UNIT – 4

Listening, Reading Skills, Presentation Skills

“When you listen to people more generously to people, they can hear the truth in
themselves, often for the first time”

Rachel Naomi Remen

 Meaning:

It is said that we have two ears and one month, which is a good hint for the
proportion in which we should use them. However, the art of listening is not a
widely practiced skill. Listening provides much useful information, yet good
listening skills are not that common. Listening is a highly complex, interactive
process “by which spoken language is converted to meaning in the mind”. As this
definition suggests, listening is more than just hearing, although these two terms
are often used synonymously. Hearing is only an important component of listening.
Listening is a specialized form of hearing and is the primary function of the ear.
The most crucial part of the listening process is thinking or converting to meaning
what one hears. Hearing is a passive process. It is merely the detection of sounds
around us. Normally, we come across ‘hearing’ in certain situation. Listening: It is
an active process. It involves the conscious desire to determine the meaning of
what is heard. While listening, one is engaged in processing the date,
reconstructing the data and also giving meaning to the data.
  Importance of listening:

1. Since the rise of the radio and the development of television, the spoken word
has regained much of it’s lose stature (Bryant).

2. Being listened to means we are taken seriously, our ideas and feelings are
known and ultimately, what we have to say matters (Nichols).

3. Generous listening enhances our own well-being and is the natural perspective
of psychology, in which all human behavior is seen as motivated by the agendas of
the self (Nichols).

4. We learn our culture largely through listening; we learn to think by listening; we

learn to love by listening; we learn about ourselves by listening (Robinson).

5. Being listened to spells the difference between feeling accepted and feeling
isolated (Nichols).

6. In our society, listening is essential to the development and survival of the

individual (Robinson).

7. Most will not really listen or pay attention to your point of view until they
convinced you have heard and appreciate theirs (Nichols).
  Types of Listening:

Here are six types of listening, starting with basic discrimination of sounds and
ending in deep communication.

1. Discriminative listening

Discriminative listening is the most basic type of listening. Where by the

difference between differences sounds is identified. If you cannot hear differences,
then you cannot make sense of the meaning what is expressed by such differences.
We learn to discriminative between sounds within our own language early, and
later are unable to discriminative between the phonemes of other languages. This is
one reason why a person from one country finds in difficult to speak another
language perfectly, as they are unable distinguish the subtle sounds that are
required in that language. Likewise, a person who cannot hear the subtleties of
emotional variation in another person’s voice will be less likely to be able to
discern the emotions the other person is experiencing. Listening is a visual as well
as auditory act, as we communicate much through body language. We thus also
need to be able to discriminate between muscle and skeletal movements that
signify different meanings.

2. Biased listening

Biased listening happens when the person hears only what they want to hear,
typically misinterpreting what the other person says based on the stereotypes and
other biases that they have. Such biased listening is often very evaluative in nature.

3. Evaluative listening

In evaluative listening or critical listening, we make judgments about what the

other person saying. We seek to assess the truth of what is being said. We also
judge what they say against values, assessing them as good or bad, worthy or
unworthy. Evaluative listening is particularly pertinent when the other person is
trying to persuade us, perhaps to change our behavior and maybe even to change
our beliefs. Within this, we also discriminative between subtleties of language and
comprehend the inner meaning of what is said. Typically also we weigh up the
pros and cons of an argument, determining whether it makes sense logically as
well as whether it is helpful to us. Evaluative listening is also called critical,
judgmental or interpretive listening.

4. Appreciative listening

In appreciative listening, we seek certain information which will appreciative for

example that which helps meet our needs and goals. We use appreciative listening
when we are listening to good music, poetry or maybe even the stirring words of a
great leader.

5. Sympathetic listening

In sympathetic listening we care about the other person and show this concern in
the way we pay close attention and express our sorrow for their ills and happiness
at their joys.

6. Empathetic listening

When we listen empathetically, we go beyond sympathy to seek a truer understand

how others are feeling. This requires excellent discrimination and close attention to
the nuances of emotional signals. When we are being truly empathetic, we actually
feel what they are feeling. In order to get others to expose these deep parts of them
to us, we also need to demonstrate our empathy is our demeanor towards them,
asking sensitively and in a way that encourages self-disclosure.
7. Therapeutic listening

In therapeutic listening, the listener has a purpose of not only empathizing with the
speaker but also to use this deep connection in order to help the speaker
understand, change or develop in some way. This not only happens when you see a
therapist but also in many social situations, where friends and family seek to both
diagnose problems from listening and also to help the speaker cu themselves,
perhaps by some cathartic process. This also happens in work situations, where
managers, HR people, trainers and coaches seek to help employees learn and
develop.

8. Relationship listening

Sometimes the most important factor in listening is in order to develop or sustain

relationship. This is why lovers talk for hours and attend closely to what reach
other has to say when the same words from someone else would seem to be rather
boring. Relationship listening is also important in areas such as negotiation and
sales, where this helpful if the other person likes you and trusts you.

9. False listening

False listening occurs where a person is pretending to listen but is not hearing
anything that is being said. They may nod, smile and grunt in all the right places,
but do not actually take in anything that is said. This is a skill that may be finely
honed by people who do a lot of inconsequential listening, such as politicians and
royalty. Their goals with their audience are to make a good impression in very
short space of time before they move on, never to talk to that person again. It is
also something practiced by couples, particularly where one side does most of the
talking. However, the need for relationship here can lead to this being spotted
(‘you’re not listening again’) and consequent conflict.
10. Initial listening

Sometimes when we hear the first few words and then start to think about what we
want to say in return. We then look for a point at which we can interrupt. We are
also not listening then as we are spending more time rehearsing what we are going
to say about their initial point.

