Urban Reconstruction Handbook IFRC-SKAT PDF

Sustainable Reconstruction in Urban Areas
A Handbook
Sustainable Reconstruction in Urban Areas
A Handbook
Copyright © Skat – Swiss Resource Centre and Consultancies for Development
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2012
ISBN 978-3-908156-17-8
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Table of contents
Preface ..................................................................................................................................................................5
$cNnowledJements .........................................................................................................................................7
$cronyms and abbreYiations .......................................................................................................................8
*lossary .............................................................................................................................................................
$bout this handbooN ..................................................................................................................................
Programme preparation .........................................................................................................................
1. Needs assessment and analysis ...............................................................................................

. *eneral ....................................................................................................................................
. &ommunity assessment .................................................................................................... 7
.3 'amaJe assessment ..........................................................................................................8
. /and assessment .................................................................................................................
.5 (nYironmental impact assessment ...............................................................................
. ,nstitutional assessment ................................................................................................... 5
.7 )urther assessments ..........................................................................................................
1.8 Data quality ........................................................................................................................... 7
2. Methodological approach ..........................................................................................................8

.1 Types of approaches .......................................................................................................... 8
. 6election of approach .......................................................................................................
.3 Participatory approaches .................................................................................................
. &ross-cuttinJ principles .................................................................................................... 1
Programme commencement ................................................................................................................
3. Who is involved? .............................................................................................................................

3.1 5oles and responsibilities ................................................................................................
3. 2rJanisational set-up ........................................................................................................ 71
4. Preparation .......................................................................................................................................... 7
.1 +ow to identify and select beneÀciaries ................................................................... 7
. 6ocial mobilisation ............................................................................................................. 75
.3 ProJramme planninJ ......................................................................................................... 7
. /and surYey and acquisition ........................................................................................... 77
.5 6ite selection ......................................................................................................................... 78
3
5. Planning and design process .................................................................................................... 8
5.1 6ettlement planninJ .......................................................................................................... 8
5. Principles of housinJ desiJn .......................................................................................... 8
5.3 %uildinJ form ........................................................................................................................8
6. Infrastructure ....................................................................................................................................
.1 :ater supply .........................................................................................................................
. 6anitation ...............................................................................................................................
.3 DrainaJe ...............................................................................................................................15
. 5oads ......................................................................................................................................1
.5 6olid waste manaJement ..............................................................................................11
. 2ther urban infrastructure ............................................................................................11
Construction phase ..................................................................................................................................1
7. Implementation ..............................................................................................................................1
7.1 Demolition and debris ....................................................................................................11
7. Technical reference centres ...........................................................................................1
7.3 5euse of temporary shelters ........................................................................................17
7. %uildinJ conYersions ........................................................................................................1
7.5 5etroÀttinJ and repairs ...................................................................................................13
7. &onstruction materials ....................................................................................................133
7.7 &onstruction technoloJies ............................................................................................138
7.8 &onstruction elements ....................................................................................................13
7. 6ite manaJement ..............................................................................................................1
7.1 &onstruction waste manaJement ..............................................................................1
8. Monitoring and risk reduction ................................................................................................18

8.1 Quality control ....................................................................................................................18
8. 5eJular monitorinJ and eYaluation 0 ( ............................................................1
8.3 0aintenance ........................................................................................................................1
8. Disaster risN reduction ....................................................................................................15
Annex I: References ..........................................................................................................................1

Annex II: Further reading ................................................................................................................1
Annex III: Links .......................................................................................................................................171
Annex IV: Practical checklists .........................................................................................................17
Annex V: Contacts ...............................................................................................................................1

Preface
The increasinJ debate on urban reconstruction alonJ with a number of recent publications on
urban Yulnerability hiJhliJhts the importance of improYinJ the understandinJ within humani-
tarian orJanisations in respondinJ to urban disasters.
This eYolYinJ issue has prompted encouraJinJ deYelopments the use of more creatiYe ap-
proaches to post-disaster housinJ such as the proYision of direct Ànancial aid and host families·
support means that international orJanisations are moYinJ away from the traditional emer-
Jency solutions such as tents and tarpaulins which rarely meet the Yariety of shelterinJ needs
in urban areas.
+oweYer ÀndinJ housinJ solutions in emerJencies in biJ cities remains e[tremely comple[.
+umanitarian and deYelopment worNers are facinJ unprecedented challenJes in cities liNe Port-
au-Prince in 5io·s landslide-Yulnerable faYelas or in $sian cities liNe PadanJ.
:hat we haYe recently witnessed is that eYen the cities of the richest nations cannot consider
themselYes to be safe the earthquaNe and subsequent tsunami in -apan strucN an urbanised
coast with one of the most adYanced leYels of disaster preparedness in the world with norms
to reJulate construction and structures in place to mitiJate the effects of sudden disasters.
2Yer and aboYe the radically different resources and capacities that these countries possess
the reality is that urban density in multi-risN conte[ts Jenerates enormous shelter and recon-
struction challenJes ² how can the required ranJe of housinJ solutions be proYided in a Yery
short space of time across an entire city when the areas affected are full of debris or haYe
been made inaccessible" +ow can temporary solutions to house displaced populations in the
early period after a disaster be turned into more durable homes" +ow can housinJ policies
be inÁuenced from the onset to promote equitable reconstruction when the administratiYe An urban neighbourhood in
bodies inYolYed are e[tremely weaN or disempowered" +ow can worN be carried out in dense Port-au-Prince, Haiti
neiJhbourhoods where there is a mi[ture of sinJle and multi-storeyed houses both damaJed Daniel :yss 6Nat
5
and destroyed residential and commercial usaJe often in the same structure with a Yariety of
forms of tenure and buildinJ codes and reJulations Jeared to incremental construction oYer
time rather than rapid reconstruction at scale?
5ecurrent dilemmas such as the loss of liYes and e[pertise disruption of supply chains the
urJent need to identify proYisional locations to relocate displaced people and political and
leJal constraints on land and tenure are amonJ the many issues to consider.
There is not one answer but maNinJ the most of urban opportunities such as access to es-
tablished construction industries and the priYate sector utilisinJ new technoloJies harnessinJ
innoYation and enterprise can inform a JiYen response to meetinJ post-disaster housinJ and
reconstruction needs.
This handbooN on ¶6ustainable reconstruction in urban areas· seeNs to unpacN the problems
that many orJanisations are confronted with while proYidinJ step-by-step Juidance on how
to desiJn and implement housinJ reconstruction proJrammes in cities.
$s the result of collaboration between the ,nternational )ederation of the 5ed &ross and 5ed
&rescent and 6Nat ² 6wiss 5esource &entre and &onsultancies for DeYelopment this handbooN
describes the speciÀc dimensions of reconstruction and rehousinJ strateJies proYidinJ conte[t-
based options that haYe proYen successful in recent disasters. ,t does not aim to be e[haustiYe
but rather to inform proJramme decision-maNers and implementers on emerJinJ practices.
0any of the lessons which haYe been learned ² in terms of buildinJ partnerships to prepare
for disasters and worNinJ within the frameworN of more comple[ leJal and administratiYe
procedures ² can help to address these recurrinJ challenJes.
This publication sets a milestone in this direction.
*raham 6aunders -rJ &hristen

+ead 6helter and 6ettlements Department 0anaJinJ Director
,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 6Nat ² 6wiss 5esource &entre and
5ed &rescent 6ocieties &onsultancies for DeYelopment

Acknowledgements
This handbooN was commissioned by ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent
6ocieties ,)5&.
ProMect &oordinator 6andra D·8r]o 6helter and 6ettlements Department ,)5&

ProMect implemented by 6Nat ² 6wiss 5esource &entre and &onsultancies for DeYelopment
/ead author and concept &laudia 6chneider 6ustainable %uildinJ and 6ettlement
DeYelopment 6pecialist 6Nat
/ead contributors 6andra D·8r]o and 0ichele <ounJ ,)5&
&ontribution of the water and sanitation and infrastructure chapters
)lorian .linJel :ater and (nYironmental 6anitation 6pecialist 6Nat
)low chart 0ichele <ounJ ,)5&
DesiJn and layout 0artin /lnJ and &laudia 6chneider 6Nat
(ditinJ assistance 0artin /lnJ DesNtop PublishinJ 6pecialist 6Nat
&oYer photo Daniel :yss 6Nat
The author would liNe to acNnowledJe and thanN the followinJ persons for their contributions
tosupport for the handbooN
0artina %aum PhD /ecturer and 5esearcher at (T+ =urich &hair for $rchitecture and 8rban
DesiJn Prof. .ees &hristiaanse
:illiam &arter 6enior 2fÀcer in the :ater 6anitation and (merJency +ealth 8nit ,)5&
$radna DuJJal &onsultant on *ender 6trateJy ,)5&
PatricN (lliott 6helter and :atsan $dYisor %ritish 5ed &ross
8rs )r|hlich )r|hlich :ater (nJineerinJ
;aYier *pnot 6helter 0oYement &oordinator +aiti ,)5&
Philipp .rass 6patial and (nYironmental DeYelopment and 8rban Planner 6pecialist in
*eoJraphic ,nformation 6ystem *,6 and Data $ssessment
$melia .ya]]e 6enior +umanitarian Policy $dYiser %ritish 5ed &ross
,nJ. 0arco Di0auro ,nfrastructure 6eJment 0anaJer *eomatics DiYision /eica *eosystems $*
0arianne PecniN &onsultant
/aura PetersberJer ,nstitutional %usiness DeYelopment /eica *eosystems $*
Tim 5ieniets 6enior 5esearcher at (T+ =urich &hair for $rchitecture and 8rban DesiJn
Prof. .ees &hristiaanse
6abine 5osenthaler 6wiss $Jency for DeYelopment and &ooperation
$melia 5ule 6helter PlanninJ deleJate +aiti %ritish 5ed &ross
-|rJ 6tollmann &hair for 8rban DesiJn and $rchitecture Technische 8niYersitlt %erlin
5diJer :aJner 9P ,maJinJ *eospatial 6olutions DiYision +e[aJon *eosystems
This handbooN was printed with the Jenerous Ànancial support of the %ritish 5ed &ross.
7
Acronyms and abbreviations
$&) $ction &ontre la )aim

$&0 $sbestos-containinJ materials
$/N$P $ctiYe /earninJ NetworN for $ccountability and Performance in +umanitarian
Action
%5& %ritish 5ed &ross
&AP &ommunity Action PlanninJ
&AP &ommon alertinJ protocol chapter ..
&%2 &ommunity-based orJanisation
&&5 &ompetence &entre for 5econstruction
&D5 &ommunity-driYen reconstruction
&)6 &old-formed steel
&): &ash for worN
&+) &+) ,nternational
&N,*6 &entre National d·,nformation *po-6patial
DA& DeYelopment Assistance &ommittee
D0 Disaster 0anaJement
D55 Disaster risN reduction
(& (uropean &ommission
(,A (nYironmental ,mpact Assessment
(00A (merJency 0arNet 0appinJ and Analysis ToolNit
(NA (nYironmental Needs Assessment
(NAT (nYironmental Needs Assessment Team
(NDA (nYironmental deYelopment action in the Third :orld (nYironnement et
dpYeloppement du tiers monde
(65 (nYironmental 6tewardship 5eYiew
(T+= (idJen|ssische Technische +ochschule =rich
)(AT )lash (nYironmental Assessment Tool
)5& )rench 5ed &ross
*&, *alYanised corruJated iron
*(2-&AN *lobal (arth 2bserYation ² &atastrophe Assessment NetworN
*)D55 *lobal )acility for Disaster 5eduction and 5ecoYery
*,6 *eoJraphic information system
*P6 *lobal positioninJ system
+/P +ousinJ land and property
,A6& ,nter-aJency standinJ committee
,&5& ,nternational &ommittee of the 5ed &ross
,DP ,nternally displaced person
,)5& ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent 6ocieties
,+5& ,nterim +aiti 5ecoYery &ommission
,/2 ,nternational /abour 2rJani]ation
,TD* ,ntermediate TechnoloJy DeYelopment *roup now Practical Action
8.-based N*2
-0P -oint monitorinJ proJramme
8
-5& -oint 5esearch &entre
/(N66 /ocal emerJency needs for shelter and settlement
/,DA5 /iJht detection and ranJinJ
/,6 /and information system
/P* /iqueÀed petroleum Jas
0 ( 0onitorinJ and eYaluation
0TPT& 0inistqre des TraYau[ Publics Transports et &ommunications +aiti
0o8 0emorandum of understandinJ
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
N*2 Non-JoYernmental orJanisation
2&+A 8nited Nations 2fÀce for the &oordination of +umanitarian Affairs
2D5 2wner-driYen reconstruction
2(&D 2rJanisation for (conomic &o-operation and DeYelopment
2S0 2penStreet0ap
PASSA Participatory Approach to Safe Shelter Awareness
P+AST Participatory +yJiene and Sanitation Transformation
P9 PhotoYoltaic
5&5& 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent
5(A 5apid (nYironmental ,mpact Assessment
5SS 5eally Simple Syndication
S,0 Subscriber ,dentity 0odule
SNat Swiss 5esource &entre and &onsultancies for DeYelopment
S0S Short messaJe serYice
S:0 Solid waste manaJement
S:2T StrenJths weaNnesseslimitations opportunities and threats
T Shelter Temporary/transitional shelter
T:,* Technical :orNinJ *roup
8DDT 8rine-diYertinJ dehydration toilet
8N 8nited Nations
8NDP 8nited Nations DeYelopment ProJramme
8N)&&& 8nited Nations )rameworN &onYention on &limate &hanJe
8N-+A%,TAT The 8nited Nations +uman Settlements ProJramme
8N,&() 8nited Nations ,nternational &hildren·s (merJency )und
8N,TA5 8nited Nations ,nstitute for TraininJ and 5esearch
8N2&+A 8nited Nations 2fÀce for the &oordination of +umanitarian Affairs
8N2SAT 2perational Satellite Applications ProJramme
8S 8nited States of America
8SA,D 8nited States AJency for ,nternational DeYelopment
9&A 9ulnerability and capacity assessment
9,P 9entilated improYed pit
:AS+ :ater supply sanitation and hyJiene promotion
:ATSAN :ater supply and enYironmental sanitation
:(D& :ater (nJineerinJ and DeYelopment &entre
:+2 :orld +ealth 2rJani]ation
:S S :ater supply and sanitation

Glossary
Apartment owner-occupant 2ccupant who owns his/her apartment. 2wnership may be formal or informal.
Apartment tenant 2ccupant who rents the apartment formally or informally.
%lacN water +eaYily contaminated wastewater e.J. toilet wastewater. %lacN water is also Nnown as ¶brown
water· it is heaYily polluted and difÀcult to treat because of hiJh concentrations of mostly
orJanic pollution.
%uffer ]one A buffer ]one is a land area desiJnated for safety purposes that includes the hiJhest sea
leYel preYiously Áooded e.J. the tsunami leYel toJether with an additional buffer area.
%uildinJ code Set of ordinances or reJulations and associated standards intended to control aspects of the
desiJn construction materials alteration and occupancy of structures that are necessary to
ensure human safety and welfare includinJ resistance to collapse and damaJe.
&apacity The combination of all the strenJths attributes and resources aYailable within a community
society or orJanisation that can be used to achieYe aJreed Joals.
&apacity deYelopment Process by which people orJanisations and society systematically stimulate and deYelop
their capacities oYer time to achieYe social and economic Joals includinJ throuJh
improYement of NnowledJe sNills systems and institutions.
&limate chanJe The 8nited Nations )rameworN &onYention on &limate &hanJe 8N)&&& deÀnes climate
chanJe as ´a chanJe of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human actiYity
that alters the composition of the Jlobal atmosphere and which is in addition to natural
climate Yariability obserYed oYer comparable time periodsµ.
&ollectiYe centres Transitional facilities housed in pre-e[istinJ structures i.e. schools community centres etc..
&ommunity rehabilitation &ommunity rehabilitation inYolYes mobilisinJ community members and proYidinJ them
with or enablinJ them to proYide for themselYes a safe secure and enablinJ enYironment.
&ommunity rehabilitation entails restorinJ infrastructure and basic serYices such as enerJy
water sanitation healthcare education and access to information as well as proYidinJ less
tanJible forms of support such as counsellinJ and Jroups for awareness-buildinJ.
&ontinJency planninJ A manaJement process that analyses speciÀc potential eYents or emerJinJ situations that
miJht threaten society or the enYironment and establishes arranJements in adYance to
enable timely effectiYe and appropriate responses to such eYents and situations.
&opinJ capacity Ability of people orJanisations and systems usinJ aYailable sNills and resources to face and
manaJe adYerse conditions emerJencies or disasters.
Disaster A serious disruption of the functioninJ of a community or a society causinJ widespread

human material economic or enYironmental losses and impacts which e[ceed the ability of
the affected community or society to cope usinJ its own resources.
Disaster mitiJation Actions taNen to eliminate or minimise the effects of disasters includinJ measures to
eliminate or reduce risNs or preYent ha]ards from deYelopinJ into disasters.
1
Disaster preparedness Disaster preparedness minimises the adYerse effects of ha]ards throuJh effectiYe
precautionary actions rehabilitation and recoYery measures to ensure the timely
appropriate and effectiYe orJanisation and deliYery of relief and assistance followinJ a
disaster. Preparedness measures include plans of action for potential disasters maintenance
and traininJ of emerJency serYices the deYelopment and e[ercise of emerJency
population warninJ methods combined with emerJency shelters and eYacuation plans the
stocNpilinJ of supplies and equipment and the deYelopment and practice of multi-aJency
coordination.
Disaster preYention %ody of policy and administratiYe decisions and operational actiYities related to preYentinJ
manaJinJ and mitiJatinJ the Yarious staJes of disasters at all leYels.
Disaster recoYery 5estoration of an affected area to its preYious state. Disaster recoYery inYolYes policies
decisions and actiYities deYeloped and implemented after immediate needs in disaster
areas haYe been addressed. 5ecoYery actiYities include rebuildinJ destroyed property
re-employment and the repair of other essential infrastructure. 5ecoYery efforts are
most effectiYe and most widely accepted by communities when mitiJation measures are
implemented swiftly.
Disaster risN manaJement Systematic process of usinJ administratiYe directiYes orJanisations and operational sNills
and capacities to implement strateJies policies and improYed copinJ capacities in order to
lessen the adYerse impacts of ha]ards and the possibility of disaster.
Disaster risN reduction The concept and practice of reducinJ disaster risNs throuJh systematic efforts to analyse
and manaJe the causal factors of disasters includinJ throuJh reduced e[posure to
ha]ards lessened Yulnerability of people and property wise manaJement of land and the
enYironment and improYed preparedness for adYerse eYents.
(arly-warninJ system The set of capacities needed to Jenerate and disseminate timely and meaninJful warninJ
information to enable indiYiduals communities and orJanisations threatened by a ha]ard
to prepare and to act appropriately and in sufÀcient time to reduce the possibility of harm
or loss.
(mbodied enerJy Quantity of enerJy required to acquire primary material manufacture handle and transport
to the point of use a product material or serYice.
(nYironmental deJradation 5eduction of the capacity of the enYironment to meet social and ecoloJical obMectiYes and
needs.
(nYironmental ,mpact Assessment Process by which the enYironmental consequences of a proposed proMect or proJramme
(,A are eYaluated and undertaNen as an inteJral part of planninJ and decision-maNinJ
processes with a Yiew to limitinJ or reducinJ the adYerse impacts of the proMect or
proJramme.
([posure People property systems or other elements present in ha]ard ]ones that are thereby
subject to potential losses.
*,S A computer system capable of assemblinJ storinJ manipulatinJ and displayinJ

