Alcohol Benefits…….

Is Alcohol a Nutrient?
Alcoholic beverages are food, containing approx. 7 calories per gram of ethanol. Beer
contains small percentages of the recommended daily allowance of vitamins and
significant proportions of the recommended daily allowance of trace metals and
minerals. Wine, while possessing significantly smaller amounts of vitamins and
minerals than beer, has considerably more iron. Both beer and wine have favorable
potassium to sodium ratio.102*

What Is Moderation?

Medical researchers generally describe moderation as one to three drinks per day. It
appears that consuming less than about half a drink per day is associated with only very
small health benefits. Four or five drinks may be moderate for large individuals but
excessive for small or light people. Because of their generally smaller size and other
biological differences, the typical woman should generally consume 25 to 30 percent less
than the average man. 114 And, of course, recovering alcoholics, those with any adverse
reactions to alcohol, and those advised against drinking by their physicians should
abstain.

Drinking in moderation has been described by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse
and Alcoholism (NIAAA) as a man consuming four drinks on any day with an
average of 14 drinks per week. For women, it is consuming three drinks in any
one day and an average of seven drinks per week

A standard drink is:

o A 12-ounce bottle or can of regular beer

o A 5-ounce glass of wine
o A one and 1/2 ounce of 80 proof distilled spirits (either straight or in a
mixed drink)

The alcohol content of a standard drink of beer, dinner wine, or distilled spirits is
equivalent. To a breathalyzer, they are all the same.

The health benefits associated with drinking in moderation are also similar for beer, wine
and spirits. The primary factor associated with health and longevity appears to be the
alcohol itself.

Moderate drinkers tend to have better health and live longer than those who are either
abstainers or heavy drinkers. In addition to having fewer heart attacks and strokes,
moderate consumers of alcoholic beverages (beer, wine and distilled spirits or liquor) are
generally less likely to suffer strokes, diabetes, arthritis, enlarged prostate, dementia
(including Alzheimer’s disease), and several major cancers.

Harvard's Healthy Eating Pyramid, produced by the Harvard Medical School Guide to
Healthy Eating, was co-developed by scientists at the Harvard School of Public Health. It
is based on the best available scientific knowledge and recommends drinking alcohol in
moderation (unless there is a good reason to abstain).116

History about Alcohol consumption:

Alcohol has been used medicinally throughout recorded history; its medicinal properties
are mentioned 191 times in the Old and New Testaments.1 As early as the turn of the
century there was evidence that moderate consumption of alcohol was associated with a
decrease in the risk of heart attack.2 And the evidence of health benefits of moderate
consumption has continued to grow over time.

The health benefits of moderate alcohol consumption have long been known. One of the
earliest scientific studies on the subject was published in the Journal of the American
Medical Association in 1904.3

Reviews of research evidence report a strong, consistent relationship between moderate

alcohol consumption and reduction in cardiovascular disease in general and coronary
artery disease in particular.4 On the basis of its extensive review of research, the National
Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) reported that moderate drinkers
have the greatest longevity. It also found that moderate drinking is beneficial to heart
health, resulting in a sharp decrease in heart disease risk (40%-60%).5 This is important
because cardiovascular disease is the number one cause of death in the United States, and
heart disease kills about one million Americans each and every year.6

The Director of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism wrote that
"Numerous well-designed studies have concluded that moderate drinking is associated
with improved cardiovascular health," and the Nutrition Committee of the American
Heart Association reported that "The lowest mortality occurs in those who consume one
or two drinks per day."7 A World Health Organization Technical Committee on
Cardiovascular Disease asserted that the relationship between moderate alcohol
consumption and reduced death from heart disease could no longer be doubted.8 But the
benefits are not limited, important as they are, to reductions in heart disease.

General Health

Moderate drinkers tend to enjoy better health than do either abstainers or heavy drinkers.

• A nation-wide survey in the U.S. revealed that daily moderate drinkers

experienced significantly less acute hospitalization.31
• A nine year study of indicators of good health found moderate alcohol
consumption to be associated with the most favorable health scores.32
 • A study that examined nearly 10,000 men and women at age 23 and again at age
33 found that the moderate drinkers experience lower levels of poor general
health, long-term illness, and psychological distress when compared to abstainers
and heavy drinkers.33
• A study of nearly 20,000 Spaniards found that moderate consumption of any
alcohol -- beer, wine, or spirits -- was linked to better overall health, compared to
abstinence from alcohol.34
• A nation-wide Canadian study found that moderate drinkers who consumed
alcohol daily had 15% less disability than the general population.35
• A Dutch study found that moderate drinkers under stress were less likely to be
absent from work than were either abstainers or heavy drinkers. The investigators
concluded that "abstinence is at least as unhealthy as excessive drinking."36
• A study of 3,803 individuals age 18 to 101 found that lifelong teetotalers as well
as former drinkers are consistently less healthy than light to moderate drinkers
(those who consume up to 60 drinks per month). The health superiority of light
and moderate drinkers extends to both physical and mental health.37

Hospitals Serve Alcohol

Nearly three-quarters of the teaching hospitals in the United States serve alcoholic
beverages to their patients.38