11. Selective listening

Selective listening involves listening for particular things and ignoring others. We
thus hear what we want to hear and pay little attention to ‘extraneous’ detail.
Partial listening partial listening is what most of us do most of the time. We listen
to the other person with the best of intent and then become distract, either by stray
thoughts or by something that the other person has said. We consequently dip
inside our own heads for a short while as we figure out what they really mean or
formulate a question for them, before coming back into the room and starting to
listen again. This can be problematic when the other person has moved and we are
unable to pick up the threads of what is being said. We thus easily can fall into
false listening, at least for a short while. This can be embarrassing, of course, if
they suddenly ask your opinion. A tip here: own up, admitting that you had lost the
thread conversation and asking them to repeat what was said.

12. Full listening

Full listening happens where the listeners pays close and careful attention to what
is being said seeking carefully to understand the full content that the speaker is
seeking to put across. This may be very active form of listening. With pauses for
summaries and testing that understanding is complete. By the end of the
conversation, the listeners and the speaker will probably agree that the listener has
fully understood what was said. Full listening takes much more effort than partial
listening, as it requires close concentration, possibly for a protracted period. It also
requires skills of understanding and summary.

13. Deep listening

Beyond the intensity of full listening, you can also reach into a form of listening
that not only hears what is said but also seeks to understand the whole person
behind the words. In deep listening, you listen between the lines of what is said,
hearing the emotion, watching the body language, detecting needs and goals,
identifying preferences and biases, perceiving beliefs and values and so on.

 Barriers to listening

Appointed out earlier, listening is not easy and there is not easy and there are a
number of obstacles that stand in the way of effective listening, both within outside
the workplace. These barriers may be categorized as follows:

1. Physiological Barriers:- some people may have genuine hearing problems or

deficiencies that prevent them from listening properly. Once detected, date and
generally be treated. Some people may have difficulties in processing information,
or memory related problem which make them poor listeners. Another physiology
barrier is rapid though. Listeners have the ability to process information at the rate
of approximately 500 words per minute, whereas speakers talk at around 120
words per minute. Since listeners are left with a lot of spare time, there attention
time may not be focused on words the speaker is saying, but may under elsewhere.

2. Physical Barriers:- These referred to distraction in the averment such as the

sound of an air conditioner, cigarette smoke or an overheated room, which
interfere with the listening process. They could also be in the form of information
overload. For example, if you are in meeting with your manager and the phone
rings and your mobile beeps at the same time to let u know that you have the
message. It is very hard to listen carefully to what is being said.

3. Attitudinal Barriers:- pre occupation which personal or work related problems

can make it difficult to focus one’s attention completely on what speaker is saying,
even what is being said is of crime importance. Another common attitudinal barrier
is egocentrism, or the belief that you are more knowledgeable when the speaker
and that you have nothing new to have to learn from his ideas. People with this
kind of close minded attitude may very poor listeners.

4. Wrong Assumptions:- The success of communication depend on the both the

sender and receiver, as we have seen in an earlier unit. It is wrong to assume that
communication is the sole responsibility of the sender or the speaker and that
listener have no role to play. Such an assumption can be big barrier to listening.
For example, a brilliant speech or presentation, however well delivered, is wasted
if the receiver is not listening at the other end. Listeners have as much
responsibility as speakers to make the communication successful, y paying
attention seeking clarifications and giving feedback.

Another wrong assumption is to think that listening is a passive activity, in which a

listener merely the thoughts of the speaker. On the contrary, real listening or active
listening is hard work – it requires speaking sometimes to ask question, agree or
disagree with the speaker, give feedback etc.

5. Cultural Barriers:- accents can be barriers to listening, since they interfere with
the ability to understand the meaning of words that are pronounced differently. The
problem of different accents arises not only between cultures, but also within a
culture. For example, in a country like India where there is enormous cultural
diversity, accents may differ even between region states. Another type of cultural
barrier is doddering cultural values. The importance attached to listening and
speaking differs in western and oriental cultures. Generally, Orientals regard
listening and silence as almost virtue, whereas attach greater importance to
speaking. Therefore this would interfere with the listening process, when two
people from these two different cultures communicate.

6. Gender Barriers: - communication research has shown that gender can be

barrier to listening. Studies have revealed that men and women listen very
differently and for different purposes. Women are more likely to listen for the
emotion behind a speaker’s words, when men listen more for the facts and the
content.

Example:- a salespersons giving a demonstration of a new type of office equipment

may be asked by two colleagues if the equipment will work without any problem
and respond by saying “Sure”. A male use may take his at face value; where as the
female user may detect some hesitation in his voice. This is because the male user
listens for the content of the message, where the female user listens for the tone of
the message.

7. Lack of Training: - listening is not an inborn skill. People are not born good
listeners. They have to develop the art of listening through practice and running.
Lack of training in listening skills is an important barrier to listing, in the Indian
Context.

8. Bad Listening Habits:- Most people are very average listeners who have
developed poor listening habits that are hard to said and that act as barriers to
listening. For example, some people have the habits of “faking” attention, or trying
to look like a listeners, in order to impress the speaker and to assure him that they
are paying attention. Others may tend to listen to each and every fact and as a
result, miss out on the main point.

 Overcoming barriers to effective listening

When you find yourself getting distracted with either internal or external noise, pay
attention by being mindful.
When you discover any attachment to your point of view, case up on the
attachment or completely let go it. Become curious about other points of view.
When a speaker says something unclear, avoid misinterpretations by asking the
speaker what he meant.