JeoJraphically referenced information i.e. data identiÀed accordinJ to their locations. *,S
may refer to hardware and software or include data.
*rey water :astewater that is Jenerated from processes such as washinJ dishes laundry and bathinJ.
11
+a]ard A danJerous phenomenon substance human actiYity or condition that may cause loss of
life injury or other health impacts property damaJe loss of liYelihoods and serYices social
and economic disruption or enYironmental damaJe.
A natural ha]ard is a natural process or phenomenon that may cause loss of life injury or
other health impacts property damaJe loss of liYelihoods and serYices social and economic
disruption or enYironmental damaJe.
+ouse owner-occupant 2ccupant who owns his/her house and land or is part-owner such as when repayinJ a
mortJaJe or a loan. 2wnership may be formal or informal.
+ouse tenant 2ccupant who rents the house and land formally or informally.
,nformal landholders People who occupy or use land without formal recoJnition or protection from the law. They
are often recoJnised by customary law or local practices.
/and-use planninJ The process undertaNen by public authorities to identify eYaluate and decide on different
options for the use of land includinJ consideration of lonJ-term economic social and
enYironmental objectiYes and the implications for different communities and interest Jroups
and the subsequent formulation and promulJation of plans that describe the permitted or
acceptable uses.
/and tenant 2ccupant who owns the house and rents the land formally or informally.
/ease AJreement between a landowner and a tenant. 8sually a landowner Jrants a tenant limited
possession and use of land for a À[ed period of time in e[chanJe for the payment of rent.
/iYelihoods rebuildinJ ProYision of support to major occupation sectors Àshery aJriculture tourism as well as
families with speciÀc needs e.J. home-based worN for sinJle-person households.
0itiJation The lesseninJ or limitation of the adYerse impacts of ha]ards and related disasters.
National platform for disaster *eneric term for national mechanisms for coordination and policy Juidance on disaster risN
risN reduction reduction that are multi-sectoral and inter-disciplinary in nature with public priYate and ciYil
society participation inYolYinJ all concerned entities within a country.
2ccupancy with no leJal status 2ccupant occupies land or property without the e[plicit permission of the owner.
squatter
PhotoYoltaic P9 cell DeYice that conYerts sunliJht directly into electricity usinJ cells made of silicon or other
conductiYe materials.
Pollution +armful substances Jases liquids and solids that haYe been released into the enYironment.
Preparedness The NnowledJe and capacities deYeloped by JoYernments professional response and
recoYery orJanisations communities and indiYiduals to effectiYely anticipate respond to and
recoYer from the impacts of liNely imminent or current ha]ard eYents or conditions.
PreYention The outriJht aYoidance of adYerse impacts of ha]ards and related disasters. )or e[ample
disaster preYention e[presses the concept and intention to completely aYoid potential
adYerse impacts throuJh action taNen in adYance.
Quarry A site from which rocNs JraYel sand or clay is e[tracted in substantial quantities.
1
5ecoYery The restoration and improYement where appropriate of facilities liYelihoods and liYinJ
conditions of disaster-affected communities includinJ efforts to reduce disaster risN factors.
5ecyclinJ Systems and processes for collectinJ sortinJ and reprocessinJ used products substances
and materials into raw material suitable for reuse.
5enewable enerJy 5enewable enerJy resources which capture their enerJy from natural enerJy sources such
as sunliJht wind hydropower bioJas and Jeothermal heat that are self-replenishinJ as
opposed to non-renewable enerJy sources e.J. oil Jas and coal that are can be used only
one time.
5esilience Ability of a system community or society e[posed to ha]ards to resist absorb accommodate
to and recoYer from the effects of a ha]ard in a timely and efÀcient manner includinJ
throuJh the preserYation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions.
5esponse ProYision of emerJency serYices and public assistance durinJ or immediately after a disaster
in order to saYe liYes reduce health impacts ensure public safety and meet the basic
subsistence needs of the people affected. Disaster response is predominantly focused on
immediate and short-term needs and is sometimes called ¶disaster relief·.
5etroÀttinJ 5einforcement or upJradinJ of e[istinJ structures to become more resistant and resilient to
the damaJinJ effects of ha]ards.
5euse The employment of a product substance or material once aJain for its oriJinal purpose
or for a different purpose without prior processinJ to chanJe its physical or chemical
characteristics.
5isN The combination of the probability of an eYent and its neJatiYe consequences.
5isN assessment 0ethodoloJy to determine the nature and e[tent of risN by analysinJ potential ha]ards and
eYaluatinJ e[istinJ conditions of Yulnerability that toJether could potentially harm e[posed
people property serYices liYelihoods and the enYironment on which they depend.
5isN manaJement Process of measurinJ or assessinJ risN and deYelopinJ strateJies to manaJe it. StrateJies
include aYoidinJ the risN reducinJ the neJatiYe effect of the risN and acceptinJ some or all
of the consequences of a particular risN.
Sustainability The notion that societies can plan and orJanise their economic political and social actiYities
in a manner that will meet their needs and e[press their Jreatest potential in the present
while preserYinJ ecosystems biodiYersity and natural resources for future Jenerations.
Sustainable reconstruction 5econstruction actiYities that are Juided in their planninJ desiJn and implementation by the
Joal of sustainability.
8rban self-settlement Settlement in an urban area occupyinJ aYailable public or priYate property or land.
8sers The beneÀciaries and residents of reconstructed housinJ.
9ulnerability The characteristics and circumstances of a community system or asset that maNe it subject
to the damaJinJ effects of a ha]ard.
:aste manaJement StrateJies and systems for collectinJ transportinJ processinJ waste treatment recyclinJ or
disposinJ of waste materials.
13
About this handbook
Introduction
0ore frequently towns and urban aJJlomerations are affected by natural disasters. /arJe cities
and meJa-cities concentrate and maJnify risN but smaller cities also suffer from e[posure to
multiple risNs.1 A recent e[ample of the catastrophic effect on a city is that of Port-au-Prince in
+aiti where huJe areas had been destroyed by a 7. maJnitude earthquaNe in -anuary 1
² resultinJ in the deaths of at least 15 people and maNinJ 1.5 million people homeless.
Another e[ample is the comple[ emerJency that affected -apan in early 11 showinJ that
eYen well-prepared nations with densely populated urban and peri-urban areas can be Yulner-
able to disasters.
Therefore inYolYement in reconstruction and rehabilitation efforts in urban and peri-urban areas
has become increasinJly siJniÀcant. )ield-focused Juidance for practitioners and decision-
maNers on Ney issues to inform current transitional shelter proJramminJ and the initiation of
reconstruction and repair proJrammes in the urban conte[t is crucial to ensure a sustainable
recoYery. There are Yarious reconstruction manuals aYailable ² yet most of them focus only on
rural areas. &onsequently Swiss 5esource &entre and &onsultancies for DeYelopment SNat and
the ,nternational )ederation of the 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent ,)5& haYe compiled these
Juidelines with a focus on the urban conte[t.
,n referrinJ to these Juidelines the user will receiYe an oYerYiew of the issues and steps in-
YolYed when undertaNinJ sustainable reconstruction proJrammes followinJ a natural disaster.
Earthquake damage in Bhuj, India (2001) Earthquake damage in Haiti (2010)

Denis 0c&lean ,)5& (ric Quintero ,)5&
1 The :orld %anN 11 *)D55 ² *lobal )acility for Disaster 5eduction and 5ecoYery and 8N,SD5 ² 8nited
Nations ,nternational StrateJy for Disaster 5eduction
2(&D 1 PromotinJ +aiti·s 5econstruction SerYice DeliYery *uidance Partnership for Democratic
*oYernance
1
What is the scope of the handbook?
The handbooN is focused on the reconstruction phase in particular
on permanent housing not on transitional shelter. ,t also incorpo-
rates risN-reduction measures within reconstruction methodoloJy in Development and
ongoing risk
Disaster
order to prepare for any future disaster. The handbooN concentrates reduction
preparedness Impact
Relief
primarily on the transfer of emerJency shelter to more permanent
housinJ solutions followinJ a disaster. ,t JiYes speciÀc direction in
how to oYercome the comple[ity and challenJes of reconstruction Risk
by ensurinJ that safe and sustainable approaches are taNen within reduction
urban areas.
This handbooN does not coYer eYery actiYity to be performed Early recovery/
transition
throuJhout the proJramme cycle. ,t is for use as a reference point
only for reconstruction proJrammes it enables the user to under- Risk and
vulnerability
stand and enJaJe in the main issues that maNe up a sustainable assessment
reconstruction proJramme.
The handbooN is not only releYant to the most recent +aiti emer-
Reconstruction
Jency but refers Jenerically to similar post-disaster situations in
less-deYeloped countries in /atin America Southern and &entral The handbook concentrates on
Asia and Africa. the reconstruction phase.3
The objectiYes of the handbooN are to

proYide technical information on the sustainable neiJhbourhoods and inteJrated settlement
approaches includinJ construction materials and technoloJies enerJy efÀciency and ecoloJi-
cal aspects alternatiYe water supply and sanitation systems solid waste and enYironmentally
friendly site manaJement in hiJh-risN and poor-income areas
offer Juidance on the reuse and recyclinJ of temporary shelters and on the transfer from
transitional shelter to permanent housinJ it includes orientation on damaJe assessments
debris reuse and controlled demolition
proYide a selection of successful post-disaster reconstruction e[amples implemented in
cities with recommendations for better disaster preparedness
present practical checNlists and references to assist practitioners Àeld worNers and other
staNeholders in maNinJ their choices.
Who is the handbook for?

This handbooN is mainly for Àeld practitioners who are planninJ and implementinJ housinJ-
reconstruction proJrammes in urban areas. This includes members of reconstruction operations
such as proJramme manaJers and housinJ and construction deleJates. The Juidelines haYe
3 Adapted from 8niYersity of :estminster

The listed case studies in this handbooN are not intended to be used as fully resolYed solutions for direct
application. They function rather as e[periences to Jenerate ideas and to proYide a certain inspiration and
where appropriate to adapt and to apply to the JiYen conte[t. Socio-economic conditions cultural norms
Jender etc. toJether with many other factors may inÁuence the process and success of any interYention in
urban reconstruction.
15
been desiJned also for use by JoYernment institutions as well as local authorities enJaJed in
reconstruction actiYities.
A buildinJ cannot be built without fundamental NnowledJe of construction materials and tech-
noloJies. Therefore reconstruction implementers should as far as possible enJaJe qualiÀed
personnel such as project superYisors planners architects and enJineers. They should not only
haYe technical and orJanisational capacities but also haYe e[perience in manaJinJ teams and
demonstrate Jood interpersonal sNills. Successful reconstruction projects are typically manaJed
by implementers who are hiJhly committed and motiYated team leaders.
/astly reconstruction and recoYery proJramme manaJers and their technical staff should
consistently encouraJe participatory methods which foster social cohesion and build on local
NnowledJe and capacities.
How should it be used?

,n line with best practices eYery effort should be made so that the host country·s JoYernment
undertaNes the rehabilitation and reconstruction of larJe-scale housinJ and infrastructure pro-
jects. +oweYer if the host country·s JoYernment does not haYe the capacity to do so due to
the impact of the disaster other actors includinJ 5ed &ross 5ed &rescent 5&5& may decide
to interYene to taNe on the worN and/or proYide assistance throuJh direct implementation.
This handbooN has been desiJned to be used as a ¶hands-on· resource to facilitate National
Society staff and ,)5& staff throuJh the process and issues that need to be Nept in mind while
planninJ and implementinJ sustainable reconstruction projects. ,t is not by any means an
e[haustiYe Juide but aims to proYide insiJht into the sequences and processes that will need
to be implemented throuJhout a reconstruction proJramme. &ase studies hiJhliJhtinJ Jood-
practice e[amples are used throuJhout the document.
What does it include?

This Juide does not repeat technical adYice aYailable in other sectoral manuals but refers readers
to these manuals and other useful readinJ material as and where appropriate.
The overview proYides bacNJround on why the urban conte[t is siJniÀcant relatiYe to trends
in urbanisation and how and why these often unmanaJed processes impact on populations
once disaster striNes. The oYerYiew includes
6LJQLÀFDQFHRIWKHXUEDQFRQWH[W &onsiders why the focus is on the urban.
Urban risk +iJhliJhts the risNs associated with urban areas and the challenJes as well as
opportunities that urban conte[ts present in times of disaster.
Sustainable reconstruction DeÀnes the principles and elements required to achieYe a

sustainable recoYery.
Needs assessments and analysis chapter 1 elaborates on processes aYailable for assessment
of communities damaJe land enYironment and institutions with further reference to other
assessment tools from alternatiYe documents.
1
Methodological approach chapter hiJhliJhts Yarious approaches aYailable for interim and
permanent solutions as well as outlininJ the uses for cash proJrammes and aYailable participa-
tory methods for worNinJ with communities.
Who is involved? chapter 3 outlines speciÀc professionals and their roles within a reconstruc-
tion proJramme as well as the institutions that professionals and implementinJ orJanisations
will need to worN with in deliYerinJ the rehabilitation proJramme.
Preparation chapter coYers an introduction to processes for community enJaJement the
basics of reconstruction proJramme planninJ as well as land surYeyinJ and site selection.
Planning and design process chapter 5 proYides insiJht into settlement planninJ in terms of
technical social enYironmental and reJulatory considerations with further adYice on housinJ
desiJn and buildinJ form under the same subject headinJs.
Infrastructure chapter proYides information on the basics of proYision for water sanitation
and drainaJe as well as planninJ for roads solid waste manaJement and other infrastructure
serYices.
Implementation chapter 7 proYides an oYerYiew of the phases and elements used within
construction proJrammes.
Monitoring and risk reduction chapter 8 encompasses issues of quality throuJhout the con-
struction process maintenance and Juidelines on how to incorporate risN-reduction measures
at a community leYel.
Overview
Why focus on the urban context?
The handbooN·s oYerall focus is on the urban
conte[t which coYers neiJhbourhoods in peri-
urban as well as urban areas. Peri-urban refers
to the urban frinJe and is located between
the suburbs of the city and its surroundinJ
countryside.
The :orld Disaster 5eport 15 stresses the
siJniÀcance of urban risNs
“Far more attention needs to be given to urban
risk in a world which is urbanising rapidly and
where Ior the Àrst time over halI the world·s
population lives in cities and towns. More than
one billion people today live in appalling con-
ditions in urban areas and their numbers are
growing.”
An urban neighbourhood in
La Paz, Bolivia
Daniel :yss SNat
5 ,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 1 :orld Disasters 5eport 1
² )ocus on urban risN
17
0ost of these densely populated and poorly deYeloped city areas are e[posed to ha]ards. ,n
particular these populations are Yulnerable to earthquaNes cyclones and Áoods amonJ others.
5ecent e[amples of cities that haYe been seYerely affected by natural disasters are Port-au-
Prince +aiti earthquaNe in 1 %am ,ran earthquaNe in 3 and 5io de -aneiro %ra]il
landslides due to heaYy rainfalls in 1.
&ities as a whole with their hiJh concentration of people buildinJs infrastructure and econo-
mies are places of small and larJe-scale disasters when situated in risN areas of the world. ,n
particular urban areas in low-income countries face Yery hiJh leYels of risN due to inadequate
infrastructure the low quality of housinJ construction and the failures of local JoYernment. The
poor in urban enYironments often haYe the most to lose when disaster striNes.
/ow-quality insecure ha]ardous and oYercrowded urban housinJ construction located on
danJerous sites such as Áood plains steep slopes and unstable Jround is a major challenJe.
,nadequate proYision of urban infrastructure and serYices such as piped water and sanitation
lacN of drainaJe poor-quality roads and electricity etc. present a further difÀculty. /astly poor
urban populations lacN inÁuence oYer local JoYernment especially when formulatinJ their
responses in recoYery and post-disaster reconstruction.
,)5&·s one-year proJress report of the +aiti (arthquaNe 2peration 11 summarises the
problem as
“7ake an urban setting in one oI the world·s poorest countries add a couple oI million people
packed tightly together in poorly constructed dwellings built on steep or otherwise hazardous
sites, omit enforced building codes, construction quality inspections, adequate urban planning,
sewerage systems and municipal solid waste management and shake hard.”
Urban risks
8rban areas are often risN-prone places in which to liYe and worN. This is particularly the case
in cities where many low-income populations liYe on ha]ard-prone sites i.e. steep slopes
because alternatiYe safer land is not aYailable to them. They often lacN Ànancial means to taNe
measures that can reduce the risNs they face.
8rban risNs are often attributed to
cities deYelopinJ or e[pandinJ onto sites at risN from Áoods landslides or earthquaNes
usually particular population Jroups rather than the whole city are at risN
settlement patterns and buildinJs that increase scales and leYels of risN from Áoods land-
slides earthquaNes Àres transport accidents or industrial accidents particular Jroups are
at risN
the role of ¶under-resourced· local JoYernments in causinJ or e[acerbatinJ risNs from Áoods
landslides earthquaNes Àres transport accidents and industrial accidents throuJh for in-
stance non-conformance to national or local buildinJ codes or lacN of codes
chanJes in the outlyinJ reJions around cities that can cause or e[acerbate risNs from Áoods
e.J. poor watershed manaJement ² often a problem for municipal JoYernments when the
watershed lies outside their jurisdiction.
Adapted from A85AN 7
18
Severe damages after the Haiti
earthquake (2010)
A further siJniÀcant issue is that of land and shelter. As hiJhliJhted in +aiti but eYident in 0arco .oNic ,&5&
many disasters the lacN of temporary procedures mechanisms or recoJnised best practice to
enable the short-term or interim use of land or property for the temporary settlinJ of displaced
households is a major impediment to proYidinJ adequate housinJ and settlement solutions.
/acN of tenure inadequate land reJister cadastral systems and inequity in the recoJnition
of property riJhts for e[ample are systemic issues that require solutions. +oweYer after a
disaster these issues are often not adequately addressed to enable immediate housinJ and
settlement needs to be met.
&onditions that inÁuence the reconstruction process in urban areas present both opportunities
as well as challenJes7
Opportunities
PriYate sector capacity Ànancial as well as operational is Jreater in urban areas especially
in the construction sector.
There is often capacity in public sector orJanisations includinJ those responsible for disaster
manaJement but they often lacN e[perience in coordination between ministries.
There is the potential for disaster-risN-reduction D55 measures to be based in planninJ
and other reJulatory frameworNs.
7 Adapted from Abhas .. -.
1
+iJher literacy leYels in urban areas may translate into Jreater efÀcacy of communication
initiatiYes undertaNen by the recoYery and reconstruction aJencies.
There is potential for priYate sector inYestments to support the reconstruction objectiYe.
There are economic and social interests and political orJanisations and relationships between
them.
Challenges
/and is scarce and therefore commands hiJher Yalues.
2wnership and titlinJ issues may require leJal procedures in order to be resolYed.
There is increased incidence of informal housinJ located in hiJh-risN areas.
5isNs of enYironmental deJradation are hiJher and Jreater planninJ effort is required to
adequately address them.
+ousinJ reconstruction efforts are often more difÀcult as well as more costly.
Social structures are more comple[ and are liNely to JiYe rise to conÁicts and to complicate
participation in reconstruction planninJ.
Informal housing in an 5ubble remoYal and adequate disposal is more difÀcult due to lacN of space.
urban area

(conomic impacts from the urban disaster are more liNely to affect the rest of the country.
DamaJe to infrastructure and serYice-deliYery networNs is Jreater in urban areas and presents
additional Ànancial assistance requirements as well as lonJer proJramme-completion time
lines.
Principles of sustainable reconstruction in the urban context

“Meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future genera-
tions to meet their own needs” %rundtland &ommission in 187 requires balancinJ the interests
of enYironment social equity and the economy. Therefore sustainable reconstruction has to
be seen as an inteJrated approach. (nYironmental technical economic social and institutional
concerns are considered in each staJe and for each actiYity of reconstruction to ensure the best
lonJ-term result not only in terms of house desiJn and construction actiYities but also in the
proYision of related urban infrastructure such as roads water supply and sanitation systems.
,nteJrated approaches also should include social structures and consider liYelihoods opportuni-
ties and protection/safety issues.
There are at least ÀYe Ney principles behind sustainable urban housinJ8
Technical sustainability The requisite sNills can be introduced and passed on to others
and the necessary tools are accessible to the affected population.
Institutional sustainability There is a structure to brinJ toJether the different staNeholders
without for e[ample needinJ to call on outside e[pertise on each occasion.
Social sustainability The oYerall process and product Àts within and satisÀes the needs of
the society.
Environmental sustainability The chosen approach aYoids depletinJ natural resources and
contaminatinJ the enYironment.
Economic sustainability 0oney or serYice e[chanJe can be accessed to pay for the worN
that needs to be done.
8 -ohn Norton in ,5P ² ,nternational 5ecoYery Platform/8NDP ² 8nited Nations DeYelopment ProJramme
,ndia 1
1
)urther details on the aboYe subheadinJs are described in the followinJ list
Technical
resistance of housinJ construction to withstand a natural ha]ard
practical technically simple and feasible solutions
Àeld-tested construction technoloJies for urban areas includinJ apartment blocNs and
multi-storey buildinJs
safety of housinJ desiJn
housinJ desiJn and construction materials that are Yiable for the local climate e.J. use of
natural liJhtinJ and coolinJ systems
compliance with buildinJ codes
awareness about safe buildinJ standards and quality of construction
Institutional
stronJ planninJ and e[ecutiYe capacities of local JoYernments
urban JoYernance
clear land ownership and secure tenure
reliable local authorities with capacity to issue buildinJ permits and planninJ permissions
comprehensiYe buildinJ codes and their enforcement
effectiYe cooperation between communities local JoYernments and priYate sector
spatial planninJ ² access density public serYices marNet places etc.
Social
housinJ desiJn that is adaptable to the users· needs and liYinJ conditions
different members of the community i.e. women Jirls men boys elderly and disabled
proYidinJ feedbacN on the desiJn
social and cultural releYance of housinJ desiJn community planninJ and capacity-buildinJ
of urban neiJhbourhoods
Yocational traininJ
Environmental
enYironmental characteristics of construction material safe durable and not from sources
that are oYere[ploited or threatened e.J. unsustainably harYested wood
low Jeneration of waste durinJ production and construction
hiJh potential for waste reuse or recyclinJ of material
sustainable enerJy supply if possible maNinJ use of renewable enerJy sources

