Training

on

Fundamentals of Welding
( Equivalent to module H1 & H6)
FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING
• Welding definition & grouping
• Welding power sources
• Welding processes
• Base metal
• Welding consumables
• Welding productivity
• PWHT
• Qualifications & Codes
• Welding defects
• NDT, DT
• Welding systems
• Welding safety
Materials joining process used in making a
localised coalescence of metal either by heating
the materials to suitable temperature with or
without application of pressure & with or without
use of a filler material.
 Solid state Arc
Brazing
Welding Welding
(B)
(SSW) (AW)

Other
Soldering Welding
(S) Welding Processes

Resistance Oxyfuel Gas

Welding Welding
(RW) (OFW)
 Gas Metal Gas Tungsten Submerged
Arc Welding Arc Welding Arc Welding
(GMAW) (GTAW) (SAW)

Flux Cored Stud

Arc Welding Arc Welding Process Arc Welding
(FCAW) (SW)

Shielded Metal Plasma

Carbon
Arc Welding Arc Welding
Arc Welding
(SMAW) (PAW)
(CAW)
 APPLICATIONS OF POWER
SOURCE
Power sources Scope
Transformer A) Structural/ Tacking
B) M.S.sheet
C) Only for E 6013 electrode
D) For SMAW process only
E) Not suitable for radiography joints
 APPLICATIONS OF POWER
SOURCE
Power sources Scope
Generator A) Suitable for pressure parts/boiler
B) Higher thickness welding
C) SMAW / GTAW process can be used
D) For all types of electrodes
E) Recommended for radiographic joints
F) Can be used for all metals
 APPLICATIONS OF POWER
SOURCE
Power sources Scope
Rectifier A) Minimum maintenance.
B) All welding processes can be used.
C) Suitable for radiographic joints.
D) Various welding consumables for all
metals can be used.
 SHIELD METAL ARC WELDING
(SMAW)
• Advantages
– Maximum flexibility
– Can weld many metals
– Can weld in any position
– Can be used on most of thk.
– Widely used in field work
– Min. investment
• Limitations
– Break in welding
– Cleaning between passes
– Less deposition efficiency (65%)
 SELECTION OF CONSUMABLE

• Base metal
• Position of welding
• Thickness & shape of base metal
• Joint design & fit up
• Weld metal deposition efficiency
• Specification & service conditions
• Size of electrodes
SELECTION OF THE ELECTRODE

• Type of electrode
• Welding position
• Type of joint and edge preparation
• Material thickness
• Experience and skill of the welder
• Base metal (Phy. & mech. properties)
• Job specifications
 FUNCTION OF ELECTRODE
COVERING
• Shielding of weld pool
• Elimination of weld metal porosity
• Elimination of weld metal cracking
• Ensure specific composition of deposited weld
metal
• Desirable weld deposit contour
• Desirable weld surface finish
• minimise spatter
• Provide a stable welding arc
 FUNCTION OF ELECTRODE
COVERING
• Provide penetration control
• Provide a high rate of metal deposition
• Reduce electrode overheating
• Provide a strong tough durable coating
• Specific mechanical properties of the deposited
weld metal
• Ease of manipulation to control slag
 CARE & STORAGE OF
ELECTRODES
• Mechanical handling
• Absorption of moisture
• Deterioration due to ageing
• Rusting of electrodes
 WILD CRISES OF AN ELECTRODE
# Help me to help you better #
1. Do not leave me alone Welding electrodes come in packet
& its place is in the packet
2. Do not manhandle me Electrodes are flux-coated which has
a specific purpose. Improper handling
will cause cracks on coating which will
make electrodes useless.
3. Give me due respect Electrodes cost high. Select suitable
electrode for a particular type of welding.
4. My health deteriorates The general practice of throwing away
fast in cupboards half used packets is disastrous & not
expected of a conscious welder. After
day’s use keep back leftout electrodes in
drying oven & not in the packets.
 3F 4F
1 2F
F

1G 2G 3G 4G

1G 2G 5G 6G
 ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATION
E - 6010
Electrode