• A review of the research reports that moderate drinking appears to reduce the risk
of numerous diseases. "These include duodenal ulcer, gallstones, enteric
infections, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoporosis, and diabetes mellitus (type II).
Compared with abstainers, moderate drinker’s exhibit improved mental status
characterized by decreased stress and depression, lower abstenteeism from work,
and decreased dementia (including Alzheimer's disease)."39
• Moderate drinking and exercise appear to slow down the health deterioration that
occurs with aging, according to a study of about 2,500 people aged 65 and older
who were followed regularly for about eight years. Those who drank and
exercised regularly had fewer difficulties with their daily activities and physical
functioning.40

Heart Health

Medical research has demonstrated a strong relationship between moderate alcohol

consumption and reduction in cardiovascular disease in general and coronary artery
disease in particular.41

The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism found that moderate drinking is
beneficial to heart health, resulting in a sharp decrease in heart disease risk (40%-
60%).42 This is important because cardiovascular disease is the number one cause of
death in the United States and heart disease kills about one million Americans each and
every year.43
The Director of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism wrote that
"Numerous well-designed studies have concluded that moderate drinking is associated
with improved cardiovascular health," and the Nutrition Committee of the American
Heart Association reported that "The lowest mortality occurs in those who consume one
or two drinks per day."44 A World Health Organization Technical Committee on
Cardiovascular Disease asserted that the relationship between moderate alcohol
consumption and reduced death from heart disease can no longer be doubted.45

• Researchers studied volunteers in seven European countries and found that people
who have a daily drink of beer, wine or distilled spirits (whiskey, rum, tequila,
etc.) have significantly better arterial elasticity, a strong indicator of heart health
and cardiovascular health, than nondrinkers. Moderate drinkers also had
significantly better pulse rates than those of abstainers from
• A study of 1,795 subjects found that "the risk of extensive coronary calcification
was 50% lower in individuals who consumed one to two alcoholic drinks per day
than in nondrinkers."46
• Research demonstrates that moderate alcohol consumption is associated with
better endothelial function, which contributes to better heart health and lowers
risk of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease.47
• A study of over 3,000 men and women found that those who never drank alcohol
were at a greater risk of having high levels of CRP and IL-6 (excellent predictors
of heart attack) than were those who consumed alcoholic beverages in
moderation.48

Moderate Drinkers are Less Likely to Suffer Coronary Heart Disease and Heart
Attacks (Acute Myocardial Infarctions) than are Abstainers or Heavy
Drinkers.

Coronary heart disease (CHD) seems to have a negative association with regular
moderate alcoholic beverage use. While some report a linear relationship, most studies
agrees that the relationship is U-shaped. Many studies have suggested that this inverse
relationship is due to alcohol's effect of increasing levels of high density lipoprotein
cholesterol (HDL), which acts in the removal of cholesterol from tissue. Other
explanations for moderate alcohol's cardio-protective effect include: associated diet
changes in moderate drinkers, the silicon content in wine and beer, decreased platelet
aggregation and coagulation, and the ability to lessen stress and/or alter personality
patterns associated with CHD risks.

• A National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism review of research studies

from at least 20 countries around the world demonstrate a 20- to 40-percent lower
coronary heart disease (CHD) incidence among drinkers compared to
nondrinkers. It asserts that "The totality of evidence on moderate alcohol and
CHD supports a judgment of a cause-effect relationship... there are
cardioprotective benefits associated with responsible, moderate alcohol intake."49
• Harvard researchers have identified the moderate consumption of alcohol as a
proven way to reduce coronary heart disease risk.50
• A study of 18,455 males from the Physicians Health Study revealed that those
originally consuming one drink per week or less who increased their consumption
up to to six drinks per week had a 29% reduction in CVD risk compared to those
who did not increase their consumption. Men originally consuming 1-6 drinks per
week who increased their consumption moderately had an additional 15%
decrease in CVD risk.51
• The Harvard Health Professionals Follow-Up Study of over 44,000 men found
moderate alcohol consumption to be associated with a 37% reduction in coronary
disease.52
• A British study of women found moderate consumption of alcohol to be
associated with lower levels of cardiovascular risk factors.53
• A study of over 5,000 women with type 2 diabetes mellitus found that coronary
heart disease rates "were significantly lower in women who reported moderate
alcohol intake than in those who reported drinking no alcohol." Women who
drank more than 5 grams (about one-third glass) a day reduced their risk of CHD
(fatal or nonfatal) by more than half.54
• In a study of nearly 88,000 men, researchers found that drinking reduced risk of
coronary heart disease risk among both diabetics and non-diabetics. Weekly
consumption of alcohol reduced CHD risk by one-third (33%) while daily
consumption reduced the risk by over half (58%) among diabetics. For non-
diabetics, weekly consumption reduced CHD risk by 18% while daily
consumption reduced the risk by 39%.55
• Light to moderate consumption of alcohol appears to reduce the risk of coronary
heart disease by as much as 80% among individuals with older-onset diabetes,
according to a study published in the Journal of the American Medical
Association.56
• The Honolulu Heart Study found a 49% reduction in coronary heart disease
among men who drank alcohol in moderation.57
• Harvard researchers concluded about coronary heart disease that "Consumption of
one or two drinks of beer, wine, or liquor per day has corresponded to a reduction
in risk of approximately 20-40%."58
• At a scientific conference, researchers from Korea, Italy, Germany, Poland, the
Netherlands, and the United States reported finding striking reductions in death
among moderate drinkers, with heart disease and total mortality rates about one
half or less compared to non-drinkers.59
• After over 6,000 participants in the Framingham Heart Study were followed for a
period of six to ten years, researchers found that "when consumed in moderation,
alcohol appears to protect against congestive heart failure."60
• The American Heart Association, based on the research evidence, concludes that
the "Consumption of one or two drinks per day is associated with a [CHD]
reduction in risk of approximately 30% to 50%."61
• After reviewing the research, Dr. David Whitten reported that "The studies that
have been done show pretty clearly that the chances of suffering cardiac death are
dramatically reduced by drinking" one or two drinks a day and asserted that "We
don't have any drugs that are as good as alcohol."62
 • Based on the medical evidence, noted investigator Dr. Curtis Ellison asserted that
"abstinence from alcohol is a major risk factor for coronary heart disease."63