Rule Listening Reasoning Behind the Rule

1. Stop talking You cannot listen if you are
talking.
2. Put the person at ease Help a person feel free to talk;
create a permissive environment.
3. Show the person you want to Look and act interested; listen to
listen understand, not to oppose.
4. Remove distractions Doesn’t doodle tap, or shuffle
papers; shut the door if necessary
to achieve quiet.

Reading Skills: Concept and Types

INTRODUCTION
Recent changes have been done in the syllabus of “Teaching of English”, the
change was welcome as it was thought to inculcate some essential qualities and
skills in the pupil-teachers so that they might overcome several of their
inhibitions in order to emerge as excellent teachers in their professional life.
Generally, pupil-teachers do not read widely, which limits their knowledge
disastrously, having adverse impact on their professional excellence. With the
introduction of this topic, it would become necessary for pupil-teachers to
undertake study of different types of text with a purpose of review, analysis and
synthesis, for overall interpretation and adaptation. This unit will come to their aid
greatly. The present unit deals with concept and types of reading; we will discuss
the techniques to increase speed of reading. And we will also discuss –reading
comprehension in the classroom.

READING: IT’S MEANING

Reading is one of the most useful skills in learning a foreign language.

It serves as a means by which the “unbounded field of knowledge” lies open before
us and we are able to know new facts and relationship.

Francis Bacon was very correct when, in one of his essays, ‘Our Studies’ he
wrote, “Reading market a full man .........”

According to Gray, “Reading is a form of experience.”Indeed good reading

habits promote ‘self education’ which helps in the modification of
personality. Reading trains our mind and broadens our outlook.

If one has developed a taste for reading in school days, he will realize that nothing
but readings the best utilization of his hours of leisure. Of all the linguistic skills,
reading is perhaps one that requires our attention most and lacking which we
find that there are great retardation in reading activities of our pupils.

Types of Reading:

The main ways or types of reading are as follows:

1. Loud reading

2. Silent reading

3. Intensive reading

4. Extensive reading

5. Supplementary reading

1. Loud reading

This is also known as oral or aloud reading. Loud reading should be introduced
after the students have been given some training in two months on the
points concerning pronunciation, intonation, stress, pitch and other aspects of
spoken English. According to W.M.Ryburn, “There is very little real reading done
in English. Part of difficulty is that English is a foreign language, but the chief
difficulty is found in the fact that pupils are not taught to read aloud properly in
their mother tongue.”

2. Silent Reading
Silent reading is considered to be the best kind of reading as the mind is fully
engaged in this act. The children should be initiated into reading silently as
soon as they have mastered some degree of fluency of reading aloud.
Morrison has said, “Loud reading by students should be followed by silent
reading.” Mehta has said, “We all read faster than we speak and children must be
initiated into the silent reading habit as early as possible.”

3. Intensive Reading

Intensive reading is a detailed study of the prescribed text in order to train

the students is an important aspect of language teaching, i.e. reading.

According to Jesperson,” To keep them occupied with the text repeatedly in such a
way that they do not lose sight in the meaning, so that they may thus become
so familiar with it at last that they know it almost or entirely by heart, without
having been directly required to commit it to memory.” The teacher has to
carefully plan teaching of intensive reading as it plays an important role, not only
in examination but also in practical life as well. Intensive reading: reading shorter
texts, to extract specific information. This is more an accuracy activity involving
reading for detail.

4. Extensive reading

Extensive reading has been strongly recommended by Indian Education

Commission (1964-66). This type of reading is also known as rapid reading
or independent reading. The teacher plays the role of the supervisor while the
students carry it out independently. Extensive reading to read silently and
quickly in order to understand the subject matter and derive the meaning as
a whole without the help of the teacher and expand passive vocabulary.
According to Thompson and Wyatt,” The main purpose of extensive reading is the
cultivation of taste for reading and it seeks by encouraging the habit of visualizing
what is read to make reading a form of visual instruction.”Extensive reading
should be undertaken only when the students have mastered at least a
vocabulary of about 500 words, implying it should be started in the middle
classes and not prior to it, and the students should have developed the
ability to recognize words at sight. Extensive reading: reading longer texts,
usually for one’s own pleasure. This is a fluency activity, mainly involving global
understanding

Steps / Techniques for better Reading

A. Phrasing

This method pre supposes that phrases are more interesting than words as they are
able to convey meanings. Also, a reader fixes his eyes and mind on group of words
rather than concentrating on each word individually. We know that phrases are
adequate units of reading and teaching. Under this method, the teacher writes a
phrase on the blackboard and introduces the students with its meaning and
other features. Prof. Palmer advocates this method as he says, “The word is too
small a unit of speech and the sentence is too long a unit to be read at a time.

Reading with phrasing in fluent reading allows children to use meaning and
structure, sources of information to support the use of visual information thus,
helping them problem solve as they read text. It also involves putting together
all sources of information-meaning, language, structure and print knowledge,
in an integrated and flexible manner to support the comprehension of the
text. When this happens, phrased and fluent reading is not simply a product
of reading but a major contributor to reading proficiency.