Economic
economic feasibility buildinJ costs and oYerall affordability
low-cost buildinJ desiJn
positiYe effect on local economy community inYolYement in production and construction
support and strenJtheninJ of local sNills
enterprise deYelopment
employment opportunities
home-based income Jeneration as part of employment creation opportunities
A holistic urban reconstruction interYention should follow the principles of sustainable recoYery
as set out below
Permanence The affected population is able to return to or otherwise secure permanent
housinJ. +ousinJ support needs to be equitable between the needs of renters and landlords.
Disaster risk reduction +ousinJ units that are repaired or replaced adequately account for
future ha]ard risN in desiJn construction and materials. /ocal Nnow-how and methods of or-
Janisation adaptation and housinJ protection strateJies need to be identiÀed and incorporated
into the proJrammes.
Viability The housinJ solution is one that ensures access to appropriate serYices required by
residents to lead a practical and practicable liYinJ e.J. access to liYelihoods aYailability of
food and water access to marNets utilities and transportation access to reliJion and reliJious
facilities e[istence of a community.
Independence The affected population is able to achieYe self-reliance.
Cultural sensitivity The projects are deYeloped in line with the cultural practices and traditional
Yalues of the affected communities.
Community input and acceptance The wishes of the affected population are heard un-
derstood respected and incorporated. Affected populations need to be at the centre of the
needs assessment and the eYaluation of local capacities adopt community-driYen approaches
strenJthen social ties that enable a return of indiYidual diJnity.
Gender sensitive and socially inclusive The projects taNe the needs of women Jirls men and
boys and elderly and disabled people into consideration.
Environmentally friendly housing ,f the project can haYe adYerse effects on the enYironment
a plan is in place to address the neJatiYe enYironmental impact.
Cost-effectiveness +ousinJ solutions do not put JoYernments communities or indiYidual
residents in cripplinJ Ànancial circumstances. &ost-effectiYeness needs are considered not only
for eYentual maintenance but also when deYelopinJ the project.
Adapted from ,5P ² ,nternational 5ecoYery Platform/8NDP ² 8nited Nations DeYelopment ProJramme
,ndia 1
3
Progressive 2nJoinJ lonJ-term deYelopment proJress is maintained and continuinJ com-
munity Joals are not sacriÀced for short-term indiYidual beneÀts. The urban fabric needs to
be carefully analysed and spatial planninJ considerations tailored to reinforce strenJths and
address pre-e[istinJ Japs. Density issues of informal/slum areas should be recoJnised and
subsequently hiJher construction densities and lower minimum space standards are accepted.
)urther to the aboYe the followinJ leadinJ principles of urban reconstruction are recom-
mended1
The housinJ proJramme should support the objectiYes established for the reconstruction
proJramme in its reconstruction policy.
(ach disaster will require its own housinJ approach. There is no ¶one si]e Àts all· recipe.
Decisions reJardinJ eliJibility criteria and housinJ assistance must be objectiYely adopted
and transparently made.
Any post-disaster housinJ policy must consider the situation of the affected populations
that fall under all cateJories of housinJ tenancy includinJ squatters and renters althouJh
all members of all cateJories may not receiYe assistance.
Assistance needs to be tailored to different leYels of damaJe and where possible actions
must be aYoided that could lead to beneÀciaries haYinJ false e[pectations that assistance will
be proYided. This could in turn lead to neJatiYe publicity for the implementinJ orJanisation.
Reconstruction and sustainable urban development11

Emergency and sustainability
DamaJes to and the destruction of urban areas caused by natural disasters or ciYil unrest need
immediate reconstruction in order to restore people·s liYelihoods and proYide them with hous-
inJ. 5econstruction should focus on basic urban serYices such as housinJ trafÀc infrastructure
technical supply commercial social and administratiYe facilities. These serYices howeYer do
not only coYer urJent needs of the affected inhabitants but they also JiYe siJniÀcant direction
for lonJ-term urban deYelopments. 2nce the foundations for residential economic and other
urban actiYities are constructed they triJJer lonJ-term and often irreYersible urban deYelop-
ment. ,f these lonJ-term effects of emerJency reconstruction are not taNen into consideration
from the Yery beJinninJ the resultinJ construction can result in dysfunctional urban spaces.
11 A contribution by Tim 5ieniets (T+= on the importance of the urban neiJhbourhood¶s capacity to adapt to
chanJes ² Planners and decision maNers need to consider issues of Áe[ibility from the beJinninJ riJht after
the disaster.

,n the past many reconstruction proJrammes haYe failed because of their short-siJhtedness
or cultural inappropriateness and as a result either they are discredited or the inhabitants
are accused of misuse. Therefore sustainable urban reconstruction needs to consider at least
two planninJ hori]ons Àrstly the immediate assistance for people in need and secondly the
lonJ-term deYelopment of the city.
Local expertise
The needs for short-term urban reconstruction caused by catastrophes or ciYil unrest are self-
eYident and can be easily assessed. The needs for lonJ-term sustainable deYelopments howeYer
can be estimated only on the basis of empirical NnowledJe proJnoses and scenario techniques.
)or this purpose in-depth NnowledJe of the local political social and cultural conditions is
needed :hat are the lonJ-term needs and requirements of the population? :hich staNeholders
are inYolYed in urban decision-maNinJ processes e.J. local authorities clan chiefs landlords
affected population etc.? :hich economic and social structures of eYeryday urban life haYe
to be considered e.J. Jender issues interrelation of worN and life? :hich traditions norms
and Yalues haYe to be respected?
8rban reconstruction can lead to a sustainable deYelopment only if these local conditions are
taNen into consideration. Therefore appropriate NnowledJe should be inteJrated into the desiJn
process from the Yery beJinninJ. Since the collection of such NnowledJe is time-consuminJ it
should be collected in adYance and included in a pre-e[istinJ continJency plan.
)UDPHZRUNDQGLQÀOO
/onJ-term deYelopments of cities are hardly predictable. The future of a city cannot be
foreseen especially followinJ the far-reachinJ consequences of disasters. (Yen if proJnoses
scenarios and empirical NnowledJe are conducted as suJJested aboYe the future cannot be
predicted Áawlessly. +ow it is then possible to desiJn urban reconstruction projects in order
to allow for sustainable lonJ-term deYelopments? To proYide the best conditions for future
urban deYelopment and to minimise the risN of failure it is suJJested that the desiJn of urban
reconstruction projects is diYided into two separate yet interrelated cateJories
)rameworN This includes all projects of primary importance that haYe to be realised at all
eYents in order to serYe common needs e.J. main trafÀc infrastructure commercial social and
administratiYe infrastructures of major importance main technical supplies etc.. These projects
haYe to be built Àrst and in accordance with appropriate standards as well as buildinJ codes.
,nÀll This includes all other projects of secondary importance e.J. secondary infrastructure
secondary technical supplies etc.. These projects can be built time after time and accordinJ
to local possibilities and needs. They are Áe[ible and can adapt to unforeseen deYelopments.
Also if in accordance with leJal and cultural conditions they may be built by users as self-help
projects.
5
Programme preparation
1. Needs assessment and analysis
The needs assessment and analysis phase of an urban reconstruction interYention is crucial and
forms the basis of the entire reconstruction proJramme.
1.1 General
The followinJ assessments are recommended for consideration in urban enYironments. They
are intended to JiYe a detailed oYerYiew of the situation on the Jround in order to be able
to plan and implement a reconstruction proJramme utilisinJ all sustainable resources and
capabilities aYailable to the community. 9ital for any proJramme is the ability to identify the
affected population in particular the most Yulnerable. ,t is recommended that all assessments
are carried out utilisinJ a Jender lens thus ensurinJ a better understandinJ of the needs of the
affected population. 5ecoJnisinJ the physical social economic and enYironmental constraints
of the situation will assist in identifyinJ the most appropriate methodoloJical approach for
reconstruction1
Household survey to assess the leYel of damaJe to the buildinJs the type of buildinJs that
e[isted before the disaster land ownership income liYelihoods infrastructure preferences
family si]es Jender issues etc.
Baseline survey to assess the conditions before any reconstruction actiYity beJins to deÀne
the pre-operation situation to deYelop indicators that will be used to assess achieYement of
the outcomes and impact e[pressed in the proJramme·s desiJn
Stakeholder analysis to at least maNe a list of the releYant staNeholders and their priorities
Damage assessment assessment of public buildinJs and facilities local authorities churches
schools clinics marNet places assessment of infrastructure ² proYision of water sanitation
electricity etc.
Analysis of available local construction materials includinJ their quality supply chains
adYantaJes disadYantaJes etc.
Map of seasonal variations on aYailability of materials and labour
Analysis of local building practices includinJ their quality adYantaJes disadYantaJes etc.
Assessment of locally available skills and capacities for reconstruction
Livelihoods analysis to assess major occupation sectors income Jeneration opportunities etc.
Vulnerability and capacity assessment 9&A of the community
PASSA Participatory Approach for Safe Shelter Awareness
Assessment of potential constraints on schedulinJ of reconstruction measurements durinJ

seasons and festiYals.
1 Adapted from 5ed5 in 2[fam 8

1
1.2 Community assessment
&ommunity assessments are essential for the reconstruction and entire deYelopment process.
The beneÀts include Àeld YeriÀcation of satellite mappinJ JaininJ NnowledJe about the com-
munity that has been affected and identifyinJ community resources and sNills that can be
inteJrated into the reconstruction process.
&ommunity assessment assumes that communities understand their own e[posure to disaster risN.
(Yerybody has the riJht to an assessment of his/her house for safety and equality reasons
To meet this requirement one needs to orJanise efÀcient manaJement structures to handle a
larJe worNload of assessments.
The followinJ Ney questions can help in community assessments13
:hy were people Yulnerable to the ha]ard that occurred?
Did Yulnerabilities differ amonJst Yarious Jroups of people e.J. it is important to thinN
about Jirls and boys especially in conte[ts where there are child-headed households
women Jirls men and boys owners/tenants landowners/landless people able/disabled?
+as the disaster further worsened the pre-disaster Yulnerabilities?
:ho are the indiYiduals or Jroups of people that are particularly at risN and will thus need
special attention in reconstruction?
:hat is the probability of disasters happeninJ in this area? Does it haYe particular JeoJraphic Community gathering
features that maNe it Yulnerable? AJostino Pacciani ,)5&
Are there any other risNs besides those

directly related to a disaster?
:hat are the local capabilities amonJst resi-
dents local authorities professionals as well
as construction worNers and contractors to
build in a disaster-resistant manner?
Are the required resources for reconstruction
² human resources with the riJht sNills and
materials ² aYailable?
+ow is power used in the community and
how power miJht be used or abused to
create Yulnerable Jroups of people or
control resources.
13 Adapted from ,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies/Practical Action
1 Tool 3
7
Programme preparation 1. Needs assessment and analysis
Vulnerable groups should always be included in the community-assessment process. 9ulner-

able Jroups consist of displaced people women Jirls men and boys the elderly the disabled
orphans and any Jroup e[posed to potential discrimination. 9ulnerable Jroups may require
that particular steps be taNen in reconstruction. *ood practices include1
actiYely inYolYinJ Yulnerable Jroup members in assessment and in all staJes of decision-maNinJ
obtaininJ information about the needs of the affected Jroup from both men and women
collectinJ data disaJJreJated by se[ aJe health status economic status etc. and then
usinJ the disaJJreJated data in both proJramme planninJ and monitorinJ
payinJ special attention in assessments to Jroups that e[perience social e[clusion such as
the handicapped widows and female heads of household
assessinJ disaster impact on the informal social protection systems on which Yulnerable
Jroups depend.
1.3 Damage assessment

A damaJe assessment is an assessment of the total or partial destruction of physical assets both
physical units and reconstruction costs. 2ne of the objectiYes of structural damaJe assessments
is to analyse why some buildinJs were badly damaJed and others less so.
A professional team of enJineers and architects with e[perience in urban reconstruction
toJether with representatiYes/technical personnel from local authorities should carry out the
damaJe assessment to ensure a certain quality of the results of the assessment.
The followinJ are Ney questions that should be asNed durinJ damaJe assessments
:hat made people·s housinJ Yulnerable to the ha]ard?
:hich construction technoloJies were used mostly and what were their strenJths and weaN-
nesses?
:hat aspects inÁuenced disaster resistance with particular technoloJies?
An inherent aspect of urban areas relates to the comple[ities of multi-storey buildinJs. Dam-
aJe assessments of these constructions especially if built in reinforced concrete often require
sophisticated e[pertise and costly testinJ of load bearinJ structures. The results of indiYidual
buildinJ assessments should also consider the adjacent properties which put the assessed
property at risN.
8rban housinJ damaJes are cateJorised accordinJ to the anticipated leYel of effort required
to return the residents to their home. These cateJories usually encompass the followinJ
descriptions15
Affected Structure is inhabitable with no additional risN to the resident. 2ften followinJ
earthquaNes it is common to see residents in the affected area whose structures receiYed
no damaJe whatsoeYer but who are otherwise too scared to return because they are unable

8
1
to assess the safety of their homes. Their homes may eYen haYe suffered some cosmetic
damaJe but are nonetheless safe to inhabit. Typically these residents require nothinJ more
than reassurance from a trained architect or structural enJineer who can certify the safety
of the homes.
Minor damage Structure has sustained damaJe that maNes it uninhabitable but minor
temporary repairs can be made to enable the resident to return. )or e[ample a resident of a
house that may haYe lost parts of a roof or roof shinJles in a cyclone may be able to return
home after installinJ a waterproof tarpaulin. Permanent repairs will be required in the lonJ
run but the habitability of the home reduces the burden on temporary shelter serYices.
Major damage Structure has sustained damaJe that will require siJniÀcant worN to repair
and is unsafe for residents in its current state.
Destroyed Structure is permanently uninhabitable. ,n these cases the home cannot be
repaired and must be demolished if it is still standinJ.
A standard format of a Detailed Evaluation Safety Assessment Form is attached in Annex IV.
1.4 Land assessment

Secure land tenure is a major requirement of any reconstruction and infrastructure proJramme
followinJ a natural disaster. /and assessments therefore are necessarily carried out durinJ the
early staJes of the disaster to identify and collect data on cross-cuttinJ issues such as security
of land tenure land and the landless land administration procedures land-use and settlement
planninJ and land for potential relocation and infrastructure.
At the reconstruction staJe much of the information Jathered throuJhout the precedinJ Providing support
staJes should haYe been collated into transferable information for handoYer to JoYernment for community-based
and community actors. ,deally this information is Jathered with the inYolYement of JoYern- land-management systems
AJostino Pacciani ,)5&
ment and community and the processes and
resultant data are represented in a format that
can be aliJned within e[istinJ national and local
administration procedures.
.ey actiYities to be implemented at the recon-
struction staJe are1
implementinJ transfer of land information
tools and functions to JoYernment and com-
munity actors
ensurinJ recoJnition of tenure security
measures by land administration systems
maNinJ sure tenure security for all ben-
eÀciaries of housinJ proJrammes includinJ
relocated persons
1 8N-+A%,TAT ² 8nited Nations +uman Settlements ProJramme 1 /and and Natural Disasters *uidance
for Practitioners

supportinJ international standards for leJal adjudication of riJhts to pre-disaster land

implementinJ steps to strenJthen/upJrade land tenure for informal landholders
ensurinJ secure riJhts and access to aJricultural land for Yulnerable Jroups includinJ ten-
ants and women
maNinJ sure support and recoJnition for effectiYe community-based land and resource
manaJement systems
deYelopinJ administratiYe functions to brinJ coher-

ence to post-disaster land measures
facilitatinJ inclusiYe land policy system for sustain-
able deYelopment and disaster risN reduction and
preparedness
ensurinJ Áe[ible and participatory planninJ stand-
ards that adapt to chanJinJ settlement practices.
1.4.1 Mapping
)irst and foremost it is essential to identify whether the
oriJinal location of housinJ pre-disaster is safe for re-
construction. ,f assessments proYe this is not an option
then suitable land for relocation or resettlement must
be identified and aJreed between all staNeholders.
This process requires close coordination between the
affected communities and the releYant local authorities.
5isN mappinJ is an important part of this assessment pro-
cess inYolYinJ specialist surYeys measurinJ the e[posure
of sites to natural ha]ards.
There are seYeral tools which are used in the mappinJ
process
Remote sensing
5emote sensinJ is a method of obtaininJ information
on land and JeoJraphical patterns from a distance
typically from a satellite or throuJh aerial imaJinJ tech-
niques. Sophisticated technical equipment and special
software are required. NASA pictures can be used as a
basis for data assessments and further planninJ.
5emote sensinJ can be utilised to analyse natural disas-
ters such as Áoods Àres and Yolcanoes. 5emote sensinJ
can also be used to proYide reJular updates on Áooded
land which can help in calculatinJ the amount of land
Land registration map in Haiti
%ritish 5ed &ross
required for relocation.
3
1
:hen linNed with JeoJraphic information system *,S data remote sensinJ can contribute to
assessment of Jround conditions post-disaster as well as assist in analysis of the impacts of
past or future disasters.
Remote sensing after the earthquake in Haiti 201017 &ase study
The 8nited Nations ,nstitute for TraininJ and 5esearch 8N,TA5/2perational Satellite Applications
ProJramme 8N2SAT the (uropean &ommission (&/-oint 5esearch &entre -5& the &entre
National d·,nformation *po-Spatial &N,*S representinJ the *oYernment of +aiti and The :orld
%anN/*lobal )acility for Disaster 5eduction and 5ecoYery *)D55 supported by its consultant
,maJe&at did a detailed assessment of damaJe to buildinJs.
The results of this analysis haYe been siJniÀcant in identifyinJ the rebuildinJ needs of +aiti. This
damaJe assessment applied the method of remote sensinJ technoloJy. NeYer before had the
aYailability of hiJh-resolution satellite and aerial imaJery been so open and accessible. Data from
different missions ² The :orld %anN/,maJe&at-5,T 5emote SensinJ 0ission 15-centimetre optical
and pt/m /iDA5 *ooJle 15-centimetre optical N2AA 5-centimetre optical Pictometry as
well as satellite imaJery from *eo(ye and DiJitalJlobe ² allowed damaJe from the +aiti earth-
quaNe to be Yiewed throuJh multiple sensors and at different times. These multi-dimensional
perspectiYes were Yery useful in understandinJ the maJnitude and scope of damaJe.
Port-au-Prince building
damages summarized by
dominant landcover, Haiti
8N2SAT
17 The :orld %anN/,nternational %anN of 5econstruction and DeYelopment 1

31
,n addition to the improYement in access to remote sensinJ data improYements in information

technoloJy social networNinJ and communities sharinJ their NnowledJe played a crucial role
in both data deYelopment and damaJe assessment. *lobal (arth 2bserYation-&atastrophe As-
sessment NetworN *(2-&AN emerJed from this eYent as an une[pected resource for damaJe
assessment. &omprised of oYer enJineers and scientists from 3 countries representinJ
oYer uniYersities 18 JoYernment and non-proÀt orJanisations and more than 5 priYate
companies *(2-&AN identiÀed close to 3 seYerely damaJed buildinJs in less than a weeN
usinJ Yery-hiJh-resolution aerial imaJery.
8tilisinJ the aerial imaJery detailed damaJe assessments of indiYidual buildinJs were carried
out by comparinJ pre-earthquaNe satellite imaJery to post-earthquaNe aerial photos. 8sinJ
complementary approaches data sets produced by The :orld %anN/*(2-&AN team and the
8N2SAT/-5& teams were used to 1 estimate the total number of collapsed and seYerely
damaJed buildinJs in Port-au-Prince and surroundinJ areas and establish the oYerall reli-
ability of the aerial surYey damaJe results. ,n total damaJe estimates were proYided for 13
administratiYe units within +aiti.
,n order to Yalidate the aerial surYey results and to also e[trapolate this information to lower
damaJe states which may not be eYident from the aerial photos the 8N2SAT/-5&/The :orld
%anN/,maJe&at team performed strateJically tarJeted Àeld Jround surYeys. ,n addition a
separate enJineerinJ team conducted more detailed damaJe assessments usinJ Yery hiJh
resolution oblique imaJery proYided by Pictometry. This latter dataset was Yery useful in
determininJ whether major structural damaJe had been Jenerated that did not result in the
complete collapse of a structure. This information in conjunction with the Àeld surYey data
helped to Yalidate that the assessments produced from the aerial surYeys were precise in
identifyinJ the total number of collapsed structures and that statistically the aerial results
could be used as an inde[ for estimatinJ damaJe at all lower leYels ² below collapsed and
Yery seriously damaJed structures.
Geographical information system (GIS)