Strength in KSI
Position
Position
1. Flat, Horizontal, Vertical Overhead
2. Flat & horizontal only
Type of coating & current 3. Flat, Horizontal, Vertical down, Overhead

Digit Type of metal Welding current

0 Cellulose sodium DCEP
1 Cellulose Potassium AC or DCEP or DCEN
2 Titania sodium AC or DCEN
3 Titania potassium AC or DCEP
4 Iron powder titania AC or DCEN or DCEP
5 Low hydrogen sodium DCEP
6 Low hydrogen potassium AC or DCEP
7 Iron powder iron oxide AC or DCEP or DCEN
8 Iron powder low hydrogen AC or DCEP
 ELECTRODE
CLASSIFICATION
E - 8018 - D2
Electrode
80,000 psi minimum Tensile strength required

All Position
For AC or DCEP
Chemical composition of weld metal deposit
 EFFECT OF ALLOYING
ELEMENTS
• Carbon
– Increases hardness, tensile strength.
– Machinability is affected.
• Nickel
– Increases toughness & resistance to impact.
– Impact strength at low temperature increases.
– Corrosion resistance increases.
– Increases hardness, strength without scarifying
ductility.
 EFFECT OF ALLOYING
ELEMENTS
• Silicon
– Strength & hardness increases.
– Improves oxidation resistance.
– Strengthens low alloy steel.
– Acts as a deoxidiser.
• Manganese
– Improves strength & hardness.
– Counteracts brittleness from Sulphur.
– Lower ductility & weldability.
 EFFECT OF ALLOYING
ELEMENTS
• Chromium
– Increases hardenability.
– Provides strength, wear & oxidation resistance
at elevated temperature.
• Titanium
– Reduces martensitic hardness and hardenability
in medium chromium steel.
 EFFECT OF ALLOYING
ELEMENTS
• Sulphur
– Increases machinability.
– Produces hot shortness.
• Molybdenum
– Promotes hardenability of steel.
– Makes steel fine grained.
– Raises tensile & creep strength at high temp.
– Enhances corrosion resistance.
– Eliminates temper brittleness.
 EFFECT OF ALLOYING
ELEMENTS
• Vanadium
– Improves fatigue resistance.
– Promotes fine grain in steel.
– Increases hardenability.
• Tungsten
– Increases hardness.
– Resist heat.
– Promotes fine grain.
– Improves strength at elevated temperature.
 COMMONLY USED MATERIALS IN BOILERS & THEIR
MAXIMUM WORKING TEMPERATURES.

Sr.. Material Maximum temperature oC

1. Carbon steel SA515/516 Gr..70 250 - 300
SA106 Gr. B
2. Carbon - 1/2 Mo 15Mo3 350 - 400
steel SA209T1
3. 1Cr-1/2Mo steel 10CrMo910 400 - 450
SA213T11/P11
4. 21/4 Cr.. 1Mo steel 13Cr Mo44 475 - 500
SA213t22/P22
5. Mn-Mo steel SA302 Gr B 350 - 400
 COMPARITIVE CHART

Material U.T.S. Y.S. %EL

(PSI) (PSI)
SA 515 Gr 70 70,000 38,000 21
plate (min) (min) (min)
E-7018 72,000 60,000 22
electrodes (min) (min) (min)
E-6013 67,000 55,000 17
electrodes (min) (min) (min)
BS-3059 46,000 28,300 25
P-f tubes (min) (min) (min)
 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING
(GTAW)
• Advantages
– High quality welds in all metals & alloy
– Very little cleaning
– No spatter
– Can be used in any position & on small Dia. Tubes etc.
– No slag entrapment
• Limitations
– Very low productivity
– Higher initial cost
 CARBON STEEL SOLID
ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATION
ER - 70S-2
Electrode or Rod

Tensile KSI

Solid Shield Gases

Chemical composition & Shielding gas 2. CO2 A-O. A-CO2

3. CO2 A-O. A-CO2
4. CO2
5. CO2
6. CO2 A-O.
7. CO2 A-O. A-CO2
 LOW ALLOY ELECTRODE
CLASSIFICATION
ER - 80S-D2
Electrode or Rod

