R, γ and cp flowing in a duct of

constant cross-sectional area A.

For a specified inlet state 1, the inlet properties (pressure, temperature,

density, velocity) are known.

Obviously there are infinite number of possible downstream states 2

corresponding to a given upstream state 1.

All states that satisfy the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy
equations as well as the property relations are on the Fanno line.
Therefore, for a given inlet state, the fluid cannot exist at any
downstream state outside the Fanno line on a T-s diagram.

In fact, the Fanno line is the locus of all possible downstream states
corresponding to an initial state.

The exit properties at 2 can be determined from previous equations for

any specified value of the friction force F friction.

Friction increases the Mach number for subsonic Fanno flow, but
decreases it for supersonic Fanno flow. The Mach number approaches
unity (M = 1) in both cases.

The energy balance requires that stagnation temperature Tt = T + V2/2Cp

remain constant during Fanno flow.

The actual temperature however changes - velocity increases and

temperature decreases during subsonic flow, but the opposite occurs
during supersonic flow

The effect of friction is to always decrease stagnation pressure,

regardless of the type of flow.

In compressible flow, it is convenient to express the variation of properties

in terms of Mach number, and Fanno flow is no exception.

Fanno flow involves the friction force, which is proportional to the square
of the velocity even when the friction factor is constant.

But in compressible flow, velocity varies significantly along the flow, and
thus it is necessary to perform a differential analysis to account for the
variation of the friction force.
The differential form of the continuity and momentum equations are:
 (A)

(A0)

The friction force is related to the wall shear stress and the local
friction factor fx

(A1)

where dx is the length of the flow section, c is the circumference /

perimeter, and Dh = 4A/p is the hydraulic diameter of the duct.
Substituting equation (A1) into A(0),

(A2)

2nd and 3rd terms can be replaced as:

Substituting above into Eq. (A2) gives

(A3)
Energy equation

Differentiating and rearranging

(B)

The Mach number relation for ideal gases can be expressed as

or

(C)

Combining Eq. (C) with (B) gives the velocity change in terms of the Mach
number as

(D)

From ideal gas equation

Combining above with the continuity equation (Eq. A) gives

Combining above equation with (B) and (C) gives

(E)

Substituting Equations (D) and (E) into (A3) and simplifying give the
differential equation for the variation of the Mach number with x as

(F)

Considering that all Fanno flows tend to M = 1, it is convenient

to use the critical point (i.e., the sonic state) as the reference point (even
if it is not achieved / reached).

Integrating Equation (F) from any state to the critical state gives

𝑓𝐿∗ 1 − 𝑀2 𝛾 + 1 (𝛾 + 1)𝑀2
= + ln
𝐷ℎ 𝛾𝑀2 2𝛾 2 + (𝛾 − 1)𝑀2

f is the average friction factor between x and xcr, which is assumed to

be constant, and L* is the channel length required for the Mach
number to reach unity under the influence of wall friction.

Therefore, L* represents the distance between a given section where the

Mach number is M and a section (an imaginary section if the duct is not
long enough to reach M = 1) where sonic conditions occur.
The actual duct length L between two sections where the Mach numbers
are M1 and M2 can be determined from

If f is approximated as constant then equation simplifies to

Relations for other flow properties can be determined similarly by

integrating the dp/p, dT/T, and dV/V relations in equations (B), (D) and
(E), respectively.

The limits for integration are any state (without subscript and Mach
number M) and the sonic state (with a superscript asterisk and M = 1).
Following are the results:
The summary is given for various properties. It can be noticed that the
effect of friction is similar to area reduction (discussed in chapter 4).

For subsonic flow, decrease in area increases velocity and decreases

pressure. It can be assumed that friction reduces the effective area of the
duct (due to which velocity increases).

During supersonic flow, decrease in area decreases velocity and

increases pressure.

The supersonic flow with friction is also similar to shock wave in which
velocity reduces and pressure rises.

The reason is that the supersonic flow does not adjust to the presence of
the body or downstream conditions. The flow thus decelerates and results
in increased pressure.
Choking due to friction

For a specified value of the Mach number at the inlet of the duct, there is
always a maximum duct length for which flow is sonic at the duct exit.

If the duct length is increased beyond the maximum length the flow
characteristics change within the duct. The variation in properties /
characteristics depends on whether the flow is subsonic or supersonic.

Consider a duct in which flow is subsonic at the inlet. The duct is long
enough such that Mach number is unity at the exit.

The process is shown by curve A on T-s diagram. Point A is located at

the point of maximum entropy.

If the length is increased above its maximum value up to point B the

resistance to flow will increase which will increase entropy.

Since Mach number cannot exceed unity as it will lead to decrease in

entropy, the inlet conditions will change (i.e. inlet Mach number, mass
flow rate will reduce).
Hence additional duct length results in reduction of mass flow rate and
flow jumps to another Fanno line. This choking is due to friction.
Now consider a duct in which supersonic flow exists at the inlet. The duct
is sufficiently long such that flow decelerates and Mach number is unity
(and maximum entropy) at the exit.

If the duct length is extended, flow resistance is increased. Since entropy

cannot decrease to make flow subsonic, shock appears. As the duct
length is increased the shock moves upstream towards the duct inlet.

Adiabatic ducts fed by converging nozzle

In the previous discussion it was assumed that the back pressure is low
such that the changes are due to friction.

Now suppose a duct which is supplied fluid by a nozzle with stagnation

pressure and temperature p0 and T0. The duct discharges fluid into
reservoir where back pressure is pb and is variable. Various regimes can
exist due to variation of back pressure.

(i) pb = p0i, In this case flow does not take place.

(ii) p* < pb < p0i i.e. subcritical flow regime in which back pressure is
slightly less than stagnation pressure.

The stream leaving is subsonic so that the exit pressure is equal to back
pressure. Further reduction in back pressure increases mass flow rate
and flow shifts to another Fanno line.

(iii) Critical conditions (pb = p*)

Mach number is unity at the exit and the flow is choked. Again, the exit
pressure is equal to back pressure.

(iv) Super-critical flow regime (pb < p*)

Further reduction in back pressure cannot increase mass flow rate. The
flow pattern and Mach number is same within duct. However after the exit
(oblique) expansion waves occur.

Adiabatic ducts fed with CD nozzles

Consider a duct which is supplied with air through a CD nozzle. The

length of duct is less than the maximum allowable length.

The flow at the exit of converging diverging duct (or inlet of duct) can be
subsonic depending on back pressure.

The Figure shows no flow conditions (1, valve closed) and pressure
variation for the cases when flow is supersonic at the duct inlet.

In the Figure pb = pe6 is the design condition when flow is supersonic

through duct.

In this case shock neither exists within the duct nor at exit. The exit
pressure is exactly equal to back pressure.

When pb =p2, p3 or p4 shock takes place at duct inlet, within duct or at

duct exit respectively.

When pb = p4, flow is supersonic in the entire duct. Pressure increases

within duct due to friction and further increases due to shock.

pb = p5 causes gas over-expansion since the exit pressure is lower than

the back pressure. This results in oblique compression waves.
When pb = p7, the gas is under-expanded i.e. pe > pb. The expansion
waves are thus created after the duct exit.

If the ducts are provided with supersonic flow and have length greater
than the maximum allowable length, shock always occur in the duct; at
duct inlet when pb = p2 or within duct when pb = p3.
When pb = p4 flow becomes subsonic after shock and reaches sonic
condition at the duct exit. When pb = p5 the expansion takes place after
the exit.