B. Scanning
Scanning refers to the ability to locate specific information or facts as
quickly as possible. While trying to look for the meaning of a word in a
dictionary or looking for a telephone number in the telephone directory, we scan
and try to look for specific information. Scanning is an important rapid reading
technique. It may serve many purposes, which include looking for :a) a specific
point or fact in a text ,b) a formulae in a text) a word in a dictionary, d) train or
television schedules) any reference or bibliographical list) examination results, or
g) any notes/ questions/ remarks at the end of the text. We may know how to scan
a newspaper or dictionary but may do it slowly with less accuracy. What is
important is to increase scanning speed with accuracy. The following suggestions
will help increase proficiency at scanning:

1. Do not read everything

The first step would be to fix clearly in mind what one is looking
for. The purpose of scanning should be determined and the reader should
not be confused about the information that he/ she requires. The second step
is to plan how the required information can be obtained. For example, if one
is looking for a name or place, capital letter can provide clues.
2. Use guides and aids
Every reading material contains certain guides and aids, which should
be used to find what the reader wants
3. Know the association of the material to be read
The reader needs to know the connection of the reading material to
scan it with speed and accuracy. Practice scanning different types of
reading material, such as newspaper listings, dictionaries, telephone
directories, and analyze the way information is structured in these
materials.
4.Concentrate while scanning The reader needs to concentrate while
scanning a reading material. One must have the urge to read and scan the
material. This will improve his visual perception and help him identify the
required information quickly.
C. Skimming
Skimming is a more sophisticated skill than scanning. It refers to the
process of reading a text or passage in order to get rough idea of what the
text or passage is all about. It is a rapid reading technique that prepares
the reader for detailed reading. As the main objective of skimming is to
understand the central idea and the main points of the text, the reader needs
to use a reading strategy that involves fast reading and quick analysis.
Skimming also involves discovering the purpose and association of a text. O
ne of the most important purposes of reading for academic and
professional purposes is obtaining relevant information for various
purposes. This involves not only the ability to recognize the main ideas and
supporting details but also the ability to identify different writing
patterns used to develop these ideas. Authors use variety of discourse
patterns in scientific writing.
Skimming is essential for better understanding of a text. Skimming
should answer the following questions about the text:
1. What is the overall purpose of the text?
2. What is the central idea or theme?
3. What does the authorintent to do? (describe, instruct, report, narrate,
explain, argue, persuade, illustrate and so on)
4. What are the main points of the text?
I identifying the Central Idea
The first step of skimming is to identify the central idea. Every essay,
article, passage, or textbook chapter deals with a theme or central idea. All
the other ideas, points, examples, illustrations in the text support and expand
the central idea.
In order to understand the central idea of a text, the reader should
carefully read the following:
 The title or the main heading
 The sub-headings the opening paragraph
 The last paragraph
The title or the main heading of a text can give a clue to the content.
Similarly, the sub-headings can also help in identifying the central idea. The
opening and the last paragraphs generally sum up the subject and the
author’s point of view. The reader should also glance over the beginning
of the text to identify its logical association. Identify the discourse
technique used in the text, i.e., definition, description, explanation,
comparison and contrast, narration, classification and so on.
Both skimming and scanning are specific reading techniques necessary
for quick and efficient reading.
When skimming, we go through the reading material quickly in order to get
the gist of it, to know how it organized, or to get an idea of the tone
or the intention of the writer.
When scanning, we only try to locate specific information and often we do
not even follow the linearity of the passage to do so. We simply let our
eyes wander over the text until we find what we are looking for,
whether it be name, a date, or a less specific piece of information.
Skimming is therefore a more thorough activity which requires an overall
view of the text and implies a definite reading competence. Scanning on the
 contrary, is far more limited since it only means retrieving what information
is relevant to our purpose.
Yet it is usual to make use of these two activities together when
reading a given text. For instance, we may well skim through an article first
just to know whether it is worth reading, then read it through more
carefully because we have decided that it is of interest. It is also
possible afterwards to scan the same article in order to note down a figure or
a name which we particularly want to remember.

Presentation Skills

Importance of Presentation Skills:

The spoken word wields greater power. It can stir people to mutinies and
rebellions; it can make them dis-spirited and downcast. It can turn a hostile
mob into a friendly gathering; it can also turn a friendly gathering into a
hostile mob. I can build tension and it can relax tension. Antony, by virtue of
his rhetoric, was able to win the Roman ob over to his side and turn tables
on Brutus and Cassius the conspirators against Julius Caesar. Nehru’s
famous speech “The Light has Gone out” on the death of Gandhi evoked a
sense of irreparable national loss and brought tears to the eyes of every
listener. The key to the success of many a political leader, industrialist,
businessman, salesman lies in his capability of making an effective speech.
In the commercial world, a salesman has to make hundreds of mini speeches
a day to persuade his customers to buy certain goods. The greater his
speech-making ability, the better salesman he will be. A touring agent
booking orders for his parent firm is also a kind of speaker. These are small
informal speeches. But there are occasions for more important, formal
speeches as well. Managers, businessmen and industrialists are often
required to make speeches at company meeting, inaugurations, seminars and
discussions. It needs considerable still to prepare a speech and make it
effectively before a gathering. But whether it is a salesman selling a part of
nylon socks or a bank manager persuading his listener to accept a certain
proposal, they organize their speeches on ascetical fundamental principles.
Our major purpose in this chapter to spell out these principles and to
illustrate them through speeches actually made before certain gatherings.
Characteristics of a good Presentation
1. It is clear.
2. It is like an informal talk.
3. It is vivid and concrete.
4. It is brief.
5. It is interesting.
6. It is audience-oriented.