The JeoJraphical information system is a method for JeoJraphic data manaJement includ-
inJ data related to land water transport information on the population and socio-economic
indicators. *,S data can be combined with remote sensinJ to predict monitor and calculate
disaster impacts.
2ne of the most popular uses of *,S is the Jlobal positioninJ system *PS usinJ satellite infor-
mation. 8sers can easily Nnow where they are relatiYe to their destination and how to reach it.
Google Earth
The use of *ooJle (arth and also *ooJle 0aps can help to map urban neiJhbourhoods such
as identifyinJ boundaries streets density of buildinJs riYers seashores etc. ,t is easily acces-
sible Yia the internet and is free.
<et one has to Neep in mind that the information obtained from *ooJle (arth and *ooJle
0aps miJht not reÁect the current reality. The information is updated only from time to time.
3
1
Information management by the Shelter Cluster in Haiti &ase study
,nformation manaJement was one of the most Yaluable elements of the coordination process
in +aiti. The Shelter &oordination Team ,nformation 0anaJers Àrst Jathered data on actiYities
undertaNen by cluster partner aJencies in order to create a consolidated picture of the oYerall
operation. The data enabled the Shelter &luster to identify Japs and oYerlaps in the response.
The information was fed bacN to aJencies durinJ national hub and sub-hub meetinJs in the
form of maps or on *ooJle (arth mappinJ. The information products allowed aJencies to
Yisually identify their implementation actiYities and adapt accordinJly for an improYed response.
The Shelter &luster went throuJh a process of analysinJ a ranJe of datasets as follows
results of a satellite imaJery analysis of buildinJ damaJe
results of a surYey conducted across many camps in the affected area which focused on
camp residents· oriJinal housinJ
results of buildinJ assessments conducted by the +aitian 0inistry of Public :orNs Transport
and &ommunications 0TPT&.
ThouJh all data sets came with caYeats trianJulatinJ between these analyses allowed the
Shelter &luster to deYelop an estimate of transitional shelter needs. ,n turn the proYision of
such needs data allowed aJencies to decide upon tarJet populations for their proJrammes
focusinJ speciÀcally on areas with Japs in proYision.
*ooJle 0aps
33
OpenStreetMap (OSM)
/ess cost intensiYe than are the aerial imaJinJ techniques is the 2penStreet0ap 2S0 method
it is comparatiYely cheap and is easy to apply. 2S0 is a collaboratiYe project to create a free
editable map of the world. The maps are created usinJ data from portable *PS deYices aerial
photoJraphy other free sources or simply local NnowledJe. 5eJistered users can upload *PS
tracN loJs and edit the data usinJ the JiYen editinJ tools.
The initial map data is built from scratch by Yolunteers performinJ systematic Jround surYeys
each usinJ a handheld *PS unit and a notebooN diJital camera or Yoice recorder. This data is
then entered into the 2S0 database. 0ore recently the aYailability of aerial photoJraphy and
other data sources from commercial and JoYernment sources has Jreatly increased the speed
of this worN and has allowed land-use data to be collected more accurately.
Systematic Jround surYeys are performed by a mapper Yolunteer on foot or on a bicycle or
in a car or boat. 0ap data are usually collected usinJ a *PS unit althouJh this is not strictly
necessary if an area has already been traced from satellite imaJes. 2nce the data haYe been
collected they are entered into the database by uploadinJ them on the project·s website. At
that point in time no information about the Nind of uploaded tracN is aYailable it could be for
e[ample a motorway a footpath or a riYer. Thus in a second step editinJ taNes place usinJ
one of seYeral purpose-built map editors. This is usually done by the same mapper sometimes
by other users Yolunteers reJistered at 2S0. As the tasN of collectinJ and uploadinJ data
is separated from editinJ objects contribution to the project is possible also without usinJ a
*PS unit. ,n particular placinJ and editinJ objects such as schools hospitals ta[i ranNs bus
stops etc. is done based on editors· local NnowledJe. Some committed contributors similarly
the :iNipedia principle are systematically mappinJ whole towns and cities oYer a period of
time or orJanisinJ mappinJ parties to intensiYely map a particular area oYer an eYeninJ or a
weeNend. ,n addition to systematic Jround surYeys a larJe number of smaller edits are made
by contributors to correct errors or add features.
2S0 is Yery useful for accessinJ an oYerYiew of e[istinJ streets and buildinJs but has not the
same accuracy as haYe land reJistration cadastral maps.
Some JoYernment aJencies haYe released ofÀcial data on appropriate licences. 0uch of this
data has come from the 8S where the federal JoYernment does not copyriJht such data. 9ari-
ous authorities haYe also made more local detailed aerial photoJraphy aYailable on suitable
licences throuJh 2penAerial0ap. 2ut-of-copyriJht maps can be Jood sources of information
about features which do not chanJe frequently.
There is now a wide Yariety of proJrams that use 2S0 data to display maps on mobile phones
supportinJ a larJe number of different deYices. The Yarious proJrames distinJuish themselYes
accordinJ to Ney features such as whether they use raster maps or Yector maps need an in-
ternet connection or can be used ofÁine support alternate render layers such as cycle paths
support address search or adYanced features liNe routinJ thus caterinJ for a larJe number of
different needs for YiewinJ maps.
3
1
Use of OpenStreetMap in Haiti, 2010 &ase study
)ollowinJ the 1 +aiti earthquaNe 2penStreet-

0ap and &risis &ommons Yolunteers used aYailable
satellite imaJery to map the roads buildinJs and
refuJee camps of Port-au-Prince in just two days
buildinJ ´the most complete diJital map of +aiti·s
roadsµ. The resultinJ data and maps haYe been used
by seYeral orJanisations proYidinJ relief aid such as
The :orld %anN the (uropean &ommission ² -oint
5esearch &entre the 2fÀce for the &oordination of
+umanitarian Affairs 8N2SAT and others.
(http://haiti.openstreetmap.nl)
1.4.2 Legal status

,)5&·s Shelter Technical %rief of the +aiti (arthquaNe 2peration18 summarises the land-related
challenJes in this way “The overriding challenge is land. Access to land has often been blocked
due to a complex and informal system of land tenure making it unclear who actually holds the
title to a piece of land. Haiti lacks almost all of the key attributes of a functional civil land system.
The earthquake did not create land issues but it has certainly exacerbated them. As a result, plans
to build shelters have been seriously impacted. The humanitarian community has no control over
land ownership and efforts to secure sufÀcient amounts of land have taken much longer than ex-
pected with only a handful of identiÀed settlements having been established over the past months.”
/and and property ownership is a critical issue in reconstruction particularly where land and
assets are lost or reJisters and marNers are unaYailable. ,t is therefore crucial to facilitate claims
in open consultations with the affected community so that any potential disputes can be identi-
Àed and resolYed quicNly before they hinder the entire recoYery process. This should inYolYe
local leaders and local authorities toJether with independent professional adYisers especially
surYeyors and lawyers.
The followinJ Ney questions are based on the /ocal (merJency Needs for Shelter and Settlement
/(NSS ToolNit prepared by the (merJency Shelter &luster.1 The answers to these questions
will help in understandinJ the needs of disaster-affected indiYiduals and communities in order
to better prepare for the proJramme planninJ staJe
18 ,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 1 +aiti earthquaNe 1 ² 2ne-
year proJress report
1 8N-+A%,TAT ² 8nited Nations +uman Settlements ProJramme 1 /and and Natural Disasters *uidance
for Practitioners
Adapted from 8N-+A%,TAT ² 8nited Nations +uman Settlements ProJramme 1 /and and Natural
Disasters *uidance for Practitioners
35
Plot Picture Ownership :ho claims to own the land ² JoYern-

Delmas 19 Recovery ment priYate indiYiduals and/or community? :hat
Enumeration Summary is the leJal basis/eYidence for this claim? ,s the
(Plot, House, Family) claim contested by another staNeholder?
Hazards and risks +as there been a risN assess-
1- Physical Information ment of the land selected for permanent housinJ?
A- House State In Aug 2011 C- Land Owner ,s it suitable for housinJ and liYelihoods? ,s it suf-
Enumeration No. : EAL-001 Family Name : Louima Àciently free from natural ha]ards? +ow hiJh is the
House GPS : 18°33'40.03"N -- 72°18'57.92" First Name : William risN of land and resource conÁict with local com-
Current Quartier : Cité Aloulou Date of Land Acquistion :
munities?
Land Acquistion Type : Bought
House Status : Safe
Plot Size (m2): 38.5041 Legal mechanisms Does the constitution or na-
tional law include protection aJainst eYiction? Do
Storey No. : 1
Density (m2): 8
MTPTC Tag : Green
e[istinJ land recoYery or compensation mechanisms
apply to the situation?
B- House Owner D- Other Household
Family Name : Louima
The land tenure system ,s land tenure in the local-
Renter: No
First Name : William Other Occupant: No
Owner Phone : (509)3100-1262
ity formal customary informal or mi[ed? Does the
Owner's Family : No
Date of House Acquisition : 1998
systems proYide sufÀcient security of tenure for
affected landholders? Do people in the host com-
2-Livelihood Information munity area consider that the land tenure system
LLH Code Match : N/A Monthly Income(HTG): N/A
proYides sufÀcient security of tenure?
Name attached : N/A Household Credit(HTG): N/A
Household Debt(HTG) : N/A Household tenures Are affected persons landown-
3-HouseHold Information ers renters or occupiers with landowner consent?
Each HouseHold Head of Family :hat type of land riJhts does the host community
No. HH.Type Full Name Sex School HH Relation CIN/NIF Phone SingleHeaded Children
haYe? Are there any secondary riJhts-holders ² e.J.
Owner Wiliam Louima M N/A Head of Family 01-13-99-1962-05-00001 (509)3100-1262 No #Name? tenants persons with speciÀc-use riJhts?

Land records Do land records e[ist for the locality
affected by the disaster? Do these records proYide

sufÀcient security of tenure for buildinJ reconstruc-
tion? Do alternatiYe forms of eYidence of land riJhts
e[ist? Do these enjoy widespread local leJitimacy?

Do preYailinJ land dispute resolution mechanisms
include steps to restore or proYide tenure documen-
tation for buildinJ reconstruction?
Data sheet containing the Women and orphans Are there obstacles to women and Jirls owninJ usinJ or inheritinJ
information on the property land in their own names? &an orphans reJister riJhts to land in their own names?
status, obtained through a
participatory enumeration Land-use planning ,s there a land-use planninJ process for the locality? ,s it community-
process, undertaken by based participatory and/or consistent with actual settlement practices?
British Red Cross in Delmas 19,
Port-au-Prince, Haiti Legal status of renters versus owners and the kind of assistance that can be provided to
%ritish 5ed &ross different ‘case-loads’
5enters or tenants need a different Nind of assistance from that needed by owners of land/
property dependinJ on their situation.
3
1
PRE-DISASTER
SETTLED POPULATION
Temporary or permanent shelter
Categories before the disaster

Settlement typologies
House Apartment
owner-occupier owner-occupier
Apartment
House tenant
tenant
Occupancy with
Land tenant no legal status
Disaster
POST-DISASTER NON- POST-DISASTER DISPLACED

DISPLACED POPULATION POPULATION
Temporary or transitional shelter; Temporary or transitional shelter
repair or reconstruction
Categories after the disaster
SETTLEMENT TYPOLOGIES SETTLEMENT TYPOLOGIES
House Apartment Dispersed self- Short-term

owner-occupier owner-occupier settlement with land, house or
no legal status apartment tenant
Apartment Hosting by Collective

House tenant tenant families centres
Self-settled,
Occupancy with Planned and
Land tenant unplanned
no legal status managed camps
camps
DURABLE SOLUTIONS
Reconstruction, Resettlement, Reintegration
37
Tenants
After a natural disaster tenants face a hiJh risN of losinJ the riJht to use land and housinJ as a
result of factors such as rapid price increases in the land and housinJ marNet and an increase in
insurance rates. ProYidinJ permanent housinJ solutions for these tenants will entail restoration
of pre-disaster lease aJreements and/or support for repair or reconstruction of rental housinJ.
,n undertaNinJ such proJrammes it is crucial to Nnow that the security of tenure of tenants is
linNed to that of landowners.
5enters can receiYe cash Jrants as a rental subsidy for a limited period of time dependinJ on
the reconstruction proJramme e.J. 1 to 18 months. 2therwise tenants can be proYided with
direct Jrants linNed to reconstruction of their rental housinJ which needs the consent of the
landowner. Such aJreements should be based on detailed NnowledJe of local lease conditions
so as not to create fewer secure riJhts for the renter than they had before the disaster.
Landowners
There are adYocacy points and strateJies for post-disaster land ownership. Direct Jrants or
subsidised loans to landlords for reconstruction of rental housinJ can be made dependent on
1 aJreement to re-establish prior leases with an e[tension period for payment of Jrants or
aJreement to maNe the housinJ affordable to low-income tenants.
Informal landholders
There are Yarious ways to proYide secure access to land for informal landholders after a natural
disaster.
,ncremental or intermediate steps towards leJally approYed land riJhts are necessary in cases
where authorities are reluctant to proYide reJistered indiYidual titles to persons who occupied
land in an informal or illeJal manner prior to a disaster. ,ntermediate tenure forms proYide se-
curity without compromisinJ the state·s lonJ-term land riJhts for e[ample throuJh proYidinJ
¶certiÀcates of occupation·. This Juarantees the claimant the riJht to a space within a neiJh-
bourhood eYen thouJh the location of this riJht is not e[actly set. 2Yer time the certiÀcates
of occupation should be upJraded.
/and e[chanJes allow priYate inYestors to obtain land from the JoYernment in e[chanJe for
constructinJ housinJ for informal landholders inYestors howeYer must ensure that the liYeli-
hoods and assets of landholders are not damaJed.
38
1
1.4.3 Participatory enumeration
Participatory enumeration is a practical tool for a data-JatherinJ process which directly inYolYes
the people beinJ surYeyed. ,t entails the recordinJ of indiYidual statements and public Nnowl-
edJe about tenure. The surYey is completed and YeriÀed by the community itself professionals
and local authorities. All plots should be referenced and plotted on a map. The use of *PS
and landmarNs supports the community to Àll in a database to obtain all releYant information.
Thus a land reJistration map can be made throuJh community participation and YeriÀcation.
Participatory enumeration in
Delmas 19, Port-au-Prince, Haiti
%ritish 5ed &ross
3
&ase study Participatory enumeration, Haiti1
The speciÀc +aitian land administration conte[t is characterised by a lacN of accurate or

e[istent data on land tenure and tenancy riJhts dominatinJ informal forms of tenure in urban
areas informal settlements seYeral different forms of tenancy and a lacNinJ functional land-
reJistration system with a low leYel of formalised titles. Therefore participatory enumeration is
recommended to the +aitian conte[t to address the hiJh deJree of informal tenure.
The beneÀts of participatory enumeration include
)or residents
re-establishment of a resident roster approYed by the residents and endorsed by the authorities
ability to Neep all data from the roster in a uniÀed database a simple software proJram
containinJ the land information system /,S securinJ the riJhts of both owners and tenants
community empowerment and mobilisation ² enhanced neJotiatinJ power.
)or the state

efÀcient tool to improYe settlement upJradinJ and land-use planninJ
the database//,S system is a startinJ point for later systematic land-record improYement
property data which is useful for the eYentual deYelopment of a property-ta[-collection
system
possible improYement in the relationship between communities municipalities and national
JoYernment.
2YerYiew of the process
1. Preparation
social mobilisation and trust-buildinJ
cooperation of local authorities and community leaders establishment of an ad-hoc
committee
deÀnition of enumeration area
deYelopment of an aJreed time line
draftinJ of a standardised surYey form
recruitment and traininJ of enumerators
launch of the information campaiJn at least ten days before the start of the enumeration
enumeration test surYey at least seYen days before the start of the enumeration.
. Data-JatherinJ/enumeration
creatinJ a reference basis throuJh a community map
deYelopinJ the community map from a satellite imaJe subdiYided by subsections
manaJeable sections so that any enumerators/team of enumerators can easily perform
their tasNs
1 Adapted from &+) ,nternational 1

1
indicatinJ on the community map the timinJ and the precise date when the enumera-
tion process taNes place for each subsection determinate weeN/day for any subsection
resident members
conductinJ household interYiews/Àll in household questionnaires to capture information
on household characteristics housinJ land and property riJhts
listinJ the residential units and households marN with *PS support and/or land marNs
usinJ household reference numbers
JatherinJ photoJraphic data
The data capturinJ process is illustrated below
The picture taNen of the

,nformation from the
Spatial *PS data households plus housinJ
questionnaire
number
(nter information into a

To be inserted into (nter pictures into an
common database
diJitalised *,S map imaJe database
0icrosoft Access or other
&onsolidate spatial data household data and

pictures onto a settlement reJister record
Analyse data
And the ÀndinJs can be presented as they are in the followinJ diaJram
1
3. 9eriÀcation and data updatinJ

orJanisinJ of a residents· mappinJ meetinJ
creatinJ a diJital map
establishinJ a residents· roster
creatinJ an oYerall database paper-based simple electronic database or full *,S system
with web interface applications etc..
Mapping through GIS

systems in Port-au-Prince,
Haiti
%ritish 5ed &ross
. Post-enumeration process/practical use of data

decidinJ on who is responsible for the data manaJement short term and lonJ term.
1.5 Environmental impact assessment

*oYernments often haYe their own laws/reJulations JoYerninJ the use of enYironmental impact
assessments (,A prior to the implementation of reconstruction proJrammes. Project planners
need to be familiar with (,A requirements as well as any other enYironmental laws that may
affect project proJramminJ and resourcinJ.
The (,A process is used to identify hiJh-priority enYironmental issues rather than to Jenerate
lists of all potential enYironmental issues.

1
.ey elements of an (,A in post-disaster settinJs are
Screening DecidinJ whether an (,A is required based on information collected
Scoping *atherinJ enYironmental intelliJence throuJh consultation with e[perts and reYiew-
inJ applicable laws/reJulations
Impact assessment ,dentifyinJ and eYaluatinJ alternatiYes for achieYinJ objectiYes and the
impacts of those objectiYes
Mitigation measures 5eYiewinJ proposals to preYent or minimise potential adYerse effects
of the project
Action ,ncorporatinJ mitiJation measures into the project desiJn and implementation.
An (,A intends to foresee enYironmental impacts at an early staJe in reconstruction desiJn to
select measures to minimise unfaYourable impacts to form proJrammes which aim to aYoid
harm to the local enYironment and to proYide important recommendations for a ¶%uild %acN
Safer· proJramme. 8sinJ an (,A can haYe enYironmental and economic adYantaJes by reduc-
inJ costs and lenJth of proJramme implementation and fulÀl obliJatory enYironmental laws
and reJulations.
<et how and when (,A is applied is often a matter of statute and Juided by international
standards ,S2 1. Also ² there is not one Jeneric form of (,A ² the scale and cost can
Yary siJniÀcantly.
*enerally an (,A consists of three steps

1. information collection throuJh site Yisits interYiews with local residents and e[perts and
data collection from authorities and e[pert orJanisations the (,A should at a minimum
describe
disturbances to sensitiYe and/or protected Áora/fauna
release of pollution to air and water and Jeneration of waste durinJ the houses· con-
struction and use
access to water and the capacity of water resources to proYide sufÀcient Yolumes for the
needs of the households
noise disturbances
potential measures to minimise any neJatiYe effects based on technical and economic
eYaluations
. YeriÀcation of the (,A ÀndinJs throuJh public consultations with concerned staNeholders
local populations future tenants authorities and concerned N*2s
3. decision-maNinJ on whether the project is enYironmentally acceptable and if so what
measures should be taNen to minimise neJatiYe impacts.
The ,S2 1 enYironmental standards e[ist to a minimise how operations processes etc. neJatiYely
affect the enYironment i.e. cause adYerse chanJes to air water or land b comply with applicable laws
reJulations and other enYironmentally oriented requirements and c continually improYe on the aboYe.
3
There are a number of tools required when undertaNinJ an (,A in a post-disaster situation
Environmental Stewardship Review for Humanitarian Aid (ESR)

The (S5 can be applied in any Nind of reconstruction proJramme and can be carried out in
a short time less than half a day. ,t entails a Àeld Yisit to the proposed project site and con-
sultation with project planners and other e[perts. ,t was created for recoYery proJrammes in
particular.
2n the positiYe side the (S5 can be Ànalised in a short amount of time by a non-e[pert with
some e[pert consultation. ,t includes Juidance on how to carry out the analysis.
<et the tool is project focused it is not desiJned for identifyinJ broad enYironmental issues at
the leYel of a reJion associated with a disaster.
Rapid Environmental Impact Assessment in Disasters (REA)

The 5(A can be utilised in the Àrst 1 days after the disaster. ,t includes an orJanisational
leYel assessment that is carried out by the project team which Juides the 5(A. ,t also entails a
community-leYel assessment to capture the enYironmental issues from the perspectiYe of the
communities and Jroups which are themselYes affected by the disaster.
The tool is desiJned to be used by a non-e[pert.
The 5(A coYers a broad ranJe of enYironmental issues howeYer it does not offer answers for
the identiÀed challenJes.
Flash Environmental Assessment Tool (FEAT)

The )(AT is specially desiJned to be utilised in the Àrst days directly after a disaster. )(AT is
a quicN tool to identify enYironmental impacts and to start Àrst-response actiYities. The tool
concentrates on how to measure and tacNle the effects of the release of chemical composites.
)(AT requires a professional leYel of enYironmental NnowledJe. ,t does not replace thorouJh
enYironmental assessments which may be suitable at later staJes of the reconstruction pro-
Jramme.
Environmental Needs Assessment (ENA) in Post-Disaster Situation: A Practical Guide for