The Moderate Consumption of Alcohol Increases the Survivability of Heart Attacks

• Drinking alcohol in moderation throughout the year before a heart attack or acute
myocardial infarction (AMI) has been found to reduce the risk of dying afterward.
Moderate drinkers had the lowest mortality rate, reducing their risk by 32%,
compared to abstainers. The health benefits were virtually identical for beer,
distilled spirits, and wine.64
• Men who consume two to four drinks of alcohol after a heart attack are less likely
to experience a second heart attack than are abstainers, according to a study of
353 male heart attack survivors. Researchers found that men who consumed an
average of two drinks of alcohol per day were 59% less likely than non-drinkers
to have another heart attack. Those who drank an average of four drinks per day
experienced a risk reduction of 52% compared to abstainers.65
• Research at the University of Missouri-Columbia found that drinking alcohol
(beer, wine, or distilled spirits) in moderation reduced the damage to effected
tissue following a heart attack.66
• A study for a five year period of over 85,000 men who had suffered previous
heart attacks found that "moderate alcohol intake was associated with a significant
decrease in total mortality" compared to nondrinkers.67

Alcohol Abstainers Who Begin Drinking Reduce Their Risk of Cardiovascular

Disease

• During a ten year study of 7,697 non-drinkers, investigators found that 6% began
consuming alcohol in moderation. After four years of follow-up, new moderate
drinkers had a 38% lower chance of developing cardiovascular disease than did
those who continued abstaining. Even after adjusting for physical activity, Body
Mass Index (BMI), demographic and cardiac risk factors, this difference
persisted.
• This study is important because it provides additional strong evidence that the
reduced risk of cardiovascular disease among moderate drinkers is a result of the
alcohol itself rather than any differences in lifestyle, genetics, or other factors.68
• A study of men with high blood pressure found that those who averaged one to
six drinks per week has a 39% lower risk of death from cardiovascular causes
than were abstainers. Those who averaged more (one or two drinks each day)
were 44% less likely to experience such death.69

Frequent Drinkers Enjoy Greater Heart-Health Benefits than Those Who Drink
Less Often
 • In a study of nearly 88,000 men, researchers found reductions in coronary heart
disease risk with increasing frequency of drinking alcohol for both diabetics and
non- diabetics. Weekly consumption of alcohol reduced CHD risk by one-third
(33%) while daily consumption reduced the risk by over half (58%) among
diabetics. For non-diabetics, weekly consumption reduced CHD risk by 18%
while daily consumption reduced the risk by 39%.70

Exercising Can't Replace Benefits of Drinking in Moderation

• Researchers at the National Institute of Public Health in Denmark studied about

12,000 men and women over a period of 20 years. The investigators found:

Moderate Drinking vs. Lifestyle

Why drink to reduce the risk of heart disease? Wouldn't eating a good diet,
exercising, and losing weight do the same thing? No, it wouldn't. The moderate
consumption of alcohol appears to be more effective than most other lifestyle
changes that are used to lower the risk of heart and other diseases. For example,
the average person would need to follow a very strict low-fat diet, exercise
vigorously on a regular basis, eliminate salt from the diet, lose a substantial
amount of weight, and probably begin medication in order to lower cholesterol by
30 points or blood pressure by 20 points.

But medical research suggests that alcohol can have a greater impact on heart
disease than even these hard-won reductions in cholesterol levels or blood
pressure. Only cessation of smoking is more effective.

Additionally, other medical research suggests that adding alcohol to a healthful

diet is more effective than just following the diet alone.71

o The lowest risk of fatal heart disease occurred among those who both
drank moderately and exercised. They had a 50% reduced risk compared
to non-drinkers who didn't exercise. (Moderate drinking was defined as
consuming an average of up to two drinks per day for both men and
women. This is twice as high as the US federal recommendation for
women).
o A higher risk was found among (a) those who abstained from alcohol but
exercised and (b) those who drank in moderation but didn't exercise. In
both cases the risk of heart disease dropped about 30% compared to
abstaining non-exercisers.
o The highest risk was found among those who neither drank nor exercised.
Their risk of dying from heart disease was twice as high as those who
drank moderately and exercised.