Examining the Environment

The environment includes the venue, the equipment and seating
arrangement, the occasion, the organisers, the time available, other speakers
if any, the audience and your own position in relation to the audience. The
Venue If it is on your home ground, it is a place with which you are familiar
and you will be more comfortable; but all the same, check the room and all
the required equipment a few minutes before the talk. If it is outside your
office, you must make efforts to get familiar with the room, the seating
arrangement, the equipment and the speaker’s location. How will it be
arranged? Is there a platform? Will there be others sitting on the platform
while you speak? Is there a mike? Is there a podium? Is its height
comfortable? What is the arrangement for visual display? Check the visual
aid equipment carefully. Note its position and the projection and make sure
you can handle it comfortably. The Organisers Find out everything possible
about the organisers; the name of the organisation, its activities, names of
the important persons in the organisation, and any important events related
to the organisation. The Occasion Is it a business meeting or a conference or
a seminar? Is there a special occasion for which it is organised? Presentation
3 Time Available Check before-hand, the time allotted to you. Preparation
work depends on the given time. You have to keep strictly within the
allotted time and allow time for questions from the audience. Other Speakers
Find out who else will be speaking. Will there be persons from competing
organisations? What is their organisational position? Be careful not to make
any unfavourable remarks about competitors whether they are present or not.
The Audience The presentation must suit the needs and interests of the
audience. The content and the tone depends on the nature of the audience.
Take care of the words you use in the presentation. Some words may be
considered offensive, or may be too technical or difficult. Do not refer to
anything that might be inappropriate. Size of the audience, and how they
will be seated, will have to be taken into account so that you feel
comfortable and can relate to the audience. Age group of the audience is one
of the factors to be considered; the following may provide a clue: Children
love to listen to stories and are interested in dramatic presentation; emotions
of joy and sorrow can be aroused through stories; ideas must be built up
from familiar surroundings. High school and college students (teenagers)
like to be treated like adults; they are responsive to new ideas; appreciate an
honest straightforward approach; can be roused to idealism, but are also
likely to be critical; they expect well-prepared, informative presentations.
Visual aids are effective. Young adults are the most sophisticated audience,
with a wide range of interests and progressive attitude; they like new
projects and ideas, but they are also very critical. Middle-aged audiences are
conservative and do not accept new ideas easily; they have more knowledge
and experience of life, but may not be very enthusiastic about changes or
new ideas; they listen with interest but do not easily accept. Senior citizens
are usually interested in information about new developments and what is
going on in the world. They also like to be reminded of the good old days.
Status: What is the educational and economic status of the audience? Highly
educated audiences of any age group are more critical. The rich, as a class,
do not favour social changes. Relationship with audience: Consider your
own relationship to the audience. Do they think of you as an expert on the
topic, as a colleague sharing experience, as a role model, as a company
representative wanting to sell ideas or products? PREPARING THE
Profile of a Good Presenter:
The following nine qualities of a good speaker are mentioned: a Reader’s
Digest publication.
1. “A good speaker is likely, interested, enthusiastic, vital.” He treats his
audience as a group of living people. He makes it sure that he is keenly
interested in the subject he is speaking about he is taking pains to make his
audience in it.
2. “A good speaker is earnest.” He does not speak just for the sake of
speaking-in order to show off, to impress his audience with his erudition or
his authority.”
3. “A good speaker has a sense of responsibility to his listeners.” He realize
that time is previous and tries to say something worth the time being spent
by his audience.
 4. “A good speaker has a sense of responsibility to other on the programme.”
He takes more time than that it allotted to him.
5. “A good speaker has a sense of responsibility to his subject. He does not
spread to the
6. “A good speaker has a sense of leadership; he stands up tall; he talks eye
to eye; spread responsibly and with authority, as a leader should.”
7. “A good speaker keeps s his head.” He is carries off by his over-
enthusiasm or over confidence.
8. “A good speaker tries to balanced, sane.”
9. “A good speaker keeps his sense of humor.”

The most difficult kind of oral communication for most people is a formal
speech. Most of us feel uncomfortable in speaking before other and
generally do a poor job of it. But it need not be this way. With efforts, we
can improve our ability with respect to public speaking. We can do these
first learning effective techniques of public speaking. Then we may put these
techniques into practice. Public Speaking is a form of communication in
which a person speaks face-to face to a relatively large audience. In public
speaking, the speaker speaks in a fairly continue is manner.

Developing presentation skill requires attention to the following activities:

 Selection of the topic
 Audience analysis
 Researching and planning the speech
 Organizing the speech
 Wording the speech (verbal and non-verbal)
  Developing confidence and overcoming fear.

It is important to remember that although these are parts of a process, but these are
no specific steps to follow in exact order. Ordinarily, the speaker will not begin
with one, finish that part, go on to two, finish that and so on to six.

[A] SELECTION OF THE TOPIC The speaker’s first step in formal speech
making is to determine the topic of his presentation. In some cases, he is assigned a
topic, usually one within his area of specialization. In fact, when he is asked to
make a speech on specified topics, it is likely to be his expert knowledge in the
area. If the speaker is not assigned a topic, he must find one his own. In this search
for a suitable topic, he is to be guided by three basic factors.

1. Background and knowledge.

2. Interest of his audience.

3. Occasion of the speech.

[B] AUDIENCE ANALYSIS One requirement of good speech making is to know

the audience for public speech. The speaker should study his audience before and
during the presentation in the manner narrated below: Preliminary Analysis In
analyzing the audience before the speech, the speaker should research for the
audience’s characteristics that will affect his presentation. For example, size of
audience is likely to influence how formal or informal the speaker has to make his
speech. (As a rule, large audiences require more formality). The audience’s
personal characteristics also can affect how to make his speech. Characteristics
such as age, sex, education, experience and knowledge of subject matter can
determine how a speaker his message choice of words, need for illustration, and
level of details required. Just as in writing, he should adapt his speeches to his
target audiences. This knowledge about his audience is first step in adaptation,
Analysis during Presentation The audience analysis should continue as the
speaker starts making the speech. This is also called as feedback phase. This phase
of audience analysis gives the speaker information about how his listeners are
receiving his words. With this information, he can adjust his presentation to
improve the communication result.

