GLOSSARY SEMANTICS

MADE BY GROUP 11

Cao Thi Minh Anh _20176366

Le Duy Khanh_ 20176416

Nguyen Thi Tuyen_ 20176491

Index
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Unit Page
Unit 1: About semantics 3
Unit 2: Sentences, Utterances, and Propositions 3
Unit 3: Reference and Sense 5
Unit 4: Referring Expression 6
Unit 5: Predicates 8
Unit 6: Predicates, Referring Expressions and Universe of discourse 9
Unit 7: Deixis and Definiteness 8
Unit 8: Words and things: Extensions and Prototypes 10
Unit 9: Sense properties and Stereotypes 12
Unit 10: Sense Reaction (1) 13
Unit 11: Sense Relation (2) 16

Unit 1: About semantics

SEMANTICS SEMANTICS is the study of Example: A child could be

MEANING in LANGUAGE.
called a child, kid, boy, girl,

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 Semantics deal with the son, daughter.
meaning of words and
A toy block could be called a
sentences
block, a cube, a toy.
SENTENCE MEANING SENTENCE MEANING (or Example: The bag is heavy- It
WORD MEANING) is what a means that a bag being heavy
sentence (or word) means, i.e.
what it counts as the
equivalent of in the language
concerned.

It is the literal meaning of a

sentence

SPEAKER MEANING SPEAKER MEANING is Example: The bag is heavy –

what a speaker means (i.e. an indirect, polite request,
intends to convey) when he asking for help
uses a piece of language.

It is what speaker intends to

coney when they said
something. Same sentence can
have different meaning base
on speaker intention

THEORY A THEORY is a precisely Example: “When the sun is

specified, coherent, and out, it tends to make it bright
economical frame-work of outside.”
interdependent statements and
definitions, constructed so that Heliocentric theory: The
as large a number as possible model in which the Earth and
of particular basic facts can planets revolve around the Sun
either be seen to follow from it at the center of the Solar
or be describable in terms of System. 
it.

It is a set of explanation or
principles that have been
proved or tested repeatedly

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 Unit 2: Sentences, utterances, and propositions

PROPOSITION

SENTENCE SENTENCE SENTENCE

UTTERANC UTTERANC UTTERANC UTTERANC UTTERANC UTTERANC

E E E E E E

Term Definition Example

Utterance - An UTTERANCES: is any stretch of Example: “Not much”

talk, by one person, before and after
which is silence on the part of that
person.

Sentence - A sentence is neither a physical event Example: The steeples have been
not a physical object. It is conceived struck by lightning.
abstractly, a string of words put together
by the grammatical rules of a language.
It can be thought of as the IDEAL,
string of words behind various
realizations in utterance and inscription.

Proposition - A proposition is the part of the Example:

meaning of the utterance of a declarative
sentence which describes some state of Harry took out the garbage (1)
affairs Harry took the garbage out (2)

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  same proposition

Distinguish between utterance, sentence and proposition

Utterance Sentence Proposition

Can be loud or quiet + - -

Can be grammatical or not + - -

Can be true or false + + +

In a particular regional accent + - -

In a particular language + + -

Unit 3: Reference and sense

Term Definition Example

Reference - By means of reference, a speaker indicates My sister is in the classroom.

which things in the world (including persons)
are being talked about.

 Deal with the relationships between Identifies identifies

language and the world person thing

2. Sense - The sense of an expression is its place in a

system of semantic relationship with other
expressions in the language.

 Deal with relationships inside the

language

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The relationship between reference and sense

Reference Sense
The referent of an expression is often a thing or a The sense of an expression is not a thing at all
person in the world
It is difficult to say what sort of entity the sense of an expression is. It is useful to think of sense as that
part of the meaning of an expression that is leftover when reference is factored out.
It is easier to say whether or not two expressions have the same sense.

 Rule: Every expression that has meaning has sense

not every expression has reference

The relationship between

Sense and Proposition  direct  similarity

Reference and utterance  not so direct similarity

- Both referring and uttering are acts performed by particular speakers on particular occasions.

- Most utterances contain one or more acts of referring.

- An act of referring is the picking out of a particular referent b a speaker in the course of a particular
utterance

Unit 4: Referring Experssion

Term Definition Example

Referring A referring expression is any Example:

Expession expression used in an utterance to
refer to something or someone (or a (1) “Fred hit me”
clearly delimited collection of things (2) There’s no Fred at this address”
or people), i.e. used with a particular
referent in mind. In utterance 1, the speaker has a particular
person in mind when he says “Fred” – is a
referring expression.