Moderate drinking and exercise are cumulative in their positive effects on the
cardiovascular system. Doing one is better than nothing, but doing both is the best choice
of all and dramatically reduces the risk death from heart attack. The same is also found
for all-cause mortality.72

How Alcohol Promotes Good Heart Health

The moderate consumption of alcohol promotes good heart health in a number of ways,
including the following:

• Alcohol improves blood lipid profile:73

o It increases HDL ("good") cholesterol.74
o It decreases LDL ("bad") cholesterol.75
o It improves cholesterol (both HDL and LDL) particle size.76
• Alcohol decreases thrombosis (blood clotting)
o It reduces platelet aggregation77
o It reduces fibrinogen (a blood clotter).78
o It increases fibrinolysis (the process by which clots dissolve)79
• Alcohol acts in additional ways:80
o It reduces coronary artery spasm in response to stress
o It increases coronary blood flow.81
o It reduces blood pressure.82
o It reduces blood insulin level.83
o It increases estrogen levels.84

Strokes

• Moderate alcohol consumption has also been linked with beneficial changes
ranging from better sensitivity to insulin to improvements in factors that influence
blood clotting, such as tissue type plasminogen activator, fibrinogen, clotting
factor VII, and von Willebrand factor.90* Such changes would tend to prevent the
formation of small blood clots that can block arteries in the heart, neck, and brain,
the ultimate cause of many heart attacks and the most common kind of stroke.
• A systematic review and meta-analysis of 26 research studies (cohort or case-
control) found that consuming two drinks per day is associated with a reduced
risk of ischemic stroke.85
• The American Stroke Association states that "Studies now show that drinking up
to two alcoholic drinks per day can reduce your risk for stroke by about half."86
• A study of over 22,000 men found that light and moderate alcohol consumption
significantly reduces the overall risk of stroke.87
• A study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association found that
consuming one or two drinks a day can reduce the risk of stroke by about half. It
also found the protective effects of alcohol to occur among white, African-
American, and Hispanic populations and among both men and women. The
investigators concluded that their findings support the National Stroke
Association Stroke Prevention Guidelines regarding the beneficial effects of
moderate alcohol consumption.88
 • Research has found that HDL ("good" cholesterol) is protective against stroke and
that drinking alcohol in moderation is one of the ways that HDL can be
increased.89
• A study published in the American Heart Association's journal found abstainers'
risk of stroke to be double that of moderate drinkers.90
• The American Heart Association also reports that moderate consumption of
alcohol is associated with dramatically decreased risk of stroke among both men
and women, regardless of age or ethnicity.91

Abstainers Have Much Higher Risk of Stroke than Drinkers92

• A study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association found that
consuming one or two drinks a day can reduce the risk of ischemic stroke by
about half. Its findings support the National Stroke Association Stroke Prevention
Guidelines regarding the beneficial effects of moderate alcohol consumption.93
• A study of 944 residents of a Spanish city found that consumption of up to two
alcoholics per day reduced the risk of strokes by 42%.94

Alcohol & Weight

Alcohol contains calories, but drinking alcohol doesn't lead to weight gain according to
extensive medical research, and many studies report a small reduction in weight for
women who drink.

Diabetes

Dry non-sweet wines and diluted distilled spirits have been recommended in the
treatment of diabetes. It has been suggested that alcohol may improve glucose tolerance
and blood glucose response to ingested carbohydrates. Due to reported decreased HDL
values in diabetics, alcohol has been suggested as useful for its HDL-increasing function.

• Researchers examined the results of 15 different studies and found that moderate
drinkers are less likely to have type 2 diabetes than are abstainers. Teetotalers and
heavy drinkers have equally high risk of the disease. The 15 studies were
conducted in the U.S., Japan, Finland, Korea, the Netherlands, Germany and the
UK and followed a total of 369,862 men and women for an average of 12 years.
Moderate drinkers (those who drank between about a half a drink to four drinks
per day) were found to be 30% less likely to develop type 2 diabetes than
abstainers or heavy drinkers. Whether drinkers consume beer, wine or distilled
spirits makes little difference, but the pattern of consumption does. It's much
better to consume frequently (such as daily) rather than infrequently for maximum
health benefits.95
• An analysis of 13 studies found that "The results of these studies are consistent
with regard to moderate alcohol consumption, indicating a protective effect in the
order of 30%." There was no evidence that high consumption of alcohol increased
risk of diabetes.96
• An analysis of 32 studies found that "Compared with no alcohol use, moderate
consumption (one to 3 drinks/d) is associated with a 33% to 56% lower incidence
of diabetes and a 34% to 55% lower incidence of diabetes-related coronary heart
disease."97
• An analysis of 20 cohort studies found that, compared with lifetime abstainers, a
U-shaped pattern exists between alcohol consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes.
The researchers concluded that "Our analysis confirms previous research findings
that moderate alcohol consumption is protective for type 2 diabetes in men and
women." 98
• The American Diabetes Association reports that "In people with diabetes, light-to-
moderate amounts of alcohol are associated with a decreased risk of heart disease,
probably because alcohol raises HDL cholesterol, the so-called 'good
cholesterol.'"99
• An analysis of pairs of twins with different drinking patterns found that those who
consumed alcohol in moderation had half the risk of developing type 2 (adult-
onset) diabetes compared to those who consumed less alcohol. The study involved
nearly 23,000 Finnish twins.100
• A prospective study of 85,051 women found that the risk of diabetes decreased as
the consumption of alcohol increased. Compared with non-drinkers, those who
consumed one-third to one drink per day had a 20% reduction in risk and those
 who consumed over one drink per day had a 40% reduced risk of developing
diabetes.101
• A study of almost 21,000 physicians for over 12 years has found that men who are
light to moderate drinkers have a decreased risk of Type 2 (non-insulin
dependent) diabetes mellitus.102
• A study of 8,663 men over a period of as long as 25 years found that the incidence
of type 2 diabetes was significantly lower among moderate drinkers than among
either abstainers or heavy drinkers. These findings persisted after adjusting for
age, smoking, blood pressure, HDL cholesterol, waist circumference, parental
diabetes, fasting plasma glucose, body mass index (BMI), serum triglyceride
concentration, and cardiorespiratory fitness.103
• Pre-menstrual women who consume a daily drink of beer, wine or distilled spirits
(whiskey, rum, tequila, etc.) have a much lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes
than abstainers, according to a study that duplicates similar findings in men. The
Harvard study involved about 110,000 women age 25 to 42 over a ten-year
period. Dramatic reductions (about 60%) occurred among women who drank
between 1/2 and two drinks daily compared with abstainers. The reduction of risk
was lower for those who drank less.104
• Drinking alcohol (beer, wine, or distilled spirits) in moderation was associated
with a lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes among women age 40-70 in a
large study in the Netherlands that followed them for an average of over six years.
The authors wrote that the "findings support the evidence of a decreased risk of
type 2 diabetes with moderate alcohol consumption and expand this to a
population of older women."105
• Research conducted at the University of Padova Medical School in Italy found
that consuming alcohol directly improved the action of insulin in both healthy
diabetics. Alcohol also improved fatty acid levels.106
• A study of 5,221 men in Britain that followed them for almost 17 years found that
that the risk of developing diabetes was lowest for light and moderate drinkers.107
• And the list of research evidence about the positive effects of moderate drinking
on diabetes continues.108

Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementia

• A study in France found moderate drinkers to have a 75% lower risk for
Alzheimer's Disease and an 80% lower risk for senile dementia.109
• Research on 7,460 women age 65 and older found that those who consumed up to
three drinks per day scored significantly better than non-drinkers on global
cognitive function, including such things as concentration, memory, abstract
reasoning, and language. The investigators adjusted or controlled for such factors
as educational level and income that might affect the results, but the significant
positive relationships remained.110
• Researchers in Australia studied 7,485 people age 20 to 64 years. They found that
moderate drinkers performed better than abstainers on all measures of cognitive
ability. Sex, race, education and extroversion-introversion failed to account for
the findings.111
• Older people who drink in moderation generally suffer less mental decline than do
abstainers, another study finds. Over one thousand persons age 65 and older were
studied over a period of seven years. Overall, light and moderate drinkers
experienced less mental decline than did non-drinkers.112
• Women who consume alcohol (beer, wine or distilled spirits) moderately on a
daily basis are about 20% less likely than abstainers to experience poor memory
and decreased thinking abilities, according to data from 12,480 women age 70 to
81 who participated in the long-term study.113
• A study of about 6,000 people age 65 and older found that moderate drinkers have
a 54% lower chance of developing dementia than abstainers. The type of alcohol
beverage consumed (wine, spirits, or beer) didn't make a difference in the
protective effects of drinking in moderation.114
• A study of 7,983 people aged 55 of age or older in The Netherlands over an
average period of six years found that those who consumed one to three drinks of
alcohol (beer, wine, or distilled spirits) per day had a significantly lower risk of
dementia (including Alzheimer's) than did abstainers.115
• A study of over 400 people at least 75 years old who were followed for a period
of six years found that drinkers were only half as likely to develop dementia
(including Alzheimer's disease) as similarly-aged abstainers from alcohol.
Abstainers were defined as people who consumed less than one drink of alcohol
per week.116
• Moderate drinking among older women can benefit memory according to research
funded by the National Institutes of Health. Moderate drinkers performed better
on instrumental everyday tasks, had stronger memory self-efficacy and improved
memory performance." The performance memory tests include such topics as
remembering a story, route, hidden objects, future intentions and connecting
random numbers and letters. In all cases, the group who drank scored better than
those who did not drink. Women who drank alcohol in moderation (defined as
consuming up to two drinks of beer, wine or spirits per day) also performed better
on attention, concentration, psychomotor skills, verbal-associative capacities and
oral fluency.117
• A study of 1,018 men and women age 65-79 whose physical and mental health
was monitored for an average of 23 years found that "drinking no alcohol, or too
much, increases risk of cognitive impairment," in the words of the editor of the
British Medical Journal, which published the study.
• A study of over 6,000 people in the U.K. found that those who consume as little
as a single drink of alcoholic beverage per week have significantly greater
cognitive functioning than teetotalers. Abstainers were twice as likely as
occasional drinkers to receive the lowest cognitive functioning test scores. The
beneficial mental effects of alcohol were found when a person drinks up to about
30 drinks per week, and increased with consumption. The researchers did not test
the effects of higher levels of alcohol drinking. The research team suggests that
alcohol (beer, wine, or liquor) improves mental functioning because it increases
blood flow to the brain.118
• Moderate alcohol consumption protects older persons from the development of
cognitive impairment, according to a study of 15,807 Italian men and women 65
 years of age and older. Among the drinkers only 19% showed signs of mental
impairment compared to 29% of the abstainers. The relationship continued even
when other factors in cognitive impairment, such as age, education, and health
problems were considered.119
• An 18-year study of Japanese-American men found "a positive association
between moderate alcohol intake among middle-aged men and subsequent
cognitive performance in later life." Moderate drinkers scored significantly higher
on the Cognitive Abilities Screening Instrument (CASI), which includes tests of
attention, concentration, orientation, memory, and language. Both non-drinkers
and heavy drinkers had the lowest CASI scores.120
• The moderate consumption of alcohol was associated with superior mental
function among older women compared to abstainers in a study of 9,000 women
aged 70 to 79 over a period of 15 years. The women's mental function was
assessed with seven different tests. After adjusting for other factors that might
affect mental function, the researchers found that the women who drank in
moderation performed significantly better on five of seven tests. They also
performed significantly better on a global score that combined all seven tests. The
researchers found that the effect of moderate alcohol consumption on cognitive
functioning was the equivalent of being one to two years younger.121
• Drinking alcohol (beer, wine or liquor) in moderation is one of the strategies that
can reduce the risk of cognitive decline and dementia in later life according to a
review of research conducted by scholars from the School of Aging Studies at the
University of South Florida and the University of Alabama at Birmingham. They
systematically analyzed the existing research to identify how dementia can be
reduced. Abstaining from alcohol and abusing alcohol are both risk factors for
cognitive decline and dementia.122