Tensile strength in KSI

Solid

Chemical compositions
 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
(SAW)
• Advantages
– High quality of weld metal
– High deposition rate & speed
– Smooth uniform finished weld with no spatter
– Little or no smoke & No arc flash
– High utilisation of wire (100%)
– Manipulative skill not involved
– Can be easily Automated
• Limitations
– Welding position
– Material type which can be welded
– High initial cost
 CARBON SEEL WIRE FLUX
CLASSIFICATION
F7 - P2-EH-14
Flux
70,000 psi tensile strength
Post weld heat treated
Impact at -29oC
Electrode
High manganese

O.14% C
 GAS METAL ARC WELDING
(GMAW)
• Advantages
– Higher deposition compare to SMAW
– Higher operation factor
– Higher utilisation of filler metal (92%)
– Elimination of slag & flux removal
– Can be automated
– Lesser skill than SMAW
• Limitations
– Inability to reach remote areas
– with gun
– High cost of equipment compared to SMAW
– Unsuitable for field work.
 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING
(FCAW)
• Advantages
– High quality weld metal deposits.
– Excellent weld appearance
– Welds a variety of steel over wide thk. Range
– Easily mechanised
– Higher operator factor
– Relatively high electrode utilisation (82%)
– Relatively high travel speeds
– visible arc-easy to use
– High deposition rate
– Reduced distortion over SMAW
 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING
(FCAW)
• Limitations
– Process restricted to limited materials
– Produces slag which must be removed
– Electrode more expensive compared to bare wire
– Equipment more expensive than SMAW
– Cannot be used in windy atmosphere
 CARBON STEEL (Tubular)
ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATION
E - 70T-1
Electrode

Tensile strength in KSI

Tubular 1.2 CO2

Type gas 3, 4, 6, 8 None

5. CO2
7. None
G Miscellaneous
 CARBON EQUIVALENT
Any steel’s weld-ability, pre-heating condition, its cold cracking
tendency can be found out by using Carbon Equivalent formula :

For plain carbon steel Preheating Temperature

CE% = %C + %Mn + %Si

---------------- CE < 0.45% - optional
4 CE > 0.45% or <0.60% -200o to400oF
For alloy steel CE > 0.60% - 400oF

CE% = %C + %Mn %Ni + %Mo

------- + ------- ------- + %Cr
------- + %Cu
-------
6 15 4 4 13
For low alloy steel

CE% = %C + %Mn
------- + %Cu + %Ni + %Cr
---------------- + %V + %Mo
-------------------------
6 15 5
 PREHEAT
• Preheating is the application of heat to base metal
just before welding or cutting.
• Temperature differential occurs between heat source
and cool base metal. This causes differential thermal
expansion and contraction, high stresses, hardened
area.
• By reducing temp. difference the problem of
cracking, hardness, stresses, distortion can be
minimized.
• Preheating will reduce temp. differential
• Preheating temp. depends on type of material,
thickness, joint design, welding process
 INTERPASS, POSTHEAT
• Interpass temp. is the temp. before next pass is started.

• Minimum interpass temp. will be same as preheat temp.

• Maximum interpass temp. is the temp which shall not exceed

while welding

• Post heating is the temp. to which job shall be heated

immediately after welding and maintained for allowing the
hydrogen gas to escape.
• Gas torches, gas burners, resistance heaters, low frequency
induction heating, temporary furnace
 PREHEAT AND INTERPASS TEMP.IN oC
Sr.. Material Preheat Interpass

1. Carbon Steel
(P1)(SA516Gr70, SA106GrB)
T ≤ 25 10 } 250
25 < T ≤ 75 100 }
T > 75 150 }
2. Carbon - 1/2 MO 100 250
SA209T1, 15Mo3
3. 1Cr-1/2 Mo 125 350
SA213T11/P11,13CrMo44
4. 2 1/4 Cr.. - 1 Mo 150 350
SA 213T 22/P22,10 Cr.. Mo9100
5. SA302 Gr B (Mn-Mo)
T ≤ 25 100 } 350
25 ≤ T ≤ 50 150 }
T > 50 200 }
6. Austenatic Stainless steel 10 175
SA240 TP304,316,321,347
PREHEAT AND INTERPASS TEMP.IN oC