In utterance 2, it is not a referring expression

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 because a speaker would not have a particular
person in mind in uttering the word.

Opaque Context An Opaque Context is a part of a Example:

sentence which could be made into a
complete sentence by the addition of Jack, an English boy, has just come to Viet
the referring expression, but where Nam. Lan tells him: “Chi Pheo lives in Vu Dai
the addition of different referring Village”.
expression, even though they refer to She also tells: “Ba Kien hates Thi No’s lover”.
the same thing or person, in a given
situation, will yield sentences with  Jack thinks that Chi Pheo and Thi No’s
DIFFERENT meanings when lover are two different people.
uttered in a given situation
 This is an opaque context in which Jack
thinks that Chi Pheo is not Thi No’s
lover or these two referents are
different.

Equative An equative sentence is one which is Example

Sentence used to assert the identity of the
referents of two referring (1) That woman over there is my daughter’s
expressions, i.e. to assert that 2 teacher.
referring expressions have the same (2) Quang Trung is Nguyen Hue
referent.
 the two referring expressions can replace
each other

Unit 5: Predicates

Predicator Predicate Degree

1. Definition: The predicator is 1. Definition: A predicate of a 1. Definition: Degree of

words which does not belong to any sentence is word or group of predicate is a number
referring expression and which of words that tell us something about indicating the number of
the reminder make the most specific subject arguments it is normally
contribution of the meaning of the understood to have in simple
sentence. Ex: A pretty,cute girl sits in the sentences
chair.

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Ex: Jennie is dancing => predicator => Predicate: a pretty, cute girl Ex: Jennie sings
and chair
A one- place predicate

Jennie sings in the concert

A two-place predicate

2.Predicator can be all of part of 2. Predicate can be predicator in 2. Types

speech other sentence.
 A verb is a two-place
Except Conjunction Ex: a pretty, cute girl sits in the predicate, a few three-
chair place predicate
Articles  The majority of
=> She is pretty adjectives are one-place
To be predicates
She is cute  Most nouns are one-
place predicate. But a
She is a girl few nouns is inherently
relational
This is a chair

3. The semantic analysis of simple

declarative sentence reveals two
major semantic

roles Predicator

Arguments, played by referring

expession

Ex: Jennie is a singer

Argument Predicator

Unit 6: Predictes, Referring Expression, and Universe of discourse

GENERIC A GENERIC SENTENCE is a sentence in which Example: Cat is camivor

SENTENCE some statement regarding to a large group of animal
individual in general, but not a specific particular
individual . Ladies like flowers

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 Superheroes have
superpowers

UNIVERSE OF - It is any utterance as the Eg: the sun revolves

DISCOURSE particular world, real or imaginary (or part real, around earth, the universe
part imaginary), that the of discourse is, the REAL
speaker assumes he is talking about at the time. world (or universe).

- There is no totally fictitious world in universe of Tony Stark is a fictional

discourse character in the marvel
universe (fiction world).
- There is an interaction between real and In this picture he is
imagination world driving an Audi R8,
which actually exist (real
world)

Unit 7: Deixis and Definiteness

Deictic Context Definiteness

1. Definition: a deictic word is 1. Definition: Facts about time 1. Definition: definiteness is a

one which takes some and place very distant from feature of a noun phrases
elements of its meaning from the time and place of utterance selected by speaker to convey
the context or situation ( the itself can be part of the context his assumption that the hearer
speaker, the addressee, the of that utterance, if the topic will be able to indentify the
time and the place) of the of conversationhappens to be referent of the noun phrase.
utterance in which it is used about these distant time and
place Ex: I was in the kitchen when
Ex: When Jennie says “ I like the phone (= the phone in my
singing” house) rang .

 “I” refering to Jennie is  The phone is definite

a deictic word
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2. Some types of deixis 2. Relating to the notion of 2. Three main types of
the context to the notion of definite noun phrase
 Personal deixis: I, you, definiteness
he,...  Proper name: John.
 Demonstatives : this, Rule: If some entity is the only Jennie, Lisa, Rose,...
that, these, those entity of its kind in the context  Personal name: he,
 Spacial deixis: here, of an utterance, then definite she, I, you,...
there  Phrase introduced by
article( the) is the appropriate
 Temporal deixis: a definite determiner:
yesterday, today, article to use in referring to
this, that, these, those,
tomorrow,... that entity. the, my, his,...
Note:+ Some verbs can have
deictic ingredient: go, take,
come, bring,...

