Assignment of Signal and System

Fourier series

Fourier Transform

Z Transform

Submitted by:
Naeem Ahmad
Semester III
B-13850

Submitted to:
Mr. Manzar Ahmad
 Fourier series
Introduction
Different methods have been used to solve linear ordinary differential
equations (ODEs) of the form y + ay + by = f (t), where a and b ∈ R and f
(t) was usually an exponential, trigonometric or polynomial function.
There are, An example of such functions is:
−1, −π < t < 0;
f (t) =(1)
1,0 ≤ t < π.
Definition
An infinite series whose terms are constants multiplied by sine
and cosine functions and that can, if uniformly convergent, approximate
a wide variety of functions.If f is an integrable function on (−π, π) then
the Fourier series for f is.where

Finding the Fourier Series

Therorem 1. Given the set of functions T as defined below:

sin(nt), n = 1, 2, . . . , ∞;
T= cos(mt), m = 0, 1, . . . , ∞.
any two distinct functions, φn and φm ∈ T, are orthogonal on the interval [−π, π], such
that n = m.1

Given set T and the orthogonality condition (4), there are three different cases
which mustbe calculated to cover all the permutations of the functions in T.

Plot of a periodic identity function—a sawtooth wave

 Animated plot of the first five successive partial Fourier series

Usage of Fourier series

Fourier series has long provided one of the principal
methods of analysis for mathematical physics, engineering, and signal
processing. It has spurred generalizations
and applications that continue to develop right up to the present. While
the original theory of Fourier series applies to periodic functions
occurring in wave motion, such as with light and sound.

Properties

We say that ƒ belongs to    if ƒ is a 2π-periodic function on R

which is k times differentiable, and its kth derivative is continuous.

 If ƒ is a 2π-periodic odd function, then an = 0  for all n.

 If ƒ is a 2π-periodic even function, then bn = 0  for all n.

Proof. Two functions, φm (t) and φn (t), are said to be orthogonal on

interval [α, β] if
 If ƒ is integrable, φm (t)φn (t) dt = 0, where m = n.

, and This
result is known as the Riemann– Lebesgue lemma.

 A doubly infinite sequence {an} in is the sequence of Fourier

1
coefficients of a function in L [0,2π] if and only if it is a convolution
of two sequences in . See
  If , then the Fourier coefficients of the derivative
f' can be expressed in terms of the Fourier coefficients of the
function f, via the formula .

Fourier transform
Definition
There are several common conventions for defining the Fourier
transform of an integrable function ƒ : R → C . This article will use the
definition:

for every real number ξ.

When the independent variable x represents time (with SI unit of

seconds), the transform variable ξ represents frequency (in hertz). Under
suitable conditions, ƒ can be reconstructed from by the inverse
transform:

for every real number x.

For other common conventions and notations, including using the angular
frequency ω instead of the frequency ξ, see Other conventions and Other
notations below. The Fourier transform on Euclidean space is treated
separately, in which the variable x often represents position and ξ
momentum.

Introduction
The motivation for the Fourier transform comes from the study of
Fourier series. In the study of Fourier series, complicated functions are
written as the sum of simple waves mathematically represented by sines
and cosines. Due to the properties of sine and cosine it is possible to
recover the amount of each wave in the sum by an integral. In many cases
it is desirable to use Euler's formula, which states that
e2πiθ = cos 2πθ + i sin 2πθ, to write Fourier series in terms of the basic
waves e2πiθ. This has the advantage of simplifying many of the formulas
involved and providing a formulation for Fourier series that more closely
resembles the definition followed in this article. This passage from sines
and cosines to complex exponentials makes it necessary for the Fourier
coefficients to be complex valued. The usual interpretation of this
complex number is that it gives both the amplitude (or size) of the wave
present in the function and the phase (or the initial angle) of the wave.
This passage also introduces the need for negative "frequencies". If θ
were measured in seconds then the waves e2πiθ and e−2πiθ would both
complete one cycle per second, but they represent different frequencies in
the Fourier transform. Hence, frequency no longer measures the number
of cycles per unit time, but is closely related.