• NOTE
– All forged fittings e.g. elbows shall be preheated to 100oC
min irrespective of thickness

– For 21/4 Cr.. - 1 Mo steel post weld heat @ 200 - 250oC for
30 minutes (min) shall be done after completion of weld

– For SA302 Gr B post weld heating @ 200o - 250oC for 1

hour (min) shall be done after completion and between
intermediate stoppage of welding
POST-WELD HEAT TREATMENT
Types

• Stress relieving

• Normalizing
 POST-WELD HEAT TREATMENT
• Stress Relieving done below critical temp. Reasons are
– to reduce residual stresses inherent in welding
– To improve corrosion resistance
– To improve dimensional stability during machining
– To improve service life of weldment subjected to impact
load and fatigue loading

• Normalizing
– Job is heated above critical temp. and part is allowed to cool
in air.
– Provides structure with greater strength and less ductility
than annealing
 HEAT TREATMENT AS PER IBR-1950
SR. Type of Material Weld joint thk Soaking temp.
Dept.of weld recess in Deg. C
1. Carbon Steel with C > 0.25% Any thickness 600 ±20
(SA516 Gr. 70)
2. Carbon steel with C < 0.25% T > 20 600 ±20
3. Carbon - 1/2 MO 15Mo3, Ø > 127mm 640 ±20
SA209 T1 T > 13mm
4. 1 Cr... 1/2 Mo. (Note 1) Ø > 127mm
SA213T11/P11, 13Cr Mo44 T > 13mm 650 ±20
5. 21/4 Cr.../Mo Ø > 102mm
SA213T22/P22, 10CrMo910 T > 8mm 690 ±20
Note - 2
6. SA302 Gr. B(Mn-Mo) Any thickness 640 ±20
Note-1 Provided preheating is done to 125°C
Note-2 Provided preheating is done to 150° C
Carbon ≤ 0.15%
Chromium ≤ 4%
 HEAT TREATMENT AS PER IBR-1950
•Loading temperature : 300o C or below
•Rate of heating : 200o C / inch thickness (200 o C /hr Max)
•Soaking temperature : As mentioned in above chart
•Soaking time : 2.5 minutes per mm thickness but min.
30 minutes for Carbon steel & 60 Minutes for
C-0.5Mo,1 Cr.. 0.5 Mo and 2.25 Cr... 1 Mo. steels
Cooling rate : 250o C/ inch thickness but max.250o C/hr
Cooling in furnace : upto 300o C

REMARKS
Wherever combination of material comes and when material of higher
alloy does not call for stress relieving, Soaking temperature shall be of
lower grade of steel.
e.g. Headers carbon steel and stubs are 1 Cr... 1/2 Mo. 21/4 Cr... 1Mo
soaking temperature shall be 620o C ±20o C
For 1 Cr.....- 0.5 Mo & 2.25 Cr...- 1 Mo bends SR for 2 hours minimum
shall be done to reduce hardness
 COMMON CAUSES & REMEDIES
OF SLAG INCLUSIONS
Causes Remedies

5. Oxide inclusions. Provide proper gas shielding.

6. Slag flooding ahead of the Reposition work to prevent
welding arc. loss of slag control.
7. Proper electrode Change electrode or flux to
manipulative technique. improve slag control.
8. Entrapped pieces of Use undamaged electrode.
electrode covering
 COMMON CAUSES & REMEDIES
OF SLAG INCLUSIONS

Causes Remedies

1. Failure to remove slag Clean surface & previous

weld bead
2. Entrapment of refractory Power wire brush the previous
oxides. weld bead.
3. Tungsten in the weld metal. Avoid contact between the
electrode & the work; use
larger electrode.
4. Improper joint design. Increase groove angle of joint.
 COMMON CAUSES & REMEDIES
OF POROSITY
Causes Remedies