Implementation
2riJinally the (NA Juide was compiled for a core Jroup of e[perts who will form an (nYiron-
mental Needs Assessment Team (NAT with particular use by the (NA Team /eader. The tool
touches upon enYironmental aspects of a broader post-disaster needs assessment.
The methodoloJy is Áe[ible and permits classiÀcation of the broader enYironmental issues
connected with a disaster. ,t entails a comprehensiYe data-JatherinJ.
&ertain enYironmental e[pertise is required. The assessment taNes up to four days on aYeraJe.
)urther information about all four tools can be obtained from :orld :ildlife )und American 5ed &ross 1 Toolkit
Guide – Green Recovery and Reconstruction: Training Toolkit for Humanitarian Aid 0odule 3 http://green-recovery.org

1
1.6 Institutional assessment
,t is important to understand the institutional enYironment within which one will operate. Such
an enYironment will constitute central and local JoYernment ciYil society the priYate sector and
the worN of other aJencies. AccordinJ to mandates of the national reconstruction initiatiYe it
is necessary to determine the actiYe institutions and their roles in proJramme implementation.
A staNeholder analysis is usually Yery helpful to identify and list all staNeholders persons
orJanisations Jroups and institutions who are inYolYed and/or affected by reconstruction
actions please refer also to ¶:ho is inYolYed?· section ² chapter 3.
The followinJ table proYides a list of potential staNeholders3
Sample list of potential stakeholders
Institution Issues to consider

*oYernment administratiYe hierarchies ² from the lowest /ocal council proYincial authority district authority etc. :hat
administratiYe unit are their roles in reconstruction?
5econstruction coordinatinJ aJency *oYernment and non-JoYernment coordination mechanisms
(nYironmental aJency Policy and requirements for construction
%uildinJ planninJ standards and reJulations AJreed minimum requirements for reconstruction and approYal
process. Are national standards understood and applied at the
local leYel?
/and-use policy aJency +ow does current and future land-use policy affect the YillaJes
or new settlements?
/and-tenure aJency ,nclude specialised institutions on land riJhts. ,dentify types of
ownership and formalisation process
8tility proYiders ([istinJ infrastructure and planned infrastructure. ProYision of
water electricity Jas communications etc.
&iYil societies reliJious and other community orJanisations +ow does the community operate and how can e[istinJ
channels beneÀt/harm the proJramme?
2ther actiYe aJencies ([pertise and aJreed roles. ,t is possible that one aJency may
commit to implement all actiYities related to a sector e.J.
water and sanitation construction traininJ etc.
/abour unions local labour local contractors local *eneral sNills capacity restrictions etc.
consultants priYate sector
5esearch institutions and uniYersities Quality control quality testinJ desiJn and technoloJy
3 Adapted from ,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 1 Owner-Driven
Housing Reconstruction Guidelines
5
As soon as the staNeholders are listed their particular problems interests as well as potentials
should be identiÀed.
The followinJ table is suJJested for this purpose
Institutions Target groups Others
StaNeholder 1 StaNeholder StaNeholder 3
Problems
,nterests
Potential
,nteraction
2thers· actions
1.7 Further assessments

)urther assessments include an analysis of the local construction industry and material suppliers.
The future cooperation of the local/reJional buildinJ industry is essential for the success of any
reconstruction proJramme. ,dentifyinJ Jood-quality and reliable companies for implementation
is crucial. )or this the followinJ steps are recommended
&ontact local/reJional associations of enJineers and architects to receiYe information and
references about local partners.
&ontact releYant local authorities and ministries to obtain references and further information
lists of contractors material suppliers etc.
&onduct interYiews with the responsible representatiYes of the buildinJ companies suppliers
architects enJineers planners etc.
*ather information about prices of construction cost per m/m3 hirinJ personnel and
technical e[pertise.
,dentify typical local buildinJ practices.
)ind information about sources of construction material.
%ecome familiar with usual procedures for warranties/Juarantees tender procedures leJal
issues laws and reJulations.
Assess the loJistical challenJes transport and access issues.
Adapted from ,)5& Project PlanninJ Process handbooN in ,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and
5ed &rescent Societies 1 Owner-Driven Housing Reconstruction Guidelines

1
,n larJe-scale emerJencies the (merJency 0arNet 0appinJ and Analysis ToolNit (00A is
often used to assess the e[istinJ marNet to identify disruptions of material supply chain and
potential loss of economic assets and to identify Ney players of the local economy.
(00A offers a quicN analysis with practical recommendations. ,t does not rely on users haYinJ
specialist economic or marNet analysis sNills and it is broad in scope addressinJ surYiYal needs
liYelihoods protection and the transition to economic recoYery. The (00A process is intended
to be inteJrated Áe[ibly into different orJanisations· response planninJ.
Further information can be found at www.emma-toolkit.org
1.8 Data quality

,n order to ensure data quality the followinJ is required5
)or primary data it may be adYisable that data collection be orJanised at an inter-aJency or
cluster leYel and led by JoYernment with one JoYernment department taNinJ the lead in co-
ordinatinJ and manaJinJ data collection across departments and with aJencies to ensure that
data are collected on the basis of an aJreed-to and mutually consistent analysis plan
damaJe classiÀcation criteria and cateJories are consistent across sectors
damaJe classiÀcation criteria are consistent within a sector and across Yarious administratiYe/
JeoJraphical diYisions
data are Yalidated usinJ empirical tools and plausibility checNs
se[ and aJe-disaJJreJated data are collected
baseline asset classiÀcation such as deÀnitions of Yarious types of houses and cateJories
of infrastructure for instance primary secondary and tertiary infrastructure is consistent
amonJ assessments and with public accounts.
*uidelines and tools should also be made aYailable to ensure the consistency of the estimates
of need such as use of common rates and uniform reconstruction benchmarNs for housinJ
and infrastructure.
7
Programme preparation
2. Methodological approach
2.1 Types of approaches

5econstruction approaches are often compared accordinJ to the deJree of household control
the form of assistance the role of staNeholders and actors and where the reconstruction taNes
place. )urther issues which must be taNen into account when selectinJ the approach are the
disaster situation and its physical effects on households their tenancy situation pre-disaster as
well as liNely situation post-disaster and importantly the preferences of households themselYes.
The followinJ table proYides a comparison between the different reconstruction approaches
Reconstruction Degree of Form of assistance Role of actors Location

approach household Financial Technical Community Agency Contractor In- New
control situ site
&ash approach 9ery hiJh &ash only None None None +ousehold <es No
may hire
2wner-driYen +iJh &onditional Technical None Project +ousehold <es No
reconstruction cash assistance oYersiJht may hire
2D5 transfer to TraininJ of and traininJ
household household
&ommunity- 0edium to Transfer to Technical Project Project &ommunity <es No
driYen hiJh household assistance orJanisation oYersiJht may hire
reconstruction or TraininJ of and and traininJ
&D5 community community oYersiJht
and
household
AJency-driYen /ow to )unds /imited or /imited 0anaJement AJency hires <es No
reconstruction medium handled by none of project
in-situ aJency
AJency-driYen /ow )unds /imited or /imited 0anaJement AJency hires No <es
reconstruction handled by none of project
in relocated aJency
site
Adapted from Abhas .. -.
8
2
The followinJ table JiYes an oYerYiew about suitable reconstruction approaches accordinJ to
the tenancy cateJories7
Tenancy categories of affected population Suitable reconstruction approaches

1. +ouse owner-occupant or house landlord Any approach
. +ouse tenant ,f tenant can become a house owner-occupant durinJ
reconstruction see No. 1. ,f tenant becomes an apartment
owner-occupant see No. 3. 2therwise house tenants are
dependent on landlords to rebuild.
3. Apartment owner-occupant or apartment buildinJ landlord &ash or 2D5. &D5 if owners as a Jroup can function as
¶community·. 5econstruction of multi-family enJineered
buildinJs will always inYolYe contractors but owners may not
require help of aJency.
. Apartment tenant ,f tenant can become a house owner-occupant durinJ
reconstruction see No. 1. ,f tenant becomes apartment
owner-occupant see No. 3. 2therwise apartment tenants are
dependent on landlords to rebuild.
5. /and tenant house owner :ith secure tenure same as No. 1 house owner-occupant.
:ithout secure tenure same as squatter.
. 2ccupant with no leJal status squatter ,f squatter can become a house owner-occupant durinJ
reconstruction see No. 1. ,f squatter becomes an apartment
owner-occupant see No. 3. 2therwise squatters are
dependent on landlords to rebuild or they remain without
leJal status.
2.2 Selection of approach

2.2.1 Interim arrangements
5econstruction and the planninJ process that Joes with it affects whole communities. 2n the
indiYidual leYel beneÀciaries need to determine what is best for them. %ut on a community
leYel each of these personal decisions has a wider impact. ProJramme manaJers will face the
challenJe of ÀndinJ adequate solutions for the whole community.
Therefore it is Yital to taNe important decisions toJether with the community and releYant
authorities such as whether to stay at the current location or to moYe to a new one. 2ne of
the Ney questions is where to accommodate people in the interim period.

Programme preparation 2. Methodological approach
,f there is neither temporary shelter proYided nor a collectiYe shelter solution affected people
locate and secure their own temporary shelter in e[istinJ units. There are a number of options
aYailable to Yictims looNinJ for such alternatiYes which include
,n-situ temporary shelter on the site of the permanent reconstruction
,n certain instances it is possible for residents of damaJed or destroyed housinJ to remain
on their own property throuJh the proYision of temporary shelter solutions. This is most
commonly facilitated throuJh the proYision of tents prefabricated or easily assembled
robust structures can be also used. ,f the permanent structure is only moderately damaJed
the affected family may return immediately throuJh the proYision of minor repairs such as
tarpaulins to coYer damaJed roofs with more permanent construction cominJ later. ,f the
structure is more seYerely damaJed the family will haYe to Ànd another location near to their
property where their presence does not interfere with the demolition and reconstruction of
the structure.
There are a number of positiYe implications to lonJ-term housinJ reconstruction associated
with this approach includinJ
² ,t is easier for Yictims to maintain their liYelihoods and community networNs which are
a critical component of lonJ-term housinJ reconstruction.
² Affected families are better able to join in the desiJn and reconstruction of their homes
JiYen their pro[imity.
² There is less disturbance to the community because formal and informal social networNs
Temporary shelter in Haiti may be sustained.
Daniel :yss SNat
5
2
² The need to identify and proYide additional property for other housinJ locations is mini-
mised.
² ,n-situ temporary shelter helps to ensure affected families are more inYolYed and inYested
in their own reconstruction efforts.
² ,f constructed on site temporary shelter options can be modiÀed or recycled to improYe
the quality and function of the permanent structures.
² Affected families who are actiYely inYolYed in their reconstruction efforts miJht be in a
better position to lobby for improYed access to infrastructure and serYices.
5entinJ houses or apartments
² 5ental assistance allows disaster-affected people to temporarily relocate outside the
affected areas and may increase the liNelihood that they return once reconstruction has
accomplished JiYen that the rental property is not a Yiable lonJ-term option.
² 5ental assistance can allow for more immediate yet diJniÀed shelter.
² The primary challenJes associated with rental assistance include rapidly escalatinJ costs
that occur when lonJ-term housinJ options are not aYailable.
² 5ental assistance that allows affected people to relocate into hotels motels and other
aYailable housinJ can be an effectiYe solution in the short term but rather costly. The
question of who pays for it needs to be clariÀed.
Further reading:
United Nations, 2008, Executive editors: Tom Corsellis and Antonella Vitale, Shelter Centre, Transitional
settlement and reconstruction after natural disasters, United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland
IFRC – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2011, Transitional Shelters –
Eight designs, IFRC, Geneva, Switzerland
Shelter Projects 2008/2009/2010, IFRC/UNHCR/UN-Habitat: www.sheltercasestudies.org
Resettlement packages
2ne of the main challenJes in resettlement is that people cannot afford rents to return to
oriJinal or other undamaJed homes.
51
&ase study IFRC – The (re)settlement approach, case study in Caradeux, Haiti8
,n -uly 1 the ,)5& shelter team beJan the process of reJisterinJ internally displaced house-
holds liYinJ in four of the camps that maNe up &aradeu[. A project proposal was deYeloped
identifyinJ a Yariety of solutions for households to support them in returninJ to their places
of oriJin or ÀndinJ a housinJ solution outside of the camp. As many households had lost their
liYelihoods opportunities at the time of the earthquaNe a cash Jrant was also proposed for
people to deYelop a liYelihoods opportunity.
The interYentions planned were based on assessments and discussions with families where they
identiÀed three areas that would help them to moYe forward an improYed housinJ solution
support for liYelihoods and plan for the future and an option to help their children to return
to school. Towards this end the planned interYention is described below
1. Families who own houses or land where they can build transitional shelters AlthouJh
the number of persons who state that they were property owners is limited those who were
owners are offered options to moYe bacN to where their house was or to a piece of land for
which they can proYe ownership. ,n this case cash for worN &): inYolYinJ people residinJ
in the camp could be undertaNen to either clear the land of debris or orJanic matter if it
was an empty blocN of land. These people would then haYe access to transitional shelters
and a small unconditional Jrant to help them to re-enter the employment marNet.
. Families who have the opportunity to move to a plot of land There are people who
are liYinJ in the camps who Nnow someone that has a plot of land and haYe Jained their
aJreement to reside on the plot for two years. ,n this case they would need to produce a
document siJned by their neiJhbour/friend that states that they can liYe on the land for
two years and a copy of the ownership and identiÀcation documents of the owner in order
to conÀrm the aJreement. After clearinJ the land as per option 1 a transitional shelter is
offered to the family on this plot and an unconditional Jrant is proYided to them.
3. Families who have ‘green’ houses that require simple work to make them habitable
There are persons who haYe houses that haYe been classiÀed ¶Jreen· safe to return to and
would liNe to return if they could repair minor problems with their dwellinJ. These persons
would be offered a cash or Youcher system whereby they could access the materials they
needed to improYe their homes as well as an unconditional Jrant that would allow them to
either buy tools and set up a business or use the Jrant towards related actiYities. TraininJ
on earthquaNe-resistant construction will be proYided and compulsory for all those that are
inYolYed in the Youcher option.
. Families who were renting and would like to resettle in Port-au-Prince 0ost families who
were rentinJ cannot afford rents to return to oriJinal or other undamaJed homes. They are
offered a conditional Jrant for rents and an unconditional Jrant to restart their liYelihoods.
5. Families who can move to a host family in the province Some families haYe stated that
they would liNe to return to the proYinces where they oriJinated if they were able to receiYe
shelters and some support to enable them to re-enter the employment marNet. This Jroup
Aerial view of La Piste camp, is supported with transitional shelters and economic pacNaJes. The families who Nnow of
Port-au-Prince, Haiti alternatiYe accommodation that they could utilise will receiYe conditional Jrants that would
,)5& allow them to moYe to the alternatiYe accommodation.
8 5ed &ross 5ed &rescent Societies 11
5
2
Host families
There are situations where displaced families prefer to moYe in proYisionally with neiJhbours
friends or relatiYes. :hen aYailable and feasible this option can be the easiest for disaster-
affected people to secure thouJh it can be a burden on the host family and typically leads to
oYercrowdinJ within the host family·s household. Support for this opportunity is throuJh the
proYision of food cash loans employment and other essential Joods.
)amilies who cannot Ànd alternatiYes are sheltered with host families whilst their permanent
homes are beinJ constructed. This is an interestinJ alternatiYe to the proYision of a temporary
shelter in a camp-liNe situation. A cash Jrant is JiYen to both the host family and the family
to be resettled in order to compensate for an increased use of water electricity etc. and/or
to build an anne[. &ash Jrants also help the families to access the labour marNet or start their
own businesses.
Host family support programme in Haiti &ase study
The American 5ed &ross in accordance with the ,nterim +aiti 5ecoYery &ommission ,+5&
Action Plan for National 5ecoYery and DeYelopment proYides support to host families
throuJh two partners in seYeral areas characterised by receiYinJ a Yery hiJh number of
internally displaced persons ,DPs in the aftermath of the earthquaNe on 1 -anuary 1. The
partners proYide support to ,DPs and host families in a Yariety of ways all aimed at reducinJ
oYercrowdinJ and reducinJ the burden on host communities.
,n the &entral Plateau and Artibonite one of the partners worNs with the local Yendors to im-
plement marNet fairs to deliYer much-needed items to families that Jenerously tooN in Yictims
of the -anuary earthquaNe. Three marNet fairs haYe been held supportinJ oYer 7 families
and more than additional fairs will be held oYer the ne[t si[ months to support a total of
1 families.
At the marNet fairs beneÀciary families ² each of which has hosted at least two or three people
displaced by the earthquaNe ² each receiYed Youchers worth about 5 8S dollars to spend
as they wished at stalls featurinJ the wares of local Yendors. &onstruction materials such as
metal sheetinJ for roofs haYe been Yery popular items. 0any other families chose household
Joods. Schools are also represented at the fairs and parents haYe an opportunity to use their
Youchers to buy school supplies or help pay school tuition.
,n Artibonite North and South departments one partner worNs to address Yulnerabilities in
the communities and amonJ displaced persons throuJh projects that will directly improYe the
quality of life for their families and their communities. The proJramme inYolYes the implemen-
tation of small projects addressinJ needs identiÀed by host communities in collaboration with
local authorities. 2Yer 17 ,DPs haYe been employed already in cash-for-worN proJrammes
in projects such as drainaJe improYement school renoYations and irriJation canals. The project Assessment of host families in
will beneÀt some 1 persons throuJh cash for worN and appro[imately 1 households Les Cayes, Haiti
will beneÀt from the improYed infrastructure. ,)5&
5ed &ross 5ed &rescent Societies 11
53
Further reading:
Haiti Shelter Cluster, Shelter Cluster Technical Working Group (TWIG), 2010, Host Families’ Shelter
Response Guidelines for Haiti
Virdee, J., 2010, Host Community Guidelines – Supporting Host Families in Haiti by Tracking
Movement, Understanding Needs and Directing Responses, Inter-Agency Standing Committee – Haiti
Shelter Cluster/Caritas/Cordaid, 2010
IFRC – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2012, Supporting Host
families and communities after crises and natural disasters, IFRC, Geneva, Switzerland
2.2.2 Permanent solutions

9ery often beneÀciaries moYe from relief camps to transitional shelters before they obtain
permanent housinJ. The permanent housinJ reconstruction efforts should be linNed to the
situation of beneÀciaries and not be seen as a stand-alone proJramme. (fforts should be made
to inteJrate the different needs of communities women Jirls men and boys and elderly and
disabled people amonJ others as a means of fulÀllinJ their riJhts to adequate housinJ. This
would help to maintain the liYinJ standards of the beneÀciaries and to monitor the reconstruc-
tion proJramme in line with the standards e.J. SP+(5(3 aJreed principles and codes of
conduct. The purpose of standards in permanent housinJ should be to ensure quality of life
and diJnity of beneÀciaries and communities.
ProYision of appropriate and safe housinJ ensures protection and basic surYiYal needs of
women Jirls men and boys. ,n order to Juarantee this it is important that there is tiJht
coordination amonJ implementinJ orJanisations as well as actiYe inYolYement of communities
to maNe sure that the housinJ arranJements both in the short and the lonJ term are Jender
sensitiYe.
2ften transitional shelters can be an appropriate solution for proYidinJ temporary homes to
the affected population. +oweYer if these are in use for a lonJer period than initially foreseen
and fail to meet basic humanitarian standards they could undermine durable reconstruction
efforts and self-recoYery of the affected population.
There is a JrowinJ tendency with supportinJ aJencies to moYe away from standard emerJency
relief actions such as proYidinJ tents and tarpaulins to the people in need as these standard
actions may not address the real needs of the people affected by a disaster. Therefore a better-
inteJrated process by inYolYed aJencies is Yery much needed for e[ample the ¶settlement
approach· to enhance efforts towards permanent housinJ.
The ¶settlement approach· offers a frameworN of support to communities ² proYidinJ housinJ
and essential infrastructure inteJratinJ not only sectors such as water sanitation and education
but also liYelihoods responses in order to quicNly re-establish better economic conditions for
communities. ,n planninJ liYelihoods actiYities it is imperatiYe to ensure that women Jirls men
and boys haYe equal access to and beneÀt equally from liYelihoods proJrammes. This broadens
the understandinJ of housinJ to include support to all the settlement options aYailable to
3 The Sphere Project 11
5
2
the people in need includinJ host families rental accommodation and if necessary camps.
Selection from a Yariety of alternatiYes means the affected population can maNe the best use
of their copinJ strateJies for improYinJ their liYes after a disaster.
:ith these approaches the oYerall aim is to enhance permanent housinJ solutions. Permanent
housinJ is the preferred option when possible to proYide disaster-affected people with
adequate lonJ-term homes affordinJ secure and healthy liYinJ conditions.
Permanent housinJ should follow the processes outlined below please refer also to chapter
5 ² planninJ and desiJn process
,f possible use the Ànancial assistance to support the local marNet for production and supply
of construction materials rather than to support the importation of construction elements
or materials.
8se local materials and buildinJ technoloJies throuJh the use of aJreed and e[istinJ build-
inJ codes and standards.
8se ha]ard-resistant construction materials and technoloJies supported by reJular and
professional superYision and inspection.
Support the enhancement of ha]ard-resistant buildinJ methods capacities and sNills of all
inYolYed actors.
8se an appropriate housinJ desiJn and durable materials that will last at least 3 years.
Apply the releYant buildinJ codes and standards accordinJ to the future family si]e loca-
tion culture and aYailable construction materials and techniques.
ProYide the opportunity to either upJrade the e[istinJ housinJ or reuse the majority of parts
of the emerJency shelter.
,nYolYe communities in decision-maNinJ processes when it comes to site selection and
housinJ desiJn. (nsure community housinJ committees are established with balanced par-
ticipation of women and men to enable them to deÀne their housinJ needs.
2ffer support on the site where the affected family has secured land riJhts or tenure en-
hancinJ participation and prioritise options for the affected family to stay near their place
of oriJin.
Always proYide inteJrated and timely infrastructure such as water supply sanitation electric-
ity roads and solid waste solutions which should be inteJrated into the housinJ proYision
implementation.
,nteJrate disaster-preparedness measures such as continJency plans technical solutions for
earthquaNes ÁoodinJ and other risN resistance at the household neiJhbourhood and city
leYel.
Pay special consideration to re-establishinJ community infrastructures such as healthcare
cultural and reliJious buildinJ ² recoJnisinJ their social importance within the neiJhbour-
hood.
55
&ase study Urban Community-Driven Development Project (PRODEPUR)
Haiti – a comprehensive neighbourhood approach