Arthritis

• A recent study found that alcohol consumption is associated with a significantly

reduced risk of developing arthritic conditions including Rheumatoid Arthritis
(RA), Osteoarthritis (OA), reactive arthritis, psoriatic arthritis and
spondylarthropathy.123
• A large study in Sweden found that the risk of developing arthritis decreased as
the consumption of alcohol increased from light to moderate levels.124
• Data from two other research studies in Scandinavia show that drinking alcohol is
associated with a reduction in the risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Two independent
case-control studies of rheumatoid arthritis were used. The Swedish study used
1,204 cases and 871 controls and the Danish study used 444 cases and 533
controls. Among alcohol consumers, the quarter with the highest consumption
levels had a decreased risk of rheumatoid arthritis of 40-50% compared to the half
with the lowest alcohol consumption.125
• A study of 1,877 men and women found that drinking alcohol reduced both the
risk and severity of rheumatoid arthritis. Non-drinkers were four times more
likely to develop rheumatoid arthritis than people who drank alcohol on more than
 ten days a month. The risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis decreased according
to the frequency of alcohol consumption.126
• Analysis of data from 1,666 patients in Finland indicates that alcohol
consumption significantly reduces the risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis.127

Enlarged Prostate (Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia or BPH)

• An analysis of 19 published studies that included over 120,000 men found that
drinking two or more drinks a day was associated with a 35% in risk of
developing benign prostate enlargement.128
• A dietary study found that men who consume two or more alcoholic drinks per
day are 33% less likely to develop BPH than are teetotalers or alcohol
abstainers.129
• A study of 29,386 men age 40-75 for a period of eight years found that moderate
drinkers consuming up to about 3.3 drinks per day experienced a 41% reduction
in risk of enlarged prostate.130
• A study of 882 men (aged 65, 70, 75 and 80 years) found that increased alcohol
consumption was strongly associated with decreased risk of benign prostatic
hyperplasia.131
• A study of 6,581 Japanese-American men for 17 years found that alcohol
consumption reduced the risk of obstructive uropathy caused by enlarged prostate.
Men who drank an average of 1.3 drinks of alcohol per day experienced a 36%
lower risk compared with alcohol abstainers.132
• An investigation of 1,369 men in Italy younger than age 75 found that, compared
with abstainers, those who consumed fewer than three drinks per day had a 12%
lower risk and those who consumed seven or more drinks per day had a 35%
lower risk of developing benign prostatic hyperplasia. The patterns of risk
reduction were similar for beer, wine, and spirits.133
• A population based case-control study of 100 Chinese patients with benign
prostatic hyperplasia who were over 60 years of age and a control group of the
same size found that men who consumed alcohol experienced a 35% reduction in
risk of developing BPH compared with non-drinkers.134
• In a prospective study a total of 142 patients who were admitted to an outpatient
clinic with lower urinary tract symptoms were examined and 68.3% were
diagnosed with clinical BPH. Over twice the proportion of patients without
clinical BPH were alcohol drinkers, leading the researchers to conclude that
consuming alcohol is a protective factor for clinical BPH.135
• Data from 34,694 participants in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian
(PLCO) Cancer Screening Trial were analyzed. Researchers found that greater
alcohol consumption was strongly associated with decreased risk of benign
prostatic hyperplasia.136
• This study analyzed 184 patients who were surgically treated for benign prostatic
hyperplasia within one year of its diagnosis and 246 patients with no symptoms of
enlarged prostate who were treated in the same hospitals for minor diseases or
conditions (controls). There was no evidence that alcohol consumption increased
the risk for BPH.137
 • A case-control study of Chinese men found that those who consumed about two
to three drinks per day had a 35% reduction in risk and those who consumed over
four drinks per day had a 38% reduction in risk of developing an enlarged
prostate.138
• A study of 2,797 men age 60 or older participating in the Third National Health
and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) found that those who drank
alcohol daily had a 41% lower chance of lower urinary tract symptoms than non-
drinkers.139
• The development of benign prostatic hyperplasia among 2,036 volunteers was
studied by following individual participants for a period of from 12 to 21 years.
The results demonstrated that the risk of developing BPH dropped as the level of
alcohol consumption increased.140
• This case-control study of 910 Rhode Islanders, plus 2,003 men who served as
controls, found that alcohol reduced the risk of developing benign prostatic
hyperplasia.141
• Researchers followed, for a mean of nine years, 1,700 men who were part of the
population-based Massachusetts Male Aging Study. They examined numerous
physical, medical, and behavioral characteristics but found that virtually none,
including alcohol intake, was a risk factor for benign prostatic hyperplasia.142
• A community-based cross-sectional epidemiological study of 514 men in Korea
found that a lower risk of developing an enlarged prostate was associated with an
increasing daily consumption of alcohol.143
• An analysis of 14,897 men who were members of the Kaiser Permanente Medical
Care Program found that those who consumed three or more drinks per day had a
25% lower risk of BPH than non-drinkers.144