1. Excessive hydrogen, Use low-hydrogen welding

nitrogen or oxygen in process; filler metals high in
welding atmosphere deoxidizers; increase shielding
gas flow.
2. High solidification rate Use preheat or increase heat
input.
3. Dirty base metal Clean joint faces & adjacent
surfaces.
 COMMON CAUSES & REMEDIES
OF POROSITY
Causes Remedies

4. Dirty filler wire Use specially cleaned &

packaged filler wire, & store
it in clean area.
5. Improper arc length, Change welding conditions
welding current or electrode & techniques.
manipulation.
6. Excessive moisture in Use recommended procedures
electrode covering or on for baking & storing electrodes.
joint surfaces. preheat the base metal.
 COMMON CAUSES & REMEDIES
OF INCOMPLETE FUSION
Causes Remedies
1. Insufficient heat input, Follow correct welding
wrong type or size of procedure specification.
electrode, improper joint
design, or inadequate gas
shielding.
2. Incorrect electrode position. Maintain proper electrode
position.
3. Weld metal running ahead Reposition work, lower current
of the arc. or increase weld travel speed.
4. Trapped oxides or on weld Clean weld surface prior to
groove or weld face. welding.
 COMMON CAUSES & REMEDIES
OF INADEQUATE JOINT PENETRATION
Causes Remedies

1. Excessively thick root face Use proper joint geometry.

or insufficient root opening.
2. Insufficient heat input. Follow welding procedure.
3. Slag flooding ahead of Adjust electrode or work
welding arc. position.
4. Electrode diameter too large. Use small electrode in root or
Increase root opening.
 COMMON CAUSES & REMEDIES
OF INADEQUATE JOINT PENETRATION
Causes Remedies

5. Misalignment of second Improve visibility or

side weld. backgouge.
6. Failure to backgouge when Backgouge to sound metal if
specified. required in welding procedure
specification.
7. Bridging of root opening. Use wider root opening or
smaller electrode in root pass.
 COMMON CAUSES & REMEDIES
OF CRACKING
( Weld metal cracking )
Causes Remedies

1. Highly rigid joint Preheat. Reduces residual

stresses mechanically.
Minimise shrinkage stresses
using backstep or block
welding sequence.
2. Excessive dilution. Change welding current &
travel speed.Weld with covered
electrode negative; butter the
joint faces prior to welding.
 COMMON CAUSES & REMEDIES
OF CRACKING
( Weld metal cracking )
Causes Remedies

3. Defective electrodes. Change to new electrode; bake

electrodes to remove moisture.
4. Poor fit-up. Reduce root opening; build up
the edges with weld metal.
5. Small weld bead. Increase electrode size; raise
welding current; reduce travel
speed.
6. High sulphur base metal. Use filler metal low in sulphur.
 COMMON CAUSES & REMEDIES
OF CRACKING
( Weld metal cracking )
Causes Remedies

7. Angular distortion. Change to balanced welding

on both sides of joint.
8. Crater cracking Fill crater before extinguishing
the arc; use a welding current
decay device when terminating
the weld bead.
 COMMON CAUSES & REMEDIES
OF CRACKING
( Heat-affected zone )
Causes Remedies

1. Hydrogen in welding Use low-hydrogen welding

atmosphere. process; preheat & hold for
2H after welding or postweld
heat treat immediately.
2. Hot cracking. Use low heat input; deposit
thin layers; change base
metal.
3. Low ductility. Use preheat; anneal the base
metal.
 COMMON CAUSES & REMEDIES
OF CRACKING
( Heat-affected zone )
Causes Remedies

4. High residual stresses. Redesign the weldment;

change welding sequence;
apply intermediate stress-relief
heat treatment.
5. High hardenability. Preheat; increase heat input;
heat treat without cooling to
room temperature.
6. Brittle phases in the Solution heat treat prior to
microstructure. welding.
 DONT’S & DO’S
Don'ts Do’s

1. Repair W/O approved Repair with approved

procedure. Procedure.
2. Removal of temp. support Gas cut W/O affecting parent
by hammering material. & hammer lightly.
3. Gas cutting of pipes & Use trimmers.
tubes after welding with
pressure parts.
4. Inner cone of gas cutting Avoid this while heating.
flame comes in contact
with parent material.
 DONT’S & DO’S
Don'ts Do’s