P52D(P85 seeNs to improYe access to basic infrastructure and serYices includinJ remoYal of
earthquaNe debris repair and reconstruction of houses and repair and improYement of com-
munity infrastructure. The project will worN directly with the municipalities of Port-au-Prince
&arrefour-)euille and Delmas Delmas 3.
The :orld %anN·s support for housinJ reconstruction in +aiti is closely aliJned with the ,nterim
+aiti 5econstruction &ommission·s ,+5& Draft )rameworN for NeiJhbourhood 5econstruction
and 8pJradinJ currently beinJ reYiewed by the *oYernment of +aiti. The )rameworN aims
to facilitate the return of displaced persons to their neiJhbourhoods in order to rebuild their
homes communities and liYelihoods.
SpeciÀcally this 3-million-8S-dollar Jrant will support the followinJ actiYities
5emoYal of about cubic metres of buildinJ debris from public spaces and priYate plots
&ash Jrants for housinJ repair and reconstruction to Ànance about 5 cash Jrants for
owner/resident-driYen repair of houses assessed as structurally solid or on-site reconstruction
of houses either destroyed or damaJed beyond repair
5epair and improYement of community serYice infrastructure includinJ roads walNways
drainaJe ditches and channels solid waste manaJement water-supply systems sanitation
facilities and related equipment as well as the creation of community reconstruction centres
AdYisory serYices to assist communities and local authorities in manaJinJ the debris remoYal
and housinJ repair and reconstruction process efÀciently and in compliance with seismic and
other natural ha]ard safety standards. ,n addition this component will help prepare medium
and lonJ-term urban deYelopment and housinJ strateJies.
Relocation
)irst and foremost relocation must be a Yoluntary process which is free from pressure threats
or intimidation. The main alternatiYes for receiYinJ land for resettlement and/or infrastructure
after a disaster entail
approYal of temporary occupancy permits or other short-term-use riJhts by responsible
authorities
Jrant of land by friends relatiYes or a local community
purchase or lease of land on the priYate land marNet
land reallocation
compulsory purchase of land by the responsible authorities.
Purchase of land for relocation needs to be Yoluntary transparent and participatory and made by
payment of marNet prices. :here Yoluntary purchase is not possible compulsory land purchase
should be 1 carried out accordinJ to law restricted to certain public purposes 3 made by
payment of fair compensation and open to court appeal and ciYil society superYision.
5
2
%eneÀciary-driYen land purchase has proYed to be a practical alternatiYe. 2ften beneÀciaries
are typically best placed to neJotiate a realistic price and eYaluate the appropriateness of a
plot with reJard to their housinJ and liYelihoods needs.
/and reallocation is a land-manaJement method that can facilitate relocation when public funds
for compulsory purchase and infrastructure proYision are restricted. This method functions on
the basis of brinJinJ toJether land riJhts re-parcellinJ of land for better planninJ and the
set-up of Ànancial mechanisms to coYer infrastructure costs.
&onsultation and the participation of all affected communities in the relocation proJramme
planninJ is essential in aYoidinJ any harmful outcomes such as distrust of neiJhbourinJ com-
munities.
Further reading:
GTZ, 1999, Land Use Planning – Methods, strategies and tools, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Eschborn, Germany
UN-HABITAT, 2008, Secure Land Rights for All, UN-HABITAT, Nairobi, Kenya
UN-HABITAT – United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2010, Land and Natural Disasters:
Guidance for Practitioners, Nairobi, Kenya
Cash-based solutions
)requently approaches to deliYer housinJ assistance include cash Jrants prepaid credit cards
to buy materials from suppliers and material banNs at urban neiJhbourhood/community leYel.
Cash for work (CFW) &): is an interestinJ option for households that already possess their
own land. &): is proYided to disaster-affected people who are still in a camp in order to pay
them to clear the land of either debris or orJanic material.
For further information, go to:

www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/learning/humanitarian/downloads/guides/efsl_cash_for_work.pdf
www.odi.org.uk/hpg
www.sphereproject.org
Signing a cash voucher
&hile 5ed &ross/,)5&
Cash grants these are a remarNable means of
support to beneficiaries to NicN-start the re-
establishment of their liYes. A cash Jrant JiYes
the opportunity to access and buy materials to
repair or reconstruct their homes. When hand-
inJ out cash Jrants ensure that households
headed by either women or men sinJle-parent
households and child-headed households all
qualify for such Jrants. ,n addition beneÀciaries
receiYe traininJ on disaster-resistant construc-
tion to enable them to build safer homes.
57
With reJard to resettlement actiYities a lump sum of money is paid to each family which has
identiÀed a new place to liYe. A cash Jrant for buildinJ up or securinJ liYelihoods is proYided as
well. 0onthly meetinJs or traininJ would JiYe Juidance to the families in restartinJ their liYes.
&ash Jrants are an interestinJ option of support for people who own land or haYe identiÀed
a new place to moYe to restart their liYes. &ash Jrants which can be cash Youchers or other
forms of conditional or unconditional funds can be used towards the costs of repairinJ or
reconstructinJ people·s homes and/or for liYelihoods support actiYities.

Cash Transfer Programming in Urban Emergencies: A toolkit for practitioners, CaLP, 2012
www.cashlearning.org/downloads/resources/calp/CaLP_Urban_Toolkit_web.pdf
www.odi.org.uk/hpg
www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/256.pdf
Cash vouchers &ash Youchers are often used as an alternatiYe to ¶cash Jrants· with one of the Ney
differences beinJ the deJree of control that the donor orJanisation has oYer their use.

IFRC, 2007, Guidelines for Cash Transfer Programming:
www.ifrc.org/Global/Publications/disasters/guidelines/guidelines-cash-en.pdf
&ase study Tarjeta Red – Chile earthquake, 201031
Three months after a massiYe earthquaNe strucN central &hile on 7 )ebruary 1 maNinJ sure
that thousands of Yulnerable families were sheltered from the rain and cold of the approachinJ
winter remained a priority for the &hilean 5ed &ross.
The 8.8-maJnitude earthquaNe was followed by a tsunami. This double disaster left 51 people
dead 5 missinJ more than two million people affected 37 homes destroyed and some
3 billion 8S dollars in damaJes. +eaYy aftershocNs were beinJ recorded for some weeNs.
2n 7 0ay the &hilean 5ed &ross launched its ¶Tarjeta 5ed· reparation and deYelopment card
proJramme which helped appro[imately 8 families whose homes had been destroyed or
seYerely damaJed to rebuild or repair their homes throuJh a cash transfer system.
The debit cards haYe a Yalue of 18 &/P appro[imately 37 8S dollars and a limited Yalidity
period and purchases can be made only at a networN of pre-desiJnated hardware stores
located in the affected reJions and throuJhout the country. ,n addition an instruction manual
on buildinJ techniques and security rules was proYided with each card.
The Tarjeta 5ed proJramme helped the recoYery on a psychosocial leYel and contributed to
Tarjeta Red
a more-rapid recoYery of the entire community because it proYided the families with the op-
American 5ed &ross and portunity to choose the materials and/or tools that they needed as well as beinJ inYolYed in
&hile 5ed &ross the self-repair of their oriJinal homes or improYement of their transitional shelters.
31 DiPretoro S. 11
58
2
Prepaid credit card A prepaid credit card system is an interestinJ approach to proYide Áe[ible
and needs-based assistance in urban reconstruction.

www.cashlearning.org/casestudies.html
Material-based solutions
2ne of the challenJes in reconstruction is the immense and sudden need for construction
materials and serYices at a fast pace.
Construction material banks

A construction material banN should be established to facilitate supply and increase aYailability
for e[ample of hiJh-quality prefabricated buildinJ elements. Prefabricated elements must be
of standard quality and accelerate the process of reconstruction while proYidinJ jobs to local
people. 0oreoYer construction material banNs can help in JuidinJ house owners and contrac-
tors in constructinJ appropriate homes.
Due to its larJe scale of operations a construction material banN can also become an eco-
nomical supply chain for proYidinJ bulN buildinJ materials e.J. cement and steel and trained
masons for speedy reconstruction. &ommunity contracts for bulN purchase of materials can be
siJned and effected.
Supported by mobile units and urban neiJhbourhood construction teams the construction ma-
terial banN ensures that buildinJ elements manufactured within controlled conditions includinJ
qualiÀed superYision are deliYered at the doorsteps of affected families and their construction
needs are responded to.
The functions of a construction material banN can entail
production and supply of buildinJ material and elements
traininJ in production of buildinJ elements for producers and craftspeople
traininJ for masons welders carpenters etc.
demonstration of buildinJ technoloJies ² equipment products production process and
applications throuJh demonstration construction
proYision of buildinJ elements on demand to the community or urban neiJhbourhood
NeepinJ a record of sNilled masons and craftspeople trained in construction and construction
material production
proYidinJ e[pert adYice.
5
2.3 Participatory approaches

The actiYe participation of local staNeholders in crucial decisions throuJhout the project process
fosters a stronJ sense of ownership and acceptance for the reconstruction proJramme and
helps to facilitate care and maintenance of buildinJs followinJ construction. This is especially
true if the users are also the owners of the housinJ. 5ented-out dwellinJs tend to deteriorate
more quicNly than do owner-occupied homes.
5eleYant staNeholders ² future housinJ users community leaders responsible public authorities
serYice proYiders etc. ² can deliYer important information and proYide support that may be
crucial to the proJramme·s success and sustainability. (nsure that women and men are JiYen
equal opportunities to be inYolYed in proYidinJ feedbacN as well as maNinJ decisions.
,deally staNeholders should be consulted durinJ the early proJramme preparation phase as
well as durinJ planninJ and implementation phases in order to establish stronJ ownership from
the beJinninJ. This can be done throuJh a staNeholders· worNshop where inYited staNeholders
set criteria and deYelop ideas. At this staJe the responsible local reconstruction aJencies can
also be consulted this ensures their support.
Different types of participation include
Donor driven
Donor-driYen projects are often the weaNest in terms of staNeholder participation. %eneÀciaries
typically haYe no or only little access to reconstruction decision-maNinJ processes. As a result
there is often a hiJh risN that donors will plan and implement projects without understandinJ
or taNinJ into account the needs of the end users or that the new houses will not be sufÀciently
appreciated by the beneÀciaries. StaNeholder inputs to donor-driYen reconstruction proJrammes
are rather restricted to consultation on the use of certain construction materials or methods
but can e[tend to the entire house desiJn.
Stakeholder driven
,n staNeholder-driYen proJrammes users local authorities priYate contractors and project teams
decide toJether on Ney issues site selection house desiJn materials etc. A ma[imised inYolYe-
ment of the users creates a stronJ sense of ownership and increased sustainability.
Owner driven
,n owner-driYen projects also called ¶cash for shelter· donors proYide mainly Ànancial support
and users haYe the freedom to decide how they would liNe to use the money for the recon-
struction of their homes. Donors may haYe less control oYer the quality of implementation.

2
Further reading:
IFRC – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies/Practical Action, 2010
PCR Tool 8 – Participatory Design, Switzerland/UK
IFRC – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2010
Owner-Driven Housing Reconstruction Guidelines, Switzerland
IFRC – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies/Practical Action, 2010
PCR Tool 7 – Planning with the people, Switzerland/UK
IFRC – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2012, Post-disaster
community infrastructure rehabilitation and (re)construction guidelines, IFRC, Geneva, Switzerland
IFRC – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2012, Post-disaster
Settlement Planning Guidelines, IFRC, Geneva, Switzerland
2.4 Cross-cutting principles

2.4.1 Gender-sensitive programming
,t is essential that all proJrammes allow equal participation by women and men in assessments
and decision-maNinJ processes and that both haYe representation in community committees.
ProJrammes need to recoJnise and understand the cultural and traditional differences to be
able to address the different needs of each Jroup.
The aim is to worN in a Jender-sensitiYe manner in many communities women taNe an actiYe
part in disaster relief and onJoinJ reconstruction initiatiYes and are often the main users of
houses worNinJ from home and taNinJ care of children and the elderly in the house. Women·s
local NnowledJe and e[pertise is therefore an e[tremely rich but larJely untapped resource.
Women are scarcely represented and often e[cluded from planninJ and decision-maNinJ
processes. ,nterYentions often tarJet men only. ,nteJratinJ women into proJramme decision-
maNinJ would Jreatly enhance post-disaster reconstruction efforts. Women can be effectiYely
incorporated into housinJ desiJn and construction actiYities throuJh eYents meetinJs and
onJoinJ consultation processes.
&are should be taNen to ensure that opportunities for women to proYide input are arranJed
in a manner that is sensitiYe to the daily routines and time constraints of women in the tarJet
communities.
2.4.2 Elderly, disabled or chronically ill

8rban disasters such as earthquaNes that occur in densely populated neiJhbourhoods leaYe
many people wounded or disabled. These Jroups may not only need special assistance oYer a
period but may miss ¶safety nets· to support them once they leaYe the hospital or serYices that
haYe attended them. ,n the absence of these supports it is crucial to identify toJether with
them which housinJ options are preferable and to ensure their entitlement for such support.
1
,)5&·s shelter and health teams prepared the followinJ questionnaires for hospital patients in
+aiti3
Further reading:
IFRC – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies/Help Age International, 2011,
Guidance on including older people in emergency shelter programmes, IFRC/Help Age International
3 &+) ,nternational 1 AssessinJ needs in different neiJhbourhoods of Port-au-Prince contribution by &+)
to the Shelter &luster TW,* ² Technical WorNinJ *roup

2
2.4.3 Livelihoods
,nteJratinJ liYelihoods issues is important in urban reconstruction proJrammes. The sooner
people can start to earn an income the more their liYinJ conditions improYe after disasters. ,t
helps to decrease dependence on reconstruction assistance and helps to re-establish people·s
liYes. ¶%uildinJ %acN %etter· proJrammes not only aim at restorinJ liYelihoods to their earlier
leYels but use the disasters as opportunities to reduce poYerty. Women Jirls men and boys
should beneÀt equally from liYelihoods proJrammes.
8rban reconstruction proJrammes should be orientated towards maNinJ the best use of op-
portunities for restorinJ liYelihoods. 2nce rebuildinJ and/or repair of buildinJs starts local
people can be inYolYed and earn incomes simultaneously. /ocal people can be inYolYed in the
followinJ ways
proYidinJ sNills and labour to assist in the construction or repair of buildinJs
producinJ and supplyinJ construction materials and elements.
¶&ash for worN· &)W is an approach to pay local people for proYidinJ labour in reconstruction
proJrammes. /ocal people can be paid for clearinJ debris demolition worN and constructinJ
and rebuildinJ infrastructure such as seweraJe pipes roads drainaJes etc.
3URGXFWLRQRILQÀOOSDQHOVIRU
T Shelters in Haiti
+andicap ,nternational
3
2.4.4 Use of information technology

The timely use of technoloJy information and communication can be Yery efÀcient in urban
reconstruction. 8sinJ radio broadcasts T9 newspapers mobile phones internet )acebooN etc.
is a direct and fast means of communicatinJ important information concerninJ not only the
planninJ and implementation of rehabilitation actiYities but also disaster-preparedness initiatiYes.
0obile telephones/smart phones are fast means to communicate with and coordinate
larJe populations. 0obile technoloJy is becominJ broadly used in areas includinJ banNinJ
community orJanisation health and education. ,t can be used for transferrinJ funds usinJ
mobile banNinJ serYices for the short messaJe serYice S0S to warn populations about risNs
for common alertinJ protocol &AP for 5eally Simple Syndication 5SS feeds or for Twitter
and for many other functions.
The use of S0Ss throuJh pre-aJreements with operators has Jreat potential. The 5&5&
moYement alone sent 1 million S0Ss in +aiti on different topics cholera preYention hurricane
preparedness health etc.. ,)5& is pursuinJ the idea of usinJ S0S with multiple response
options to assess pro[imity camps and understand what people·s preferred housinJ solutions
are.
8sinJ mobile phones in an innoYatiYe manner can also help to tracN the moYements of
displaced people. ,n order to plan better for urban reconstruction actiYities it is essential to
Nnow which locations the affected people moYed to or were displaced from. The followinJ
Use of mobile phones case study from +aiti shows how people·s moYements can be traced Yia their mobile phones.
,)5& library

2
Use of mobile phones in Haiti to trace people’s movements33
The scientiÀc team of .arolinsNa ,nstitute Sweden with support from &olumbia 8niYersity New
<orN analysed the moYements of people affected by the earthquaNe in +aiti 1. The method
the team used has been Yery promisinJ in Jeneral for tracNinJ population displacement after
disasters especially in areas with hiJh mobile phone coYeraJe.
The team analysed data from the locations of all DiJicel mobile phones in +aiti before and after
the earthquaNe. The analyses coYer the period from 1 -anuary to 11 0arch 1 and include the
moYements of two million mobile phone S,0 cards. The e[perts matched this data with census
data and e[trapolated the moYement patterns to +aiti·s population of . million persons.
The team was able to tracN all the people·s moYements from the metropolitan areas to other
towns or to the countryside after the earthquaNe happened.
Estimated number of persons who on

31 January 2010 had relocated from the
Port-au-Prince metropolitan area
%enJtsson /. /u ;. *arÀeld 5. Thorson A.
Yon Schreeb -. 1
33 Adapted from %enJtsson /. /u ;. *arÀeld 5. Thorson A. Yon Schreeb -. 1
5
Programme commencement
3. Who is involved?
Who is doinJ what is a major question to address before and durinJ reconstruction initiatiYes.
The followinJ paraJraphs e[plain the Yarious roles and responsibilities of the Ney actors.
3.1 Roles and responsibilities

,n any urban reconstruction actiYity it is crucial to determine the roles and responsibilities
of the Ney actors. ,n cases of natural disasters JoYernments and local administrations in the
affected urban areas are oYerwhelmed by many tasNs and challenJes. A huJe oYerload a lacN
of NnowledJe and manaJement which is often difÀcult create a Jreat deal of stress for the
Ney actors. Therefore it is essential to be familiar with local JoYernmental structures power
relations and procedures and also with the potential options for problem-solYinJ. ,n order to
better coordinate reconstruction the responsible local authorities need to siJn ofÀcial written
aJreements with the implementinJ orJanisations to ensure leJality protection of staff members
and endorsement of proJramme actiYities.
3.1.1 Authorities
&entral and local JoYernments haYe Ney roles to play in mobilisinJ the releYant authorities to
undertaNe commission and superYise the planninJ. They should proYide the leJal mandate for
the reconstruction plan and technical e[pertise if needed. ,n addition they are responsible for
deYelopinJ the oYerall reconstruction policy or strateJy.
,n particular local JoYernments create mechanisms to encouraJe community participation and
commitment to e[ecutinJ plans deYeloped throuJh community participation. They approYe
plans and prepare the reJulatory frameworN for reconstruction actiYities and undertaNe com-
munication campaiJns/traininJ to ensure the reconstruction·s conformity with codes and laws.
/ocal JoYernments approYe construction plans enforce buildinJ codes and land-use reJulations
undertaNe inspections on site and e[ecute any sanctions if needed.