[C] RESEARCHING AND PLANNING THE SPEECH When preparing for a

public speech, each speaker should consulate a wide variety of sources. When the
research has been completed, the speaker should organize all the information,
arguments and evidence into a complete outline, which is called as the speech
brief. A formal brief should be written as a sentence outline. Its purpose is to help
the speaker to understand both sides of the speech issue. It also serves as a source
of the specific information, which the speaker will include in the outline for his or
her public speeches. For a debatable topic or issue, the following parts of a brief
may be considered.

I. Opening

• You get about 10 seconds to make a good impact and impression. State
your name even though you have been introduced; it reinforces your
presence, and helps people to remember you. Create (write it down) a good,
strong, solid introduction, and rehearse it till it comes naturally; the delivery
must be cheerful and confident.

• Try “delivering” these opening sentences. Change them to suit your own
style.

• Good morning, Ladies and Gentlemen. I am --- from --- (organization/your

class and division). I’m going to speak on
 • Good evening, Ladies and Gentlemen. As --- has already said, I am --- from
---; and I am here to share with you the results of my experiment with ---,

• Good morning to all of you. I am ---, and I intend to share with you the
information I have gathered on the topic of “Barriers to Communication

II. Introduction

A. Importance of the issue or topic

B. Short history of the issue/topic

C. The main arguments will be brief and precise

1. List of the common arguments for the affirmative side. Common arguments are
that the proposed change is needed, that the change is practical, that the change is
desirable and that the advantages of making the change are greater.

2. List the common arguments for the negative side. Common arguments are that
the proposed change is not needed, that the change is impractical and undesirable,
that the disadvantages of making the change are greater and that there are solutions
better than those proposed by the affirmative side.

III. Body (this is the longest, most detailed portion)

A. State again each argument for the affirmative. After each argument list the
specific evidence that supports it. Cite also the source for each item of evidence.

B. State again each argument for the negative. After each argument, list the
specific evidence that supports it. Cite again the source for each item of evidence.

IV. Conclusion

A. Summarize the position and argument of the affirmative side.

B. Summarize the position and argument of the negative side.

Like most reports, the speech usually ends with a conclusion. Here the speaker
brings all that he has presented to the audience. He achieves the speech’s goal. In
doing this, he should consider including these three elements in his close:

(1) A restatement of his subject

(2) A summary the key points developed in the course of presentation and

(3) A statement of the conclusion main message.

Usually it is effective to bring the speech to a climatic close that is make it the high
points of the speech. He can do this by presenting the concluding message in
strong language so that it gains attention and be remembered. In this section, we
shall also discus guidelines for speaking notes, guidelines for speech manuscripts
and guidelines for using visual aids. [D] ORGANIZING THE SPEECH
Organizing the body of his is such like organizing the body of report. The speaker
takes the whole and divides it into comparable parts. Then he takes these parts and
divides them. He continues to divide to as far as it is practical to do so. In
speeches, however, he is more likely to use factors as the basis of division than
time, place or quantity. The reason is that is most speeches, his presentation is
likely to build around issues and questions that are subtopics of the subject. Even
so subdivisions like tie, place and quantity are possibilities. After preparing a brief
for time, he will need to decide on his method of presentation – whether to present
it extemporaneously or by reading it or by memorizing it.

1. Extemporaneous presentation: it is the most popular and effective method of

presentation. Using this method, the speaker initially thoroughly prepares his
speech. Then he prepares notes and presents speech from them. Usually he
rehearses. He makes sure that all matter related to the speech is clearly in the mind.
However, he makes no attempt to memorize. The extemporaneous method usually
sounds natural to the listeners, even though it is (or should be) the product of
careful planning and practice.

2. Memorized presentation: It is the most difficult method of presentation for

most of us. Probably, a few speakers actually memorize an entire speech.
Memorized speech does have poor display of non-verbal cues. Instead, they
memorize key parts and use notes to help them through the presentation. Such
deliveries actually are a cross between extemporaneous and memorized
presentations.

3. A third method of presentation is by reading. Unfortunately, most of us do

not read aloud well. We tend to read in dull monotone voice, producing a most
uninteresting effect. We fumble over words that lose our place, miss punctuation
marks and such other lapses. Of course, many speakers overcome this problem and
with effort, this can be eliminated. However, it will be advisable to attempt to read
a speech until he has a proficient reader.

[E] WORDING THE SPEECH His eyes and ears will give feedback information.
For examples, facial expressions of the audience members will tell him how they
are reacting to his message. From smile, blind stares and movements, the speaker
will get an indication whether the listeners understand or agree with his message.
He can detect from their sounds (or silence) whether they are listing. If questions
are in order, he can learn directly how his message is coming a across. In general,
by being alert, he can learn much from his audience and what he learns can help
him to make a better speech. The speech is to be worded carefully. Wording
includes non-verbal content. A few aspects relating to wording the speech are as
follows:

1. Appearance and bodily actions: As his listeners hear his words, they are
looking at him. What they see is part of the message, and it can have real effect on
the success of his speech. What his audience sees, of course, is the speaker, they
also see what surrounds the speaker should thoroughly understand the
communication effects. The importance of non-verbal mode of communication –
appearance and bodily actions – cannot be ignored.