5. Welding of attachments / Use identified & certified

other parts to pressure parts material.
without their parantage
known.
6. Are striking on the job. Use a scarp plate for striking
arc prior to welding.
 WELDING PRODUCTIVITY

• Welding process
• Welding position
• Arcing efficiency
• Deposition rate
• Rework
• welding economy
 ARCING EFFICIENCY

Process Efficiency Welding Efficiency

in % position in %

Manual 30 Flat 100

Semiautomatic 50 Vertical/
Horizontal 75
Machine 70
Overhead 50
Automatic 90
 DEPOSITION RATES
Process Dai. Of electrode Decomposition rate
or filler wire in mm. In Kg/Hr
SMAW 2.5
3.15
0.8 - 2.5
4.0
5.0
FCAW 1.2 3.5
1.6 5
GMAW 0.8 1
1.2 4
1.6 5.5
SAW 2.5 4
3.15 6
4.0 8
 A
CSA = (T-RF)2 TAN(A/2) + RO *T

T RF
RO
AO
TMM 40 50 60 70 80

Wt.of weld 20 2.15 2.53 2.94 3.39 3.9

Deposit 40 6.14 7.55 9.08 10.77 12.68
KG/MTR 60 12.46 15.56 18.91 22.63 26.83
CSA = 1/2 (S)2
AREA = 1/2 x 6 x 6 = 18 mm2
8 = 1/2 x 8 x 8 = 32mm2
6

6 INCREASE OF FILLET SIZE BY 2MM

HAS INCREASED THE WELD DEPOSIT 1.77 TIMES
8
CHECKLIST : ECONOMICAL WELDS

A) DESIGN ASPECTS

• Eliminate weld joints whenever possible

• Reduce the cross sectional area of welds

• Utilize fillet weld with caution.

• Give attention towards intermittent fillet welds.

• Provide easy accessibility for all welds.

• Select weldable material

CHECKLIST : ECONOMICAL WELDS

A) DESIGN ASPECTS
• Use weld symbols with size, notations for all welds.

• Give joint identification nos.

• Avoid design that requires machining for weld preparation.

• The size of the weld should always be design with respect to

the size of the thinner member.

• Instead of simple fillet use groove & fillet for higher thickness'.

• Be conversant with the fabrication facilities available &

their limitations.
 GOOD ENGINEERING PRACTICES
( Supervisors )
1. Use calibrated measuring instruments / gauges / templates /
welding machines / ovens.
2. Use qualified welding procedures / welders.
3. Carry out all NDT with qualified personnel.
4. Emphasise control on electrode issue.
5. Keep all material, especially pressure parts, under covered area.
6. Store consumable in an orderly way - size / type wise
7. Have designated storage of different metals like CS, AS, SS etc.
8. Ensure that fitters / welders & stamp them next to the joints
welder by each welder.
9. Allot numbers to welders & stamp them next to the joints
welder by each welder.
10. Make effective use of QA plans, checklists etc.
 GOOD ENGINEERING PRACTICES
( Fitters )
1. Use calibrated measuring instruments / gauges / templates.
2. Use qualified welding procedures / welders / latest drawings.
3. Carry out penetrant test with lint free linen (If you are trained).
4. Clean all weld joints / boiler surface prior to hydro test.
5. Always mount two pressure gauges - one at topmost point &
the other at inlet - & isolate the unit while under pressure.
6. Use value & syphon arrangement for hydro tests.
7. Ensure through air venting.
8. Ensure all pads / other attachments have “ tell- tale ”/ air
releasing holes before they are set-up.
9. Grind heat affected zone (has) after gas cutting, especially in
alloy steels.
 GOOD ENGINEERING PRACTICES
( Welders )
1. Use calibrated measuring templates / welding machines / ovens.
2. Use approved welding procedures.
3. Weld in position for which you are qualified.
4. Clean all weld joints and 1inch portion on either side of the
joint prior to welding, both inside and outside.
5. Use proper earthing clamps & use insulated cables only.
6. Carry electrodes through portable ovens only.
7. Use thermal chalks for pre / post heating.
8. Back chip to sound metal for all accessible full penetration welds
prior second side welding.
9. Avoid arc strikes totally - infact they are prohibited.
10. Clean the welds on completion of every run.
11. Carry out visual inspection for surface defects / flaw on
completion of welding.
 Training on