3.Tense 3.The appropriateness of the 3. It follows from definition

definite article is dependent of definiteness all definite
Tenses are also regarded as on the context in which it is noun phrase are referring
deictic used expression

However not every noun

phrase using the so-called
“definite article” the is
necessarily semantically
difinite

Ex: The whale is a mammal

4.In report speech 4. Contexts are constructed 4. Difinite contributes to

continuously during the truth of a sentence
Deictic words in original course of a conversation
utterance have to be changed
to preserve the original
reference

Ex: John said “ I won lottery

yesterday”

 John said he had won

lottery the day before.

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 Unit 8: Words and things: Extensions and Prototypes

EXTENSION Extension is the set of all individuals to which that Example: the extension
predicate can be applied. It is the set of things of house is the set of all
which can POTENTIALLY be referred to by using houses
an expression whose main element is that
predicate. The extension of rabbits
is the set of all rabbits in
Extension is the set of things which it denotes the universe

Comparison of Sense Extension Reference

sense,
Involves a - + -
extension and
set
reference
Independent + + -
of particular
occasions
or utterance

Connects - + +
language to
the world

Fuzziness The undecidability of extensions.This is a basic Example: a red ball in

flaw in the essential idea of extensions fuzzy set term would be
assgined by a value
Fuzziness occurs when boundary of a piece of show it degree of
information is not clear. redness

the extension
of chicken is not a clear
set

PROTOTYPE A PROTOTYPE of a predicate is an object which Example: Door- a door

is held to be very TYPICAL of the kind of object swinging on hinges
which can be referred to by an expression
containing the predicate. a man of medium height
and average build,
It is the typical object or referent of the whole set between 30 and 50 years
or the extension of a predicate old, could be a prototype
of the predicate man

Denotation Denotation describes a concise dictionary Example: A number

definition of a word, without taking into account equivalent to the sum of
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 any current slang or connotations it may have. six and seven; one more
than 12; 7 less than 20

Unit 9: Sense properties and stereotypes

  Contradiction Analytic Sentence Synthetic Sentence

Definition Is a sentence which is faIs a sentence which is true, speaker’s ta Is a sentence which may
lse, opposite of analytic cit, agreement about the sense of word i be either true or false  
al sentences  n it.   
Example  Cat is dog  BlackPink is a girlgroup  Female is married 
 

  Neccessary condition Sufficient set of condition
Definition  Is a condition which must  have as being  Is a set of condition which is enough to get 
correctly decribed by predicate  the listener to imagine the predicate 
Example :  city   Hoan Kiem lake,
Hanoi  Long Bien bridge, shopping mall 

  Extensition   Prototype  Stereotype 

Definition   Is the complete set of aIs a typical members of it A List of typical characteristics 
ll things which could p s extension  and features of things to which 
otentially be the predicate may be applied 
the referent of a referri
ng expression whose h
ead constituent is that 
predicate
Thing (or set of thin             +          +  _ 
gs) specificed) 
Abstract specificatio -  -   + 
n  
Pertaining to all exa +  -  - 
mples 
Pertaining to typical  -  +  + 
of examples 
Examples   The extension of tree i   Rice  An annual grass of the Gramine
s set of all kinds of tre   ae family. It grows to about 1.2 
es in the universe  metres (4 feet) in height.
The leaves are long and flattene
d, and its panicle, or inflorescen
ce, is made up of spikelets beari
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 ng flowers that produce the frui
t, or grain. 

Unit 10: Sense ralation (1)

SENSE RELATIONS INDENTITY AND SIMILARITY OF SENSE

Synonymy Hyponymy

1. Definition: Synonymy is a relationship of “ 1. Definition: Hyponymy is relationships of

sameness of meaning” that may hold between meaning of one form that is included in the
two predicates meaning of another.

=> Require identity of sense=> strict

definition=> very few examples

Ex: wide and broad is synonymy

2. Synonymy vs Sense: interdependent Hyponymy Extension

When dealing with sense relations: Hyponymy is a sense Extension ≠ Intension

relation
 Stick to clear cases => delibarately
 Abtract away from any stylistic, socisl Sense=Intention chosen for its implicits
or dialectal associations the word may contrasts
have => a term preferred
 Concentrate on what has been called by logicians

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 the cognitive or conceptual meaning of + Hyponymy is defined in terms of the
a word incusion of the sense of one item in the sense
of another.