2. The communication environment. Much of what is audience sees in all that

sounds him as he speaks everything that tends to add to a general impression. This
includes the physical things the stage, lighting, background etc. Although not
visual, a related influence here would be heat, ventilation and outside noises. For
the best communication results, the factors in a communication environment
should not detract from his message; rather, they should contribute to good
communication. His own experience as a listener will tell him what is important.

3. Personal appearance: The appearance of the speaker is part of the message.

The audience from the personal appearance of the speaker receives most of the
non-verbal cues. Of course, he must accept his physical attributes, but a few of us
need be at a disadvantage with respect to appearance. All that is necessary is that
he uses appropriately what he has. Specifically, he should dress appropriately for
the audience and the occasion. The speaker should be clean and well groomed. He
should use facial expressions and bodily movements to his advantage.

4. Posture: Posture or body position is likely to be the most obvious thing, which
his audience sees in him. Even if listeners cannot be close enough to detect facial
expressions and eye movements, they can see in general the structure the state of
body. The speaker probably thinks that one should tell him what good posture is.
He may know it when he sees himself. The trouble is that he is unlikely to see it
himself. One solution is to have other tell him whether his posture needs
improvements. Another is to practice speaking before a mirror or with videotape
equipment. In this effort to improve his posture, he should keep in the mind aspect,
which must go on with his body in order to form a good posture. His body weight
must be distributed in a comfortable and poised way consistent with the impression
he want to make. Uneven distribution of body weight appearing stiff and
uncomfortable. His bearing should be poised, alert, and communicative. He should
do all this naturally. The greatest danger with posture is appearing artificial. People
may become too much artificial by reading books on communication.

5. Walking. The way the speaker walks before his audience also makes an
impression on his listeners. A strong and sure walk of the speaker gives an
impression of confidence. Hesitant and awkward steps give the opposite
impression. Walking during the presentation can be good or bad, depending on
how the speaker does it. Some speakers use steps forward and to the side as a form
of bodily gesture, especially to emphasize points. Too much walking, however,
detracts listeners, from the message. He should hold his walking to a minimum,
using it only when he is reasonably sure of its favorable impact. In public speech,
we rarely find speakers walking.

6. Facial expressions: Probably, the most apparent body movement is facial

expression. It is being contended that the face is the index of the mind. The
problem is that he may unconsciously use facial expressions that convey
unintended meanings. For example, a frightened speaker may tighten the jaw
unconsciously and begin to grain. The effect may be an ambiguous image that
from the entire communication effort. A smile or grim face, or a puzzled frown
conveys a clear non-verbal message, question, they are effective communication
devices and the speaker normally them.

7. Eye contact: God given us two eyes to improve the effectiveness of non-verbal
communication. Equally important is eye contact. The eyes have long been
considering “mirrors of the soul” and reveal his sincerity, goodwill and flexibility.
Some listeners tend to shun speakers who refuse to look at them. On the other
hand, moderate eye contact tends to show that he has a genuine interest in his
audience. Eye contact focusing on a few in the audience does not create a good
impact.

8. Gestures: Like posture gestures add to the message, which the speaker
communicates. A few gestures are natural. The speaker has to ensure that these
gestures should not distract the listener. Just what they add, however, is hard to
say. They have no definite or clear-cut meanings. A clinched first, for example,
certainly adds emphasis to a strong point. But it can also show audience, make a
threat or signify support for a cause. And so it is with other gestures. They register
vague meaning. Although gestures may have vague meanings, they however are
natural aids to speaking. It appears natural for example, to emphasize a plea with
palms up and to show disagreements, with palms down. Raising first one hand and
then the other reinforces a division of points. Slicing the air with the hand shows
several divisions. Although such gestures generally are clear, we do not all use
them in the same manner. It should be clear that the speaker could use bodily
movements to help speaking. Which movements he should use, however, are hard
to say? They are related to personality, physical make-up and the size nature o the
audience. A speaker appearing before a formal group generally should use
relatively a few bodily actions. A speaker appearing before an informal audience
should use more actions. On a given occasion, the speaker should use his own
judgment regarding the postures.

9. Use of voice: Good and effective voice is an obvious requirement of good

speaking. Like bodily movements, the voice should not hinder the listener’s
concentration on the message. More specifically, the voice should not detract
attention from the message. Voices that cause such difficulties generally fall into
four areas of fault:

(a) Lack of pitch variation: Speakers who talk in monotones are unlikely to hold
their listeners’ interest for long. Without variations in pitch, the speaker not be
impressive. Most voices are capable of wide variation in pitch and the problem
usually can be corrected. Most often the failure to vary pitch of the voice is a
matter of habit of vocal patterns which are developed over years of talking without
being aware of their effects.

(b) Lack of variation in speaking speed: For better presentation, the variations in
the speed of speech are also maintained. Determining how fast to talk is a major
problem. As a general, the speaker should present easy parts of the message at
fairly brisk rate and hard to understand information at a slower pace. The reason
for varying the speed of presentation should be apparent. Easy information
presented slowly is irritating. Hard information presented rapidly may be difficult
to understand.

(c) Incorrect use pauses: A problem related to speaking pace is the incorrect use
of pauses. Of course, pauses used at the appropriate time and place are effective.
When properly used, they emphasize the upcoming subject matter and are effective
in gaining attention. Pauses convey meaning to the listeners. Further, it helps the
speakers to take rest in between. The frequent and arbitrary pauses, however, are
irritating and break the listener’s concentration. The error is compounded when the
speaker fills in the pauses with meaningless and irrelevant words like “Well”,
‘Ok’.