Non Destructive
& Destructive Testing
(Equivalent to module S1 )
COMMONLY USED NDT METHODS FOR
WELDMENTS
• Visual inspection (VT)(With or without optical aids)

• Liquid penetrant (PT)

• Magnetic particle (MT)

• Radiography (RT)

• Ultrasonic (UT)
 ULTRASONIC
• Equipment needs
– Pulse-echo equipment, different types of probes,
calibration blocks, couplant.
• Applications
– Most weld discontinuities slag, porosity crack, L/F, L/P,
laminations, thickness
• Advantages
– Portable, most sensitive, immediate results. High
penetration power. Direct location of defects.
• Limitations
– Surface conditions for couplant, couplant small
thickness difficult. In most cases no permanent record,
relatively skilled operator
 MAGNETIC PARTICLE
• Equipment needs
– Prods, Yokes, coils, test pieces, electrical power,
magnetic powder, ultraviolet lamp
• Applications
– Discontinuities open to surface and some subsurface.
Most suitable for cracks.
• Advantages
– Relatively economical, expedient, portable indications
may be preserved on transparent papers / tape
• Limitations
– Only for Ferro-magnetic materials. Thick coating may
mask flaws. Some parts require complete
demagnetization.
 LIQUID PENETRANT
• Equipment needs
– Fluorescent or dyepenetrant, developers, cleaner.
Ultraviolet lamp for fluorescent dye
• Applications
– Weld discontinuities open to surface i.e. cracks, porosity,
seams
• Advantages
– Used on all non porous materials, portable inexpensive,
immediate results. No electrical power
• Limitations
– Parts must be cleaned before and after inspection. Not
applicable for porous material
 DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
• WHY DESTRUCTIVE TESTING FOR WELDMENT ?

• To understand specific properties such as chemical, mechanical

and metallurgical.

• To supplement, confirm or establish the limits of NDT and to

provide supporting information.

• For procedure qualification, welders / welding operators’

qualification and for production quality control
TYPES OF DESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS

• Chemical analysis
– To determine chemical composition of solid welding
wires, deposited weld metal and base metal to verify
codes requirement
• Mechanical testing
– Tension testing
a)Transverse - to determine whether fracture occurs in
base metal, heat affected zone or weld
b)All weld metal - to determine both soundness and
ductility of weld
 TYPES OF DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING METHODS (Contd...)
• Bend testing
– To determine both soundness and ductility of weld
• Transverse root
• Transverse face
• Side bend
• Impact testing
– To determine notch toughness of weld metal at
various temperatures
• Charpy V notch - simply supported, average value
• IZOD - cantilever
 TYPES OF DESTRUCTIVE
TESTING METHODS (Contd...)
• Hardness testing
– These are commonly used to measure
effect of processing on metals / welds and
for quality control in production
• Brinell hardness
• Rockwell hardness
• Vickers hardness
 HARDNESS
• Brinell Hardness
– Impressing hardened ball on test surface by using a specific
load for definite time. Then dimension of indentation is
measured and with the help of table, value is obtained. Load for
steel - 300 kgs and for softer metal 500 / 1500 kg.
• Rockwell Hardness
– Impressing hardened ball or diamond on test surface. Depth of
penetration is measured and directly hardness value come on
dia. Minor load - 10 kg. Ball dia 1/8” or 1/16”
• Vickers Hardness
– A laboratory tool to measure hardness of various metallurgical
different areas on a cross section of weld joint. Diamond cone.
Load depends on material hardness
 METALLOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION

These tests are carried out to determine

• Soundness of joint
• Distribution of non-metallic inclusions in the joint
• The no. of passes in weld
• The metallurgical structure in weld metal and HAZ.
• The extent of HAZ
• Location and depth of joint penetration
– Macroscopic examination
– Microscopic examination