Osteoporosis

• Researchers examined the evidence from 33 studies and found that alcohol
consumption increased neck bone density for each drink per day over the range of
0-3 drinks per day; reduced the risk for hip fracture with increasing quantities
consumed; and was generally associated with reduced bone loss over time,
compared with abstention from alcohol.145
• A study was conducted using identical female twins, in which one twin drank
very little and the other twin drank moderately (one or two drinks each day).
Twins were used because they are genetic clones. Because they have the same
genes and grew up in the same environment, it's easier to control for any other
possible confounding factors. The study found that moderate drinkers had
significantly denser bones than the control group of twins consisting of very light
drinkers.146
• The National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment followed over 200,000
postmenopausal women in the U.S. with no previous diagnosis of osteoporosis
who were seen at doctors' offices, with no previous diagnosis of osteoporosis. As
a result of screening, the study found that 39.6% had osteopenia or low bone
density and 7% had osteoporosis. The study found that drinking alcohol reduced
the chances of developing osteoporosis.147
 • Analyses using data from 13,512 persons ages 20 or older found that bone density
was higher in men and postmenopausal women compared with those who do not
drink.148
• A population-based cohort study of 5,865 adults aged 65 years and older from
four U.S. communities found that moderate drinking was associated with a
significant decrease in risk of hip fracture. Compared with long-term abstainers,
moderate drinkers of beer, wine or spirits had a 22% lower chance of developing
osteoporosis. Alcohol consumption was also associated with bone mineral density
of the total hip and femoral neck in a stepwise manner, with approximately 5%
higher bone density among consumers of 14 or more drinks per week than among
abstainers.149

Gallbladder Disease (Gallstones or Cholelithiasis)

• A prospective study of 1,290,413 United Kingdom women followed them for an

average of over six years. Drinking alcohol was found to decrease the risk of
developing gallstone disease. Women who drank 15 or more units of alcohol per
week has a 41% reduced risk compared with those who drank one to two units per
week. A unit equals ten mL of absolute alcohol.150
• Information on 58,462 adults age 25 years and over who were randomly selected
for the Italian National Health survey was analyzed. After controlling for age sex
and other variables, researchers found that those who consumed up to about 1.3
glasses of alcohol each day experienced a 17% decrease, those who consumed
from 1.3 to 2.8 glasses daily had a 33% decrease, and those who drank more than
2.8 glasses of alcohol each day enjoyed a 42% drop in risk for gallstone disease,
compared with abstainers.151
• Analysis of data from 88,837 women aged 34 to 59 who were followed for four
years after completing a detailed questionnaire about food and alcohol intake
revealed that those who drank alcohol daily had a 40% decrease in their risk of
developing gallbladder disease.152
• A study of 29,584 people enrolled in an epidemiological survey of the general
population of Italy found that daily moderate alcohol consumption by men
significantly lowered their risk of developing gallstone disease compared with
non-drinkers.153
• A total of 80,898 women in the U.S. were followed for 20 years, with alcohol
consumption being measured every two to four years. The resulting finding was
that alcohol consumption decreased the risk of developing gallstone disease. As
consumption increased, the risk decreased. Compared with women who did not
drink, those who drank an average of up to one drink per day experienced a 14%
decrease in risk whereas those who drank an average of four or more drinks per
day had a 38% reduced risk of developing gallstone disease. In addition, as
frequency of consumption increased risk decreased dramatically. Beer, wine and
spirits all reduced risk.154

Cancers
Kidney Cancer (also called renal cell carcinoma)

• An analysis of data from 12 prospective studies that included 760,044 men and
women who were tracked for seven to 20 years found that moderate drinkers are
about 30% less likely to develop kidney cancer than are abstainers.155
• A prospective study of 59,237 Swedish women age 40-76 found that those who
consumed at least one drink per week had a 38% lower risk of kidney cancer than
did abstainers or those who drank less. For women over 55, the risk dropped by
two-thirds (66%).156
• A study of a large cohort of Finnish males found that risk of kidney cancer
declined as total consumption of alcohol increased.157
• Data from 88,759 women who were tracked for 20 years and from 47,828 men
who were observed for 14 years indicate that alcohol reduces the risk of kidney
cancer in both men and women.158
• Compared with nondrinkers, men who drank one or more drinks per day had a
31% lower risk of kidney cancer among 161,126 Hawaii–Los Angeles
Multiethnic Cohort participants.159
• A study of postmenopausal women in Iowa over a 15-year period found that those
who drank alcohol, compared with nondrinkers, had a significantly lower risk of
developing kidney cancer. This relationship persisted after taking into account
many other confounding factors.160

Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (often called Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma)