(d) Lack of vocal emphasis: A secrete of good speaking is to given words their
due emphasis by varying the manner of speaking. He can do this by

(i) Varying the pitch of his voice, (ii) Varying the pace of his presentation and (iii)
Varying the volume of his voice. As the first two have been discussed, the speaker
must talk loudly enough for all of his audience to hear, but not too loudly. Thus,
the loudness, voice force for a large group should b greater than that for a small
group. Regardless of group size, however, variety in force is good for interest and
emphasis. It produces contrast, which is one way to emphasize the subject matter.
Some speaker incorrectly believes that the one way to gain emphasis is to get
louder. If the speaker uses only loud voice, it will not have better impact.

(e) Avoid a few words or phrases:

 Latin and French words

 Technical terms
 Socially unpleasant words
 Cheap hollow and slag terms
 Difficult words
 Repeating phrases-you see, you know

[F] DEVELOPING CONFIDENCE AND OVERCOMING FEAR All steps

narrated above regarding public speaking will not give any results if the speaker
has the fear to face the audience. The reviews should help him to pinpoint these
problems areas and give him some practical suggestions to overcome them. A few
aspects are important in this regard:
1. Confidence: Even the most confident speakers have the nervousness whenever
they occupy a stage for public speech. A primary characteristics of effective oral
reporting is confidence. This includes his confidence in himself and his audience in
him. Actually, the two are complementary to each other. The audiences can give
him a sense of security, thereby making him more confident of his ability.
Typically, he earns his confidence over periods of association. But there are things,
which he can do to project an image that invites confidence. For example, he can
prepare his presentation diligently and practice it thoroughly. Such careful
preliminary work will give him confidence in himself. Having confidence leads to
more effective communication, which in turn builds confidence in his listener’s
mind. Another thing he can do to gain confidence is to check his physical
appearance carefully. Unfair and illogical as it may be, certain styles of dress and
hair create strong images I people’s minds. Thus, if he wants to communicate
effectively, he should analyze the audience to whom he seeks to reach. He should
work to develop the physical appearance that will project an image in which is
audience can have confidence. Yet another suggestion is simply to talk in strong
and clear tones. Such tones do much to project an image confidence. Although
most people can do little to change their natural voices, but he can try to add
sufficient volume.

2. Sincerity: The speaker must be sincere. Listeners always appreciate sincerity in

the speaker. The listeners will be quick to detect insincerity in the speaker. When
they do so, they are likely to give little weight to what he says. On the other hand,
sincerity is a valuable aid to conviction, especially if the audience has confidence
in his ability. He must make efforts t project an image of sincerity to succeed.

3. Thoroughness: The speaker must be thorough regarding the subject matter of

public speech. Thoroughness in his presentation generally will make his message
better received than scantly of hurried coverage. Thorough coverage gives the
impression that he has taken proper time and adequate care and such an
impressions tends to make the message believable. But he can overdo
thoroughness. If the presents the information in too much detail, his listeners may
become lost in a sea of information. The secret is to select the important
information and leave out the unimportant. Selecting important information, of
source, requires that he used good judgment. He must place himself and his
listener’s shoes and ask himself just what they do not need to know.

4. Friendliness: A speaker who projects an image of friendliness has a significant

advantage in communication. If the speaker is not friendly, the listeners feel
distracted. People like people who are friendly and are Moe receptive to what they
way. Like sincerity, friendliness is difficult to present. It must be honest if it is to
be effective. But with most people, friendliness is an honest effort. A few people
want to be friendly also. A few others are unable to project the desired friendliness
of his image as a speaker; there are other characteristics such as interest,
enthusiasm, originality and flexibility. Through self-analysis and dedicated effort
to improve the speaker can enhance his speaking image.

Use of Visual aids in Presentation

Visuals focus audience attention. Learn to handle your visuals properly, without
getting confused.

They help both, the speaker and the audience; the speaker has them for orderly
presentation of points, to illustrate with a diagram, to exhibit data; the audience get
a reinforcement through the eyes for what they hear, and can see a visual summary
of points.
You can use any one or more of the following as visual support for your oral
presentation:

Posters can be displayed almost anywhere. Though this is old-fashioned,

marketing persons going to rural areas have found this a very dependable method.
Flip chart requires an easel or stand. It is most useful for interactive
presentations. You can put up on it ideas that come from the audience. And work
on it with audience participation. People in the audience love to see their ideas
written up during the presentation.

Overhead Projector (OHP) is popular and available in most places. Make slides
on good quality transparencies. Put only 6 lines or less on one slide. Write or type
large enough for the whole audience to see. (You have found out how many, and
what seating arrangement and equipment) You can get computer printouts or
Xerox copy out of a book to put on the OHP slides. Use large font size like 28 and
a clear face type like Bookman Old Style.

It is best to use a black OHP pen for text; colours should be used only if they help
to separate parts of a figure or a chart.

Handle them carefully. If you want to show only a part of the slide, cover the rest
with a sheet of white paper.

Never leave a slide on the screen after you have finished with it. Switch off the
OHP when you are not using it.

1. Static Media ( Fixed)

 Fixed text

 Images (Printed material)

 Overhead Projectors

 Pictures

 Computer-generated projections

Ex. Charts, Posters, Images

2. Dynamic Media (Active)

 Audio tapes

 Video tapes

 Computer-generated projections

 Moving films