3
A challenging example – Port-au-Prince3
The responsibility for spatial planninJ of metropolitan Port-au-Prince rests with the central
JoYernment which also taNes care of most manaJement maintenance and proYision of infra-
structure and basic serYices. The municipalities are marJinalised.
There is no leJally approYed master plan for metropolitan Port-au-Prince. SeYeral plans with
different JeoJraphic and thematic scopes haYe been deYeloped most with assistance from
donors but they haYe neither been endorsed nor institutionalised. ,n practice they haYe not
serYed as a proper frameworN for spatial and social deYelopment but only as inspiration for a
few random interYentions.
Aside from the absence of an adequate master plan the statistics and basic information of
metropolitan Port-au-Prince are scattered and only randomly updated. Neither the central
JoYernment nor the municipalities haYe databases or reJisters with reliable information on
numbers of inhabitants infrastructure the leJal status of land or access to serYices.
AccordinJ to the 0inistry of PlanninJ there are more than 5 institutions that share the re-
sponsibility for manaJinJ metropolitan Port-au-Prince. The responsibilities for metropolitan
deYelopment and manaJement are dispersed in a ma]e of JoYernment institutions aJencies
departments and diYisions without any coordinatinJ aJency. Duplication and Japs are common.
3.1.2 Technical experts

The roles of professionals should be clearly apportioned. Technical e[perts undertaNe technical
assessments analysis and data collection to support planninJ and implementation. They
proYide technical options and recommendations based on the ÀndinJs in assessments and
JiYe assistance and quality control in the implementation of plans and compliance with laws
and codes. )urthermore planners and technical e[perts deYelop and carry out reconstruction
actiYities which are in accordance with plans and buildinJ codes. They maNe sure that
proJramme actions are conform with JoYernmental policies and technical information and
offer feasible and sustainable options to the community and local authorities to facilitate
informed decision-maNinJ. ,n addition they train communities based on their needs on issues
of planninJ reconstruction features and the policy frameworN.
The tasNs of selected professionals are summarised in the followinJ paraJraphs35.
Architects
The architect·s role is to understand the comple[ needs of clients and users of buildinJ
projects in collaboration with multidisciplinary teams to deYelop and realise desiJns based
on associated outcomes. Architects· serYices can coYer new buildinJs conYersions and
refurbishment throuJh a series of ¶worN staJes· includinJ inspectinJ and surYeyinJ sites and
3 Adapted from )orsman 1

35 Adapted from 8niYersity of Westminster
7
Programme commencement 3. Who is involved?
e[istinJ buildinJs consultinJ with clients and users on their requirements coordinatinJ the
worN of other professionals testinJ desiJn ideas to establish feasibility deYelopinJ selected
options preparinJ reports and desiJn information ranJinJ from site layouts to the technical
details of construction and speciÀcation for estimatinJ costs meetinJ reJulatory requirements
ensurinJ Jood performance JuidinJ construction and aidinJ future maintenance. Architects
can also manaJe the procurement process for buildinJ-related projects as well as oYersee
health and safety protocols.
Engineers
&iYil enJineerinJ is about creatinJ improYinJ and protectinJ our enYironment in a sustainable
manner for both present and future Jenerations of society. AlonJ with structural enJineerinJ
it inYolYes the safe desiJn construction and maintenance of infrastructure ² roads harbours
buildinJs airports tunnels dams bridJes power Jeneration safe water supply drainaJe
wastewater treatment railways and telecommunications ² with a Jood understandinJ of the
speciÀc physical and enYironmental risNs. (nJineers play a leadinJ role in structural damaJe
assessment on buildinJs and infrastructure deliYerinJ transport enerJy and waste solutions
for comple[ projects. ,n addition to manaJinJ the project procurement process enJineers also
oYersee the implementation of health and safety measures.
Planners
Planners adYise donors politicians and other decision-maNers dealinJ with urban and reJional
deYelopment processes. The role of the planner is to help manaJe the deYelopment of cities and
reJions towns YillaJes and the countryside by producinJ and implementinJ plans and policies
based on data. Planners analyse social economic demoJraphic and enYironmental issues to
inform the physical and economic deYelopment of an area. They are inYolYed in establishinJ
housinJ transport and infrastructure and in meetinJ social economic and other needs they
play an important role in reJeneratinJ socially and economically depriYed areas as well as in
the creation of liYelihoods. To be effectiYe they must enJaJe with the communities whose liYes
and liYelihoods are beinJ affected.
Surveyors
&hartered surYeyors around the world understand the whole life cycle of property from land
manaJement and measurement land tenure and boundary issues throuJh planninJ enYi-
ronmental impact assessment and inYestment appraisal to manaJinJ the whole construction
process to ensure best use of resources and buildinJ quality and the planned maintenance
of buildinJs. They should worN collaboratiYely with teams of other professionals funders and
contractors and local community partners ² helpinJ to deYelop capacity and partnerships for
the future.
A thorough list about the roles of professionals during the assessment, disaster-preparedness
and reconstruction phases is provided in Annex IV.
8
3
3.1.3 Civil society
,n the ideal case the affected population as
well as the wider urban community deYelops
a joint Yision for the future of the community
detailinJ how the upcominJ reconstruction
could contribute to this Yision. The community
should deYelop a consensus on policy and
strateJic issues that concern its members at
larJe. ,t participates in the land-use physical
and strateJic planninJ processes. ,f possible it
contributes to the planninJ of details such as
]oninJ settlement and housinJ desiJn.
)rom an early staJe house owners and renters
can be enJaJed in debris clearance worN before
and durinJ the reconstruction/repair worNs see
also under ¶cash for worN·.
&hallenJes in worNinJ with local communities
WorNinJ with local communities can also haYe Community gathering
limitations. ,t may be comple[ for e[ample if a Jroup of disaster-affected people is not really
a community. ,f there are households prioritised from an ofÀcial waitinJ list it could be Yery
time-consuminJ for them to build relationships and Jenerate sufÀcient trust in for instance
a communal desiJn process.
Similarly it can be difÀcult in urban conte[ts particularly as these contain many more mi[ed
JroupinJs of people. There can be problems if there is a mi[ture of tenants and owners as tenure
issues cannot be easily resolYed and landlords can hold bacN tenants· riJhts to inYolYement.
These issues may be determined by splittinJ such Jroups into smaller homoJeneous Jroups
for which indiYidual plans can be desiJned.
Post-earthquake reconstruction in the city of Bhuj, Gujarat, India3

,n 1 an earthquaNe in *ujarat caused widespread deYastation. The city of %huj was badly
damaJed with its historic walled centre beinJ particularly hard hit. +ousinJ commercial and
public buildinJs were all damaJed or destroyed and infrastructure was disrupted or broNen.
After the earthquaNe an estimated 1 people continued to liYe in the city.
*oYernment and institutional staNeholders decided that a comprehensiYe deYelopment plan was
needed in order to Juide the city·s reconstruction to relocate some people and to maNe proYision
for future e[pansion. ,t was decided that this plan should be deYeloped and implemented throuJh
a participatory process. This presented a Jreat challenJe JiYen the huJe numbers of people af-
fected. The walled city presented eYen Jreater problems because it serYed as the commercial
and cultural heart of the whole city was densely populated and had suffered the worst damaJe.
The details of the plan were to be produced by a planninJ consultancy company and the *ujarat
8rban DeYelopment &ompany /imited was appointed to manaJe the plan·s implementation.
3 ,)5&/Practical Action 1 P&5 Tool 7 ² PlanninJ with the People Swit]erland/8.

Programme commencement 3. Who is involved?
Steps in deYelopment of the plan included

An analysis of staNeholders to identify the main community leaders public sector ofÀcials
and other Ney resource persons in the city.
These people were inYited to discuss how the participatiYe process should be undertaNen.
They also helped to proYide a situation analysis and a SW2T analysis37 of the planninJ
process. A 9ision Statement for %huj was drawn up and the leaders formulated objectiYes
strateJies and proposals. These were brouJht toJether as a draft ¶&onceptual DeYelopment
Plan·.
The draft plan was taNen to a series of ward meetinJs and focus-Jroup meetinJs for con-
sultation and comment. The meetinJs were widely adYertised. As part of the meetinJs a
series of maps showinJ the proposed reconstruction was e[hibited for public comment.
%ased on the public consultation the Plan was modiÀed and more detail was added to the
proposals. A draft DeYelopment Plan was put toJether.
The draft DeYelopment Plan was aJain widely adYertised for comment. A Ànal Yersion of
the plan was then produced includinJ maps of how the city would be reconstructed and
deYeloped.
A special plan was produced for the walled city. As well as the input of local people the
%huj DeYelopment &ouncil and Yarious N*2s contributed to this plan.
To support the process a Study and Action *roup was formed consistinJ of Ney local resource
persons identiÀed earlier. The Jroup helped to inform the process proYide information on the
local conte[t assist in resolYinJ disputes and produce proposals and policies.
,n the walled city an eYen more intensiYe process was used. A &ore &ommittee was formed with
similar objectiYes to those of the Study and Action *roup which interacted Yery actiYely with
residents. 5ehabilitation committees were formed at the ¶falia· neiJhbourhood leYel. Decen-
tralised ofÀces were set up where the latest drafts of the plans were aYailable and staff could
proYide information to residents on the plans and help them to comment or contribute ideas.
The commitment of the JoYernment and institutional staNeholders to the idea of participa-
tion in planninJ for reconstruction and deYelopment was followed throuJh in establishinJ the
structures for participation. That enabled many local people to contribute their ideas to the
Ànal plans.
37 SW2T analysis is a strateJic planninJ method used to eYaluate the strenJths weaNnesses/limitations
opportunities and threats inYolYed in a project or proJramme.
7
3
3.2 Organisational set-up
,t is important to establish and maintain well-functioninJ proJramme manaJement a well-
functioninJ manaJement process is the bacNbone for the success of any reconstruction pro-
ject. %elow are Ney reconstruction proJramme manaJement practices that should normally be
considered.
&ontracts and roles and responsibilities of partners should be clariÀed as early as possible.
A clear proJramme set-up includes the followinJ actiYities
decidinJ on the proJramme·s most important objectiYes
selectinJ reliable and sNilled local partners
clarifyinJ e[pectations of partners and staNeholders donor national and local partners
implementers etc.
identifyinJ and aJreeinJ on responsibilities and tasNs enterinJ a formal written aJreement
with partners e.J. a 0emorandum of 8nderstandinJ or contract
settinJ a time-frame accordinJ to the major milestones formulated in the objectiYes
conÀrminJ aYailable budJet
selectinJ the location and tarJet Jroup community.
2ther preparation actiYities include the establishment of an ofÀce and manaJement structure
preparinJ ofÀce facilities and infrastructure
establishinJ the proJramme team·s professional staff ensurinJ that they haYe adequate sNills
selectinJ a multidisciplinary team accordinJ to the proJramme·s objectiYes includinJ

enJineers with technical bacNJround and substantial e[perience in housinJ construction
social worNers with e[perience in community mobilisation and participatory decision-maNinJ
processes economic specialists etc.
formulatinJ team members· job descriptions
aJreeinJ on decision-maNinJ procedures
establishinJ ofÀce manaJement budJet
openinJ a banN account.
71
4. Preparation
+RZWRLGHQWLI\DQGVHOHFWEHQHÀFLDULHV
When a reconstruction proJramme starts the responsible project manaJer toJether with the
Ney staNeholders should tacNle the followinJ questions
Who is entitled to housinJ?
What type of housinJ solution are beneÀciaries entitled to receiYe?
+ow much housinJ assistance will they be JiYen?
The followinJ table proYides an orientation about the Yarious cateJories of potential beneÀciar-
ies and related responsibilities38
Categories Responsible stakeholder for

reconstruction (in the normal case)
Squatter no leJal status Squatter if status remains informal
otherwise moYes to another cateJory
+ouse tenant /andlord
+ouse owner-occupant or house landlord 2wner-occupant or landlord
Apartment tenant /andlord public or priYate
Apartment owner-occupant or apartment 2wners as a Jroup or landlord
landlord
/and tenant Tenant unless tenure is not secure
How do you identify

EHQHÀFLDULHV
0anuel -osp -imene] ,)5&
7
4
2ne of the challenJes is how to identify the most Yulnerable and inteJrate them equally in the
project. The followinJ table3 JiYes an oYerYiew about JuidinJ questions which help to identify
and select the beneÀciaries
Criteria Guiding questions Issues Recommendations

Critical points Should all people who &ateJories may be economic The reconstruction
suffered housinJ losses be JeoJraphic or related to proJramme must haYe
entitled to aid or should some aspect of pre-disaster enouJh resources and
assistance be tarJeted only to housinJ condition but any administratiYe capacity
speciÀc cateJories of people? choice can create inequitable to carry out the selection
,s haYinJ leJal status in the outcomes in certain process of beneÀciaries.
country a requirement? situations.
Should households not
affected by the disaster be
assisted if they haYe housinJ
problems similar to those of
the households who were
affected?
+ow will those with a need
for housinJ who haYe
miJrated into the disaster
reJion after the disaster be
treated?
Assistance ,s the unit of entitlement ,f pre-disaster housinJ 0aNe an early decision on
the house the family or the proYision was inadequate the unit of assistance and the
household? multiple households or e[tent to which the Joal is to
,s a sinJle-person household e[tended families may be address pre-disaster housinJ
treated differently? sharinJ a sinJle house deÀcits.
unwillinJly.
+ow is assistance calculated
for a household with multiple 2n the contrary a sinJle
families? family may own or liYe in
more than one house.
Economic status ,s income below a certain ,ncome records may be (nsure there is a feasible
leYel a qualiÀcation for inaccurate destroyed in the process for qualifyinJ
receiYinJ help or do all disaster or non-e[istent. accordinJ to income.
income leYels qualify?
73
Programme commencement 4. Preparation
Social issues Do social characteristics such Women and members of &onsider usinJ community
as Jender class or incapacity other Yulnerable Jroups may members to help identify
oYerride income as factors in need housinJ assistance eYen those who truly need
those cases where there is an when their income e[ceeds assistance.
income interruption? the interruption.
Renters versus owners Who receiYes the assistance? ,t is important for rental &onsider requirinJ owners
5enters? 2wners? %oth? housinJ to be rebuilt yet to allow renters return for
durinJ reconstruction renters similar rents to those charJed
may need assistance for before the disaster as a
temporary shelter. condition of owners receiYinJ
assistance.
Informal tenure-holders ,s a squatter or informal Squatters may need (nsure sufÀcient resources
settler entitled to the same assistance in addition to are aYailable to carry out
housinJ assistance as is a housinJ. This assistance a full-serYice resettlement
property owner? will require planninJ for a proJramme.
more comprehensiYe set of &arefully e[amine whether it
serYices. may be necessary to e[clude
Squatters often moYe to a families that haYe miJrated
disaster area after a disaster after the disaster to the
to obtain housinJ assistance. disaster-affected area.
Absentee owners versus Should owners liYinJ This issue is related to the Try to use housinJ assistance
owner-occupants elsewhere be entitled to question of the unit of as an incentiYe for owners to
housinJ assistance or only assistance. sell or rent.
residents of the disaster area? ,f the primary motiYation is
Are owners of houses under to resettle residents absentee
construction entitled to owners may not qualify.
assistance? ,f the neiJhbourhood is a
concern broader eliJibility
will help preYent the
neJatiYe effect of abandoned
properties.
,f the owners are miJrants
their money transfers may be
supportinJ other households
in the affected area.
7
4
After the selection process is Ànished a contract should be siJned between the implementinJ
aJency and the renter and/or owner of the land/house. The contract should at least include the
time-frame conditions contributions Ànancial labour in-Nind issues of later maintenance etc.
4.2 Social mobilisation

As per deÀnition social mobilisation is a dynamic process to harness the potential of the people
to help themselYes. Social mobilisation is an approach for mobilisinJ communities for actiYe
participation in deYelopment processes. &onsequently the premises for effectiYe deYelopment
throuJh social mobilisation are that those processes are
people centred puttinJ people Àrst and proYidinJ them an opportunity to meet their basic
needs
service oriented taNinJ serYices to the people rather than asNinJ them to come to the
centre
participatory ensurinJ that each person has an equal share in the decisions that shape
their liYelihoods.
4.2.1 Community action plan (CAP)

&AP is the tanJible result of a participatory process. ,t is a useful tool to formulate not only
short-term actiYities but also interYentions for the lonJer term. &AP empowers the community to
be inYolYed in deYelopinJ their own neiJhbourhood and enYironment. &AP results can feed into
small-scale spatial neiJhbourhood plans as well as into broader infrastructural planninJ. +ow-
eYer this should be supported by a cadastral surYey. The &AP proYides the community with a
platform from which to appeal to local JoYernment for positiYe chanJes in the neiJhbourhood.
DeÀninJ Ney steps of &AP
DeÀne the boundaries of the urban community how many households should participate?
,dentify/select the community representatiYes to participate in the &AP. There should be at

least ÀYe representatiYes.
2rJanise a &AP worNshop and collect the ÀndinJs.
&arry out the aJreed follow-ups.
&ommunicate the results of the &AP worNshop to the releYant staNeholders.
(nsure that community representatiYes e[chanJe information between the community and
partners.
0aintain the momentum and initiatiYes for reconstruction actiYities and chanJes.
2rJanise further meetinJs with the community about the reconstruction process future
actions cash-for-worN procedures etc.
75
4.3 Programme planning

The proJramme planninJ phase for reconstruction is essential to aYoid major failures durinJ
implementation.
,t is recommended that the followinJ steps are considered
Plan for human resources and competencies required for proJramme manaJement.
Prepare an estimate of costs for human resources.
AJree on the criteria for beneÀciary selection with the releYant staNeholders.
Prepare a beneÀciary list. The list is deYeloped further with time and throuJh rounds of
discussion with the releYant staNeholders.
2btain checN and Yerify beneÀciary lists approYed by the community and JoYernment.
Analyse e[istinJ policy frameworNs.
,dentify options for Jender-responsiYe actions within the reconstruction proJramme.
&onduct analysis of enYironmental impacts of the options within a reconstruction proJramme
in particular of the selection of construction materials.
8ndertaNe a comparatiYe analysis of material options with reJard to quality costs and
enYironmental impact.
Analyse and taNe a decision in the settinJ of standards and technical norms.
Share all important analyses with the community JoYernment and other releYant staNe-
holders.
Prepare an oYerall strateJy for the reconstruction proJramme which considers also the
handinJ-oYer and maintenance of the new buildinJs.
Set up a project-implementation committee and aJree on the terms of reference for it.
Assist where needed in maintaininJ minutes of meetinJs of any committees such as the
project-implementation committee beneÀciary committee etc.
)acilitate appropriate site selection.
Support the identiÀcation of safe land.
)acilitate a feasibility study in case of resettlement.
Assist in comprehensiYe participatory site planninJ.
Prepare a proJramme budJet.
)acilitate aJreements with partners and participatinJ communities tripartite aJreements
clearly emphasisinJ accountability norms. (ach aJreement should include a list of informa-
tion/documents which should be shared.
0aNe contracts between the beneÀciaries and the implementinJ partner.
2btain an aJreement with the JoYernment.
Adapted from 5ed5 in 2[fam 8
7
4
%elow is an e[ample of a planninJ diaJram
British Red Cross, Haiti Recovery Programme
Renters and No legal right

Green House Yellow House Red House
landlords to land
Able to
repair Structural
LIVELIHOODS REPAIRS
Assessment
Average repairs cost
Find out if they want Livelihoods and $2000 (work and
Reconstruction evaluation)
to stay in the location shelter support WATSAN
and repair of
or return to the together
red and yellow
original neighbourhood
DEMOLITION
houses will
Community Watsan
enable
facilities turn into
Retrofitting
landlords to household Watsan to
(with seismic
make an Shelter CASH reenforcement)
go hand in hand
income whilst grants to help with shelter Will successful Temporary
providing with getting on
to markets jointly
retrofitting be Shelter
shelter to possible? More
those in with livelihoods guidelines to come 1. Host family (friends/family)
temporary support from MTPTC 2. T Shelter
shelters
DEBRIS Reconstruction
Agreements with
Reuse/Recycle?
yellow/red house
Quality depends on
owners
original housing
Spatial planning will stock. See reports
become possible as
Permanent
we work on the
reconstruction of the
Shelter
houses
(Masonry/timber
Neighbourhood mix or UNOPS
Spatial Planning T shelter)
British Red Cross Recovery Programme: Shelter Strategy for Delmas, Haiti
4.4 Land survey and acquisition

Whilst damaJed or destroyed structures are beinJ reconstructed an area of land may need to
be identiÀed and deYeloped for permanent housinJ needs. This requires a surYey of suitable
areas and should be undertaNen in consultation with the community as well as landowners
and the local authorities. SurYeys need to locate Yaluable aJricultural ]ones or land of hiJh
ecoloJical importance that should be aYoided for construction.
Further reading:
GTZ, 1999, Land Use Planning – Methods, strategies and tools, Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Eschborn, Germany
UN-HABITAT, 2008, Secure Land Rights for All, UN-HABITAT, Nairobi, Kenya
77
4.5 Site selection

&areful site selection is a Ney step that can determine the success or failure of a reconstruction
proJramme. 5econstruction settlements in ha]ardous areas are Yulnerable to earthquaNes
Áoods landslides cyclones etc. An assessment of potential risNs at reconstruction sites is
therefore crucial to aYoid repeated destruction.
Site selection should be made based on a careful determination of principal or pre-e[istinJ land
riJhts includinJ customary riJhts and in the case of resettlement the riJhts of neiJhbourinJ
communities. Where such riJhts e[ist local consent or a lease contract should be aJreed upon
to aYoid host community tensions.
Another challenJe is that beneÀciaries may not accept particular site locations for Yarious rea-
sons includinJ the site·s history or other socio-cultural issues. Site selection should be based
on the informed approYal of persons displaced by the disaster.
5econstruction actors should proYide information on site risNs to allow displaced persons to
maNe informed decisions. (Yen in cases where the JoYernment proYides plots for reconstruc-
tion or resettlements proJramme manaJers need to collect the same information to be aware
of e[istinJ disputes and claims.
,n order to select a suitable construction site project manaJers should consider a number of
issues and should Yerify facts and recommendations with intended users and local staNeholders.
The Ney factors to consider when choosinJ a site include
Field assessment of site quality