3. Synonymy is relationship between 3. Hyponymy vs Synonymy

predicates, and not between words
 We define hyponymy in such a way
that synonymy counts as a special case
of hyponymy.

X is a hyponymy of Y


Y is a hyponymy of X

 X & Y is synonymous

4. The sense of a word does not depend

entirely on its part of speech

Paraphrase Entailment

1. Definition: Paraphrase is a sentence which 1. Definition : a sentence expressing

expresses the same proposition as another proposition X entails a sentence expressing
sentence proposition Y if the truth of Y follows
necessarily from the truth of X
Ex: Jame is the parent of John
Ex: I saw a boy entails I saw a person.
John is the child of Jame

2. Two sentences maybe said tobe paraphrases 2. Entailment: + applies cumulatively

of each other if and only if they have exactly

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the same set of entaiments; or, which comes to + is a transitive relation
the same thing, if and only if they mutually
entail each other so that whenever one is tru X entails Y
the other must also be true. If X entails Z
Ex: John and Mary are twins entails Mary and Y entails Z
John are twins
Ex: A boy eats ice cream entails Someone eats
Mary and John are twins entails John and ice cream
Mary are twins
Someone eats ice cream entails Someone
=> Mary and John are twins is a paraphrase of eats something
John and Mary are twins.
=> A boy eats ice cream entails Someone eats
something

Summary :

 The relationship between entailment and paraphrase is parallel to the relationship

between hyponymy and synonymy .

 Synonymy is symmetric (i.e two-way) hyponymy.

 Paraphrase is symmetric (i.e two-way) entailment.

Unit 11: Sense relation (2)

BINARY ANTONYMS predicates that come in pairs and Eg:man - woman (along male
exhaust all relevant and female dimension), same
possibilities(there is no possible - diffrent, dead - alive
situation) between them. If the one
predicate applies, then it can not be
the other, and vice versa. It’s entailing
the negative of the other predicate

CONVERSES predicate describes a relationship Eg:give - receive, buy - sell,

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ANTONYMS between two things (or persons) and above - below, speak - listen,
any other predicate describes the lend - borrow (the
same relationship when the two things substitution of one member
(or persons) are listed in the opposite for the other will reverse the
order,then the two predicates are sentence meaning)
converses of each other .

We can call it relational antonym

GRADABLE Two predicates are at opposite ends of Eg: beautiful - ugly, fast -
ANTONYMS a continuous value scale (a scale that slow, long - short, wide -
typically varies depending on the narrow (no more/less relation.
usage context). The word can be the end-
points of continuum)

CONTRADICTORY A sentence contradicts another Eg:This behavior is allowed.

sentence if it entails the negation of
the other sentence. This behavior is not banned

AMBIGUITY A word or sentence is AMBIGUOUS Eg:The chicken is ready to

when there is more than one meaning eat=> is a single ambiguous
in it. sentence

A sentence is ambiguous when it has

two (or more) paraphrases which are
not each other's own paraphrases

HOMONYMY A case of HOMONYMY is one of an Eg:lie( an untrue statement vs

undefined term whose different put oneself in a resting
senses and meaning are distant from position)
each other and clearly not related in
any way to the understanding of a bow( to bend one’s head as a
native speaker two word same greeting vs the device used
form,different meaning for shooting arrows)

POLYSEMY A case of POLYSEMY is one where Example: face (the front of

a word has several very closely the head vs a surface of a
related senses. In other words, a thing)
native speaker of the language has
clear intuitions that the different head ( the object on top of
senses are related to each other in your body vs a person at the
some way.(polysemous word) words top of a company or
have more than one meaning department

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Difference between
polysemy and
homonymy

Relation of polysemy homonymy have relation I saw her duck

polysemy,homonymy with lexical ambiguity
and ambiguity

REFERENTIALLY A phrase is REFERENTIALLY Example: He can be used to

VERSATILE VERSATILE if it can be used to refer refer to any male person. On
to a wide range of different things or a given occasion, it can be
John, Adam, etc., .He can be
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 persons. ambigious because although
it is used to refer to different
she, her, this are not ambiguous about people this is not a matter of a
the meaning used to refer to the difference in sense.
number of people greater than one

Referential vagueness Referential vagueness is not the same Example: some, many, most,
thing as ambiguity.A word with good, stuff (vague word)
multiple meaning may not be
ambiguous, it can be vague “She is really smart” -
General
With a vague word context creates
meanings by providing more details “She got a A in physics” -
Specific
An expression is vague in a context if
there is no unclear boundary between
those things which the term apply and
those to which it does not

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