There is a close connection between the definition of Fourier series and

the Fourier transform for functions ƒ which are zero outside of an
interval. For such a function we can calculate its Fourier series on any
interval that includes the interval where ƒ is not identically zero. The
Fourier transform is also defined for such a function. As we increase the
length of the interval on which we calculate the Fourier series, then the
Fourier series coefficients begin to look like the Fourier transform and the
sum of the Fourier series of ƒ begins to look like the inverse Fourier
transform. To explain this more precisely, suppose that T is large enough
so that the interval [−T/2,T/2] contains the interval on which ƒ is not
identically zero. Then the n-th series coefficient cn is given by:

Basic properties
Linearity
Translation
Modulation
Scaling
Conjugation
Convolution
 Z-transform
Definition
The Z-transform, like many integral transforms, can be defined as
either a one-sided or two-sided transform.

Bilateral Z-transform

The bilateral or two-sided Z-transform of a discrete-time signal x[n] is

the function X(z) defined as

where n is an integer and z is, in general, a complex number:

Unilateral Z-transform

Alternatively, in cases where x[n] is defined only for n ≥ 0, the single-

sided or unilateral Z-transform is defined as

Z transform roc
Assignment of Communication System
Topics : GMSK

UMTS

FDD

TDD

Submitted by:
Naeem Ahmad
Semester V
B-13850

Submitted to:
Mr. Manzar Ahmad
 GMSK Modulation
Definition
In digital communication, Gaussian minimum shift keying or
GMSK is a continuous-phase frequency-shift keying modulation scheme.
It is similar to standard minimum-shift keying (MSK); however the
digital data stream is first shaped with a Gaussian filter before being
applied to a frequency modulator. This has the advantage of reducing
sideband power, which in turn reduces out-of-band interference between
signal carriers in adjacent frequency channels. However, the Gaussian
filter increases the modulation memory in the system and causes
intersymbol interference, making it more difficult to discriminate
between different transmitted data values and requiring more complex
channel equalization algorithms such as an adaptive equalizer at the
receiver. GMSK has high spectral efficiency, but it needs a higher power
level than QPSK, for instance, in order to reliably transmit the same
amount of data.

GMSK is most notably used in the Global System for Mobile

Communications (GSM).

GMSK basics
GMSK modulation is based on MSK, which is itself a form of
phase shift keying. One of the problems with standard forms of PSK is
that sidebands extend out from the carrier. To overcome this, MSK and
its derivative GMSK can be used.MSK and also GMSK modulation are
what is known as a continuous phase scheme. Here there are no phase
discontinuities because the frequency changes occur at the carrier zero
crossing points. This arises as a result of the unique factor of MSK that
the frequency difference between the logical one and logical zero states is
always equal to half the data rate.

Signal using MSK modulation

A plot of the spectrum of an MSK signal shows sidebands extending well
beyond a bandwidth equal to the data rate. This can be reduced by
passing the modulating signal through a low pass filter prior to applying it
to the carrier. The requirements for the filter are that it should have a
sharp cut-off, narrow bandwidth and its impulse response should show no
overshoot. The ideal filter is known as a Gaussian filter which has a
Gaussian shaped response to an impulse and no ringing. In this way the
basic MSK signal is converted to GMSK modulation.

Spectral density of MSK and GMSK signals

Advantages of GMSK modulation

there are several advantages to the use of GMSK modulation for a radio
communications system. One is obviously the improved spectral
efficiency when compared to other phase shift keyed modes.

A further advantage of GMSK is that it can be amplified by a non-linear

amplifier and remain undistorted This is because there are no elements of
the signal that are carried as amplitude variations. This advantage is of
particular importance when using small portable transmitters, such as
those required by cellular technology. Non-linear amplifiers are more
efficient in terms of the DC power input from the power rails that they
convert into a radio frequency signal. This means that the power
consumption for a given output is much less, and this results in lower
levels of battery consumption; a very important factor for cell phones.

A further advantage of GMSK modulation again arises from the fact that
none of the information is carried as amplitude variations. This means
that is immune to amplitude variations and therefore more resilient to
noise, than some other forms of modulation, because most noise is mainly
amplitude based.
 UMTS
Definition
It defines Universal Mobile Telecommunications System which
is one of the third-generation (3G) mobile telecommunications
technologies, which is also being developed into a 4G technology. The
first deployment of the UMTS is the release99 (R99) architecture. It is
specified by 3GPP and is part of the global ITU IMT-2000 standard. The
most common form of UMTS uses W-CDMA (IMT Direct Spread) as the
underlying air interface but the system also covers TD-CDMA and TD-
SCDMA (both IMT CDMA TDD). Being a complete network system,
UMTS also covers the radio access network (UMTS Terrestrial Radio
Access Network, or UTRAN) and the core network (Mobile Application
Part, or MAP), as well as authentication of users via SIM cards
(Subscriber Identity Module).