• A review of findings from nine international studies demonstrates that drinking

alcohol reduces the risk of non- Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) by 27%. The
protective effect of alcohol did not vary by beer, wine, or distilled spirits
consumption.161
• A prospective study of 473,984 participants (285,079 men and 188,905 women)
found that drinkers had a significantly lower risk of developing non-Hodgkin's
lymphoma than did nondrinkers. For example, those who consumed over 28
drinks per week, the risk of developing non-Hodgkin lymphoma was about 25%
lower than among nondrinkers. This relationship existed for beer, wine and
distilled spirits.162
• A cohort of 35,156 women aged 55-69 years who were studied over a nine-year
period found that alcohol consumption was associated with a significantly lower
risk of developing non-Hodgkin lymphoma compared with abstaining and the
amount of alcohol consumed, rather than the form (beer, wine, or distilled spirits),
appeared to provide the protection against the cancer.163
• In a population-based case-control study of adults from four U.S. Surveillance,
Epidemiology, and End Results Study centers, researchers found that those who
drank alcohol had a significantly lower risk of developing non-Hodgkin's
lymphoma than did nondrinkers.164
• In a multi-center case-control study in Spain, France, Germany, Italy, Ireland and
Czech Republic, researchers found that alcohol consumption significantly reduced
 the risk of developing non-Hodgkin lymphoma among men and among people
living in non- Mediterranean countries.165

Hodgkin's Lymphoma

• A multi-center case-control study of subjects in Spain, France, Italy, Germany,

Ireland and the Czech Republic found results "consistent with previous studies,
suggesting a protective effect of alcohol on HL."166
• Alcohol reduced the risk of Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL) for both men and women,
but more so for men, whose risk was lowered by 53% in a population-based case-
control study was conducted in Germany.167
• A protective effect of alcohol consumption on risk of Hodgkin's lymphoma
among non-smokers in Italy was reported in a population-based case-control
study.168
• Drinking alcohol reduced the risk of Hodgkin's lymphoma among both smokers
and non-smokers in an analysis of data from a series of case-control studies in
northern Italy.169
• A common symptom of Hodgkin lymphoma is pain in the lymph nodes. This is
reduced following the consumption of alcohol.170

Thyroid Cancer

• A prospective study of over one and one-quarter million (1,280,296) women in

the U.K. confirmed the finding that drinking alcohol significantly reduces the risk
of developing of thyroid cancer.171
• Data from almost one-half million (490,000) men and women in the U.S. found
that increased alcohol consumption decreased the risk of thyroid cancer.172
• A country-wide population-based case-control study in New Caledonia found that
the incidence of thyroid cancer was negatively associated with drinking alcohol
among both men and women.173 That is, consuming alcohol was found to be
associated with a lower risk of developing thyroid cancer.
• A study of women identified through the Cancer Surveillance System (CSS), a
population-based cancer registry in Washington State, found that higher levels of
alcohol consumption were associated with lower risk of developing thyroid
cancer.174

Other Beneficial Effects Of Alcohol Consumption:

The moderate consumption of alcohol appears to be beneficial to reducing or preventing

other diseases and health problems, including the following:

The Common Cold. Research has found moderate drinkers to be more resistant than
abstainers to five strains of the common cold virus. Those who consumed two to three
drinks daily had an 85% greater resistance. Those drinking one to two drinks daily had a
65% lower risk and those who drank less than daily had a 30% lower risk than
abstainers.175
Intermittent Claudication (IC). In a study of 18,339 observations, researchers found
that drinking alcohol in moderation significantly reduces the risk of intermittent
claudication. IC is associated with a two- to four-fold increased risk of death from
cardiovascular disease.176

Metabolic Syndrome. To examine the relationship between alcohol consumption and

metabolic syndrome, a meta-analysis was conducted of seven studies with 22,000
participants. Metabolic syndrome is a dangerous cluster of risk factors that increase the
risk for coronary artery disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes. The analysis found that
drinking alcohol in moderation significantly reduced the prevalence of metabolic
syndrome. The positive effects existed among men who consumed up to a little over three
drink per day and among women who consumed up to one and one-half drinks each
day.177

Peripheral Artery Disease. Harvard researchers found moderate drinkers to be almost

1/3 less likely to suffer Peripheral Artery Disease (a significant cause of death among the
elderly) than those consuming less than one drink per week.178

Folate and Alcohol : Folate, the B vitamin that helps guide the development of an
embryo's spinal cord, has equally important jobs later in life. One of the biggest is
helping to build DNA, the molecule that carries the code of life. In this way, folate is
essential for accurate cell division.
Alcohol blocks the absorption of folate and inactivates folate in the blood and tissues. It's
possible that this interaction may be how alcohol consumption increases the risk of
breast, colon, and other cancers.
Getting extra folate may cancel out this alcohol-related increase. In the Nurses' Health
Study, for example, among women who consumed one alcoholic drink a day or more,
those who had the highest levels of this B vitamin in their blood were 90% less likely to
develop breast cancer than those who had the lowest levels of the B vitamin.100* An
earlier study suggested that getting 600 micrograms a day of folate could counteract the
effect of moderate alcohol consumption on breast cancer risk. 101*

The list continues with many others, such as essential tremors,179 hepatitis A,180
kidney stones,181 macular degeneration (a major cause of blindness),182 Pancreatic
Cancer,183 Parkinson's disease,184 poor physical condition in the elderly,185 stress and
depression,186 and type B gastritis.187.

Drinking patterns appear to be as important as the amounts consumed. "The key to

healthy, moderate consumption is a regular, one to three drinks per day pattern."117
However, drinking a "weeks worth" of alcohol over a period of a few hours would be
unhealthful, even dangerous, and clearly to be avoided.

All of the many health benefits of drinking apply only to moderate consumption - - never
to heavy drinking. To the contrary, heavy drinking is associated with reduced longevity
and increased risk of a diversity of diseases. Unfortunately, there really can be too much
of a good thing.
Whether or not to drink alcohol, especially for "medicinal purposes," requires
careful balancing of these benefits and risks.

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