Features
UMTS, using 3GPP, supports maximum theoretical data transfer
rates of 45 Mbit/s (with HSPA+),[3] although at the moment users in
deployed networks can expect a transfer rate of up to 384 kbit/s for R99
handsets, and 7.2 Mbit/s for HSDPA handsets in the downlink
connection. This is still much greater than the 9.6 kbit/s of a single GSM
error-corrected circuit switched data channel or multiple 9.6 kbit/s
channels in HSCSD (14.4 kbit/s for CDMAOne), and—in competition to
other network technologies such as CDMA2000, PHS or WLAN—offers
access to the World Wide Web and other data services on mobile devices.

Technology
Air interfaces

UMTS provides several different terrestrial air interfaces,

called UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA) All air interface
options are part of ITU's IMT-2000. In the currently most popular variant
for cellular mobile telephones, W-CDMA (IMT Direct Spread) is
used.Please note that the terms W-CDMA, TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA
are misleading. While they suggest covering just a channel access method
(namely a variant of CDMA), they are actually the common names for
the whole air interface standards. Non-terrestrial radio access networks
are currently under research.
 W-CDMA (UTRA-FDD)
W-CDMA uses the DS-CDMA channel access method with a
pair of 5 MHz channels. In contrast, the competing CDMA2000 system
uses one or more arbitrary 1.25 MHz channels for each direction of
communication. W-CDMA systems are widely criticized for their large
spectrum usage, which has delayed deployment in countries that acted
rela vely slowly in alloca ng new frequencies specifically for 3G services

FDD
Frequency-division duplexing (FDD) means that the transmitter and
receiver operate at different carrier frequencies. The term is frequently
used in ham radio operation, where an operator is attempting to contact a
repeater station. The station must be able to send and receive a
transmission at the same time, and does so by slightly altering the
frequency at which it sends and receives. This mode of operation is
referred to as duplex mode or offset mode.

Uplink and downlink sub-bands are said to be separated by the frequency

offset. Frequency-division duplexing can be efficient in the case of
symmetric traffic. In this case time-division duplexing tends to waste
bandwidth during the switch-over from transmitting to receiving, has
greater inherent latency, and may require more complex circuitry.

Another advantage of frequency-division duplexing is that it makes radio

planning easier and more efficient, since base stations do not "hear" each
other (as they transmit and receive in different sub-bands) and therefore
will normally not interfere with each other. On the converse, with time-
division duplexing systems, care must be taken to keep guard times
between neighboring base stations (which decreases spectral efficiency)
or to synchronize base stations, so that they will transmit and receive at
the same time (which increases network complexity and therefore cost,
and reduces bandwidth allocation flexibility as all base stations and
sectors will be forced to use the same uplink/downlink ratio)

Examples of Frequency Division Duplexing systems are:

 ADSL and VDSL

 Most cellular systems, including the UMTS/WCDMA Frequency
Division Duplexing mode and the cdma2000 system.
 IEEE 802.16 WiMax Frequency Division Duplexing mode
 TDD(TTY)
Introduction
The typical TTD(Telecommunications device for the deaf) is a device
about the size of a typewriter or laptop computer with a QWERTY
keyboard and small screen that uses LEDs or an LCD screen to display
typed text electronically. In addition, TTYs commonly have a small spool
of paper on which text is also printed — old versions of the device had
only a printer and no screen. The text is transmitted live, via a telephone
line, to a compatible device, i.e. one that uses a similar communication
protocol. In certain countries there are systems in place so that a deaf
person can communicate with a hearing person on an ordinary voice
phone using a human relay operator. There are also "carry-over" services,
enabling people who can hear but cannot speak ("hearing carry-over,"
a.k.a. "HCO"), or people who cannot hear but are able to speak ("voice
carry-over," a.k.a. "VCO") to use the telephone.

Devices
In addition to TDD, there are a number of pieces of additional
equipment that can be coupled to telephones to improve their utility.
For those with hearing difficulties the telephone ring and conversation
sound level can be amplified or pitch adjusted, ambient noise can also
be filtered. The amplifier can be a simple addition or through an
inductive coupler to interact with suitable hearing aids.