)aYour sites on open and eYen topoJraphy rather than on hills and steep slopes.
AYoid sites that are liNely to liquefy durinJ an earthquaNe.
AYoid buildinJ on unstable slopes that could fail or slide durinJ an earthquaNe.
%uildinJs of up to two Áoors can be built on solid rocNs. %uildinJs on solid rocNs and Àrm
soils endure better than do buildinJs on soft sandy clay or silty Jrounds.
4.5.1 Technical aspects

Assess risNs from natural ha]ards e.J. tidal waYes storm surJes landslides heaYy rainfall
earthquaNes and cyclones and aYoid rebuildinJ in unsafe ]ones. As part of the assessment
checN municipal Áood records.
Select a site that is out of reach from storm surJe and tidal waYes. &hecN with the responsible
local authority whether there are any buffer ]ones i.e. a safety ]one that e[tends beyond
the hiJhest preYious leYel of ÁoodinJ.
Assess site topoJraphy. When possible faYour eleYated but Áat sites in order to aYoid
ÁoodinJ and use shallow bedrocN conditions for seismic protection.
78
4
&hecN the slope stability anJle soil type
drainaJe etc..
Assess soil characteristics. This proYides
important information for determininJ a
suitable foundation type strip or slab and
depth for drillinJ water wells and for diJJinJ
holes for septic tanNs rocNy Jround is not
Yery suitable.
9eJetation can help mitiJate the effect of
ha]ards to settlements. ,n areas Yulnerable
to natural ha]ards use trees with lonJ root
structures in cyclone areas put them to-
Jether with bushy shrubs as wind-breaNs.
Assess the site·s e[istinJ YeJetation. &hecN
whether it is necessary to clear trees or
bushes from the site or alternatiYely to re-
forest the site to create a cooler microclimate
or stabilise soils.
,n tsunami-prone areas try to create a
¶bio-shield· e.J. trees bushes to slow the Plan of characteristic soil
tsunami waYe. bearing capacities
%ritish 5ed &ross
&onsider whether land ÀllinJ is needed to eleYate new buildinJs aboYe liNely ÁoodinJ leYels.
)ill material should come from controlled sources to aYoid causinJ landslides.
Assess impacts from nearby industries and airports e.J. noise pollution etc. and determine
how to minimise disturbances.
Analyse access to clean water roads shops and marNets schools and health facilities and
employment.
Analyse conditions and technical requirements for water supply sanitation waste manaJe-
ment and power supply.
&hecN for e[istinJ connections to municipal water mains. Assess their conditions and the
measures needed to connect the site to the municipal mains.
&hecN water quality throuJh chemical/physical testinJ. Determine whether Jroundwater is
contaminated and if so arranJe the deliYery of supplies from safe sources.
,dentify the depth of the Jroundwater table. This will be important information for the
purposes of establishinJ foundation depth and si]e as well as determininJ the depth and
distance between latrine systems/septic tanNs and water tanNs.
&hecN whether local reconstruction materials are aYailable at the site or nearby in order to
minimise transport costs.
7
4.5.2 Social aspects

(nsure users· acceptance of site locations.
8se an appropriate participatory decision-maNinJ process to select an appropriate site.
(nsure the locations· accessibility to jobs shops health facilities and other infrastructure.
&onsider whether neiJhbourinJ settlements of different ethnic Jroups are an issue.
Assess the issue of resettlement. 5elocatinJ residents without their deÀnite acceptance of
the new site may cause resistance users· moYinJ bacN to their former locations and other
problems.
&hecN whether the new area meets the population·s need in terms of social infrastructure
and economic actiYities.
,nform and prepare affected people. ,t is important to achieYe full participation of the tarJet
Jroup.
(nsure sites are safe and secure and easily accessible for the elderly the disabled women
Jirls men and boys.
(nsure that places of worship are accessible to all.
&onsider the risN of urban Yiolence or Yiolent dynamics in the selected location and its
surroundinJ particularly if these helped create patterns of Yulnerability isolation or power
consolidation.
8
4
4.5.3 Legal aspects
0aNe sure that formal land titles are aYailable.
,f needed support the restoration of pre-disaster lease aJreements.
,f formal land titles are unaYailable the followinJ documents may help
² siJned statements of ownership YeriÀed by neiJhbours and/or community leaders
² maps showinJ placement of property or boundary marNers by surYiYors in consultation
with neiJhbours
² informal maps of land plots e[istinJ trees burial locations ritual locations and public
areas aJreed throuJh community mechanisms
² siJned statements of inheritance YeriÀed by family members
² siJned statements of Juardianship of orphans YeriÀed by community members.
&larify who will be the landowner in order to aYoid future conÁicts and eYen the eYiction of
residents.
8se Jender-sensitiYe databases post-disaster tenure documentation databases should
include Àelds to record 1 details of women·s riJhts to land includinJ riJhts other than
ownership and marital land co-owned by a husband or wife.
Support the collection of YalidatinJ eYidence documents. Where formalisation of land riJhts
will enhance tenure security for landholders reconstruction proJramme beneÀciaries should
be assisted to collect eYidence for requests to record or reJister formal leJal riJhts to their
land whereYer possible in the names of women and men.
&onsider what Nind of riJhts the owners should haYe e.J. to sell rent assiJn to heirs etc..
8se simple boundary identiÀcation. 2ften community members and proJrammes need only
identify basic parcel layouts and sites for utilities and public facilities.1
Aim to resolYe disputes. ,nterim tenure documentation should not be issued where riJhts to
land remain uncertain but rather the parties should be referred to mediation and arbitration
mechanisms.
&larify with local authorities the buildinJ permits that are required at the site.
1 )ormal surYeyinJ of boundaries is e[pensiYe time-consuminJ and may be difÀcult or impossible to achieYe
at the required national standard.
81
5. Planning and design process
The planninJ and desiJn process is one of the Ney steps in an urban reconstruction proJramme.
,ntelliJent planninJ taNes into account requirements for a site and buildinJs which proYides
safe and user-friendly buildinJs that can be maintained easily. A planninJ and desiJn process
contains careful settlement planninJ and house desiJn.
5.1 Settlement planning

As the number of people increases the number of Yulnerable persons rises. +iJher population
density can simply mean an increase in the number of people who are e[posed to ha]ards. With
urbanisation comes marJinalisation of the poor who are compelled to the rather ha]ardous
unsafe areas of cities and possibly to locations where construction may haYe been forbidden
formerly. As it is mainly the poor who settle in these locations risN-mitiJation measures are
often not obserYed.
,n many cases the most faYoured land can also be the most at risN. )or e[ample housinJ
Participatory Planning map,
that emerJes alonJ the peri-urban interface can be a factor of urban sprawl and a lacN of safe
elaborated with the community
of Carrefour Feuille buildable land. &onstruction on unstable urban hillsides usually in slums can be initiated by
(Port-au-Prince, Haiti). indiYiduals who do not haYe any other option. 5eJardless of why construction occurs in these
Project supported by MTPTC, hiJh-risN ]ones there may be few mitiJation options for the people who reside there.
UN-HABITAT, US-Aid, Oxfam,
Architectes de l’Urgence.
,n post-disaster scenarios the challenJe of urban reconstruction remains with the problem of
Shelter &luster +aiti
poor urban planninJ. &ity boundaries seldom match with actual settlement locations. 2ften
buildinJ codes and ]oninJ by-laws are un-
affordable and unrealistic from the point of
Yiew of disaster-affected people. ,nformal
settlements tend to Jrow on ha]ardous land
without access to basic serYices and infrastruc-
ture or the beneÀt of disaster-risN-reduction
planninJ. /and-use plans are in many cases
unÀnished out of date and uncoordinated with
land administration systems across different
authorities and leYels of JoYernment.
After a suitable location has been selected
a settlement plan needs to be deYeloped at
neiJhbourhood leYel. Settlement plans are
usually prepared by a planner or architect and
should be based on the site analysis.
%efore deYelopinJ the settlement plan for the
neiJhbourhood checN the oYerall master plan
of the area or city if any to ensure compliance
with its requirements. 0aster plans usually coYer
larJer areas than do settlement plans which
normally apply to only one neiJhbourhood.
8
5
The settlement plan for the neiJhbourhood should address preYailinJ natural ha]ards and local
climate conditions. ,t contains all necessary information about further potential risNs density
of buildinJs roads YeJetation and access to infrastructure. %uildinJs should be set in such a
way that they haYe the least impact on the surroundinJ enYironment or nearby ecosystems.
&areful planninJ is required to establish the buildinJs· orientation on the plots where infrastruc-
ture pipinJ and other serYices is laid the inteJration of suitable YeJetation the arranJements
of e[ternal and internal spaces and urban socio-cultural requirements.
The followinJ factors need to be considered

&hecN whether you need to deYelop a new settlement plan or if a former plan is still usable
or Yalid.
0aNe the settlement plans Áe[ible for future e[tensions new accesses and necessary adjust-
ments due to chanJes in the users· needs and habits.
(nsure access throuJh adequate streets includinJ pathways and the public transport system.
5.1.2 Environmental aspects

&arry out an (nYironmental ,mpact Assessment (,A to identify potential neJatiYe impacts
on the enYironment and opportunities to aYoid or mitiJate such impacts. ,nteJrate Ney
requirements out of the (,A into the settlement plan refer also to chapter 1.5.
Protect e[istinJ YeJetation such as trees bushes etc. Plan to plant additional trees. 9eJeta-
tion is important to improYe air quality in a city. *reen YeJetation has also aesthetic and
recreational Yalue enhancinJ a city·s oYerall quality.
&luster buildinJs in a staJJered pattern to allow proper Yentilation. =iJ]aJ patterns aYoid
wind-tunnel effects.
Position buildinJs to optimise the use of sun and wind. ,n a hot climate the east and west
faoades should be shaded in order to minimise solar heatinJ especially durinJ morninJ and
afternoon hours and heat Jain of e[ternal walls thus minimisinJ indoor temperatures and
improYinJ users· comfort.
Building layout can limit
ArranJe streets and paths to economise on land use while proYidinJ Jood access to build- wind-tunnel effects
inJs and facilities. *ut AcNerNnecht 13
9eJetation has an absorptiYe capacity for many pollutants includinJ some Jreenhouse Jases.
83
Programme commencement 5. Planning and design process
5.1.3 Socio-economic aspects

As far as possible maintain e[istinJ social relationships within the community when resettl-
inJ. The social networN amonJ families and within neiJhbourhoods is usually Yery important
for the sustainable deYelopment of communities includinJ poYerty reduction.
8se land efÀciently to preserYe or enhance its economic potential.
5.1.4 Regulatory aspects

&omply with buffer ]ones. /ocal and national land-planninJ authorities should proYide such
information.
&omply with buildinJ codes laws and reJulations such as maintaininJ
minimum distance to neiJhbourinJ industrial areas and the airport
minimum si]es of the plots and their subdiYisions
minimum distances between buildinJs
minimum plot density normally the buildinJ should not coYer more than 55 of the plot
heiJhts of buildinJs numbers of Áoors
purpose and usaJe of houses
street width si[ to nine metres dependinJ on how many plots are to be accessed.
5.2 Principles of housing design

+ousinJ desiJn is the core issue of eYery reconstruction proJramme. The desiJn aspect is one
of the most crucial factors in determininJ the leYel of ownership and acceptance by beneÀciar-
ies and communities. Therefore it is essential that partners and beneÀciaries decide jointly on
appropriate and well-structured desiJn. This may require a lonJer time-frame additional worN
and lobbyinJ efforts.
As a whole an important aspect of urban housinJ desiJn is the e[tent to which the housinJ can
accommodate user needs climatic conditions and local natural ha]ards such as earthquaNes
Áoods and storms. Well-desiJned housinJ minimises enYironmental impacts and risNs while
meetinJ user needs. Also the choice of coolinJ solar and Yentilation systems for e[ample has
a direct impact on a buildinJ·s enerJy efÀciency and conserYation potential.
A housinJ desiJn should increase resilience or Yulnerability accordinJ to the ha]ard to which
it is e[posed. )or e[ample in earthquaNe-prone areas buildinJs with open Áoors e.J. Àrst-
Áoor parNinJ JaraJes or irreJular shapes are typically more liNely to fail with the incidence of
an earthquaNe. ,n hiJh-wind ]ones haYinJ no roof ties usually leads to roof loss or structural
failure. Areas of hiJh snow probability must haYe adequate snow-load capacity inteJrated into
frames and roof structures.
8
5
.ey recommendations are
)aYour solutions that are enYironmentally sustainable and enerJy efÀcient.
8se housinJ desiJns that are resistant to natural ha]ards such as earthquaNes Áoods and
storms.
)aYour simple low-cost robust and practical solutions.
&onsider Áe[ible desiJns that are easy to upJrade and e[pand.
Assess the whole life cycle when desiJninJ a buildinJ construction maintenance reuse
demolition and recyclinJ phases.
(nsure easy maintenance throuJh the use of plain housinJ styles. ,n many cases maintenance
and later renoYation turn out to be technically complicated and therefore more e[pensiYe.
0aNe sure that materials and tools needed to worN the materials are aYailable locally.
(nsure cost-effectiYeness in all construction actiYities.
,ncorporate the users· needs and cultural requirements.
The house desiJn phase of an interYention is Yery crucial and is the foundation of acceptance
and ownership by communities.
It is recommended that the following steps are considered3:

preparation of a site layout/plot/]oninJ plan
planninJ for the proYision of infrastructure and serYices at settlement leYel
preparation of technical drawinJs for the construction of a buildinJ
preparation of structural drawinJs
preparation of drawinJs for infrastructure and serYices such as water and sanitation
drainaJe etc.
preparation of detailed drawinJs of Yarious buildinJ elements such as parapet doors
windows foundation sanitary facilities Nitchen etc.
approYal of desiJn by the releYant JoYernmental authorities
reJular coordination with the Yarious staNeholders to share Jood practice and NnowledJe
frequent brieÀnJs with the project committees and releYant staNeholders
undertaNinJ reJular consultations and sharinJ of information with Yarious decision- and
opinion-maNers.
85
5.3 Building form

The form of a buildinJ is crucial to ensurinJ that it is built sustainably. &ertain buildinJ forms
can better minimise or withstand the impact of earthquaNes Áoods tidal waYes storm surJes
cyclones and climate conditions.
The checNlist below contains the most important points to consider when thinNinJ about
sustainable buildinJ form.

The shape of the buildinJ has an important effect on its stability. The followinJ rules should
be taNen into account
The more compact the buildinJ·s shape the better its stability.
/-shaped plans are less stable. An alternatiYe is to separate house parts from each other.
)or better resistance to Áoods consider eleYatinJ the Jround Áoor and buildinJ an e[tra
Áoor or usinJ a Áat roof that residents could Áee to if necessary.
To accommodate the local climate research the climate ]one in which the reconstruction
proJramme is located.
,f the proJramme is sited in a warm-humid ]one use the natural airÁow to lower internal
temperatures and reduce the impacts of heat and humidity on the buildinJ and its users.
A number of steps can be taNen to increase the natural airÁow in tropical climates
The buildinJ·s shape should be of ¶open· character allowinJ airÁow throuJh openinJs such
as windows louYres and doors. 2peninJs should be placed on opposite sides of the build-
inJ to improYe cross-Yentilation. +oweYer distribute openinJs well to ensure earthquaNe
resistance see also in Anne[ ,9.
&onsider creatinJ openinJs in the roof to enable warm and humid air to e[it.
(leYate the housinJ construction from the Jround to allow airÁow underneath the buildinJ.
8se detached or double rooÀnJ which allows better air circulation and proYides protection
from the sun.
When possible place the buildinJs with their lonJer a[es to the preYailinJ wind direction
in order to ma[imise airÁow.
Sketches from ‘Shelter Safety

Handbook – some important
information on how to build
safer’
,)5& 11
8
5
Ten key principles of storm-resistant construction
Tie the structure toJether Àrmly and use diaJonal bracinJ.
Attach the roof coYerinJ securely.
Pitch the roof between 3 and 5 deJrees to lower wind suction.
Simplify the buildinJ·s form to minimise obstruction to the wind.
Separate Yerandas from the house·s main structure.
Pay attention to the si]e and positioninJ of openinJs.
(nsure that openinJs can be closed with outside shutters.
8se landscape and topoJraphy to protect the housinJ.
Plant wind-breaNs in the form of hedJes dense trees or other YeJetation.
5.3.2 Economic aspects

&onstruction costs can be minimised by usinJ simple shapes without numerous and compli-
cated anJles. Sophisticated housinJ shapes are normally more labour and material intensiYe
than are plain shapes so should be carefully considered.
(conomic incentiYes to salYaJe and reuse testiÀed materials from damaJed buildinJs roof
tiles poles etc. should be encouraJed.
5.3.3 Socio-cultural aspect

To ensure a socially aesthetically and culturally appropriate housinJ desiJn always consult
with the future users/owners reJardinJ which buildinJ form and layout will best suit their
needs and Àt with their customs.
87
Sample questions for future residents include:

Where should the toilet be located?
What direction should the entrance or important rooms face?
+ow many sleepinJ rooms are required?
,s there need for a reliJious space in the house?
What other cultural requirements do the residents haYe concerninJ priYacy or reliJious
practices blinds diYision walls prayer corners etc.?
+ow is accessibility for disabled people dealt with?
Where should the Nitchen be located?
5.3.4 Regulatory aspects

,t is essential to ensure that the shape form and si]e of the housinJ complies with national
buildinJ codes and other laws and reJulations particularly with respect to anti-seismic storm
and Áood speciÀcations.
%uildinJ codes should be based upon identiÀed ha]ard risN and are normally established
upon a minimum standard of safety. %uildinJ codes that do not appropriately address ha]-
ard risN induce hiJher risNs into the housinJ desiJn. &odes must be reJularly updated to
follow up industrial innoYations new risN e[pertise and new practice and NnowledJe of the
construction business.
%uildinJ codes are ineffectiYe if they are not appropriately enforced. ,ncreased construction
costs related to riJid buildinJ codes are often neJlected both by contractors and by the ben-
eÀciaries themselYes. %uildinJ codes are effectiYe only when there is a mechanism in place to
inspect constructions as they are built and upon completion. Penalties should be imposed on
those who do not construct correctly or build accordinJ to the codes.
There haYe been cases where buildinJ codes were adequate but there was a lacN of competent
inspectors to handle the case-load at the time. /iNewise there are cases where sufÀcient staff
members are aYailable but a culture of corruption e[ists allowinJ buildinJs to obtain proper
approYals despite code Yiolations by usinJ bribery or other means.
88
5
8
6. Infrastructure
8rban housinJ that depends on weaN infrastructure is liNely to become unusable in the eYent of
a disaster eYen if the structure of the housinJ itself is solid and/or unaffected by the disaster.
8rban households need Yarious essential infrastructure and serYices. )or e[ample residents and
businesses need access to serYices such as water supply sanitation electricity roads transport
and communication. People need access to their liYelihoods and children need access to edu-
cation. ,nfrastructure proJrammes must JiYe due consideration to the use of appropriate local
technoloJies and cultural preferences for the sustainability of the worN. ,mported solutions from
deYeloped countries are often destined to fail. When planninJ for urban housinJ budJet and
human resource considerations for infrastructure are a crucial element.
6.1 Water supply

Safe water supply toJether with safe sanitation is e[tremely important for public health and
for economic deYelopment in urban areas. Water supply and sanitation planninJ must therefore
be an inteJral part of planninJ for urban reconstruction. ,t must be noted that includinJ water
and sanitation actiYities requires siJniÀcant budJet and time allocations.
8ndertaNinJ water supply and sanitation interYentions requires the inYolYement of qualiÀed
water and sanitation technicians for both hardware e.J. pumps and pipes and software hy-
Jiene education community participation and manaJement etc.. The hardware aspects of water
and sanitation interYentions are easier to implement compared to the software requirements.
The software component should be stronJly linNed to the hardware planninJ process brinJinJ
toJether the community and enJineerinJ aspects of the project. The selection of appropriate
technical options and manaJement system should inYolYe the community throuJh a participa-
tory process in which the community is an actiYe partner and not simply a passiYe recipient.
Partnership helps to sustain a project because it sets in place diJnity and a sense of Yalue and
diJnity for those who are Yulnerable. This will require well-desiJned water supply projects that
build community capacities recoJnisinJ local leadership in operation and maintenance sNills.
When the community is committed JoYernment is informed and relationships with other staNe-
holders and local structures are established the enJineerinJ worN may commence.
An important ¶software· component of water and sanitation is hyJiene promotion which Joes
hand in hand with sanitation hardware and can proJressiYely lead to behaYioural chanJe.
6.1.1 Water supply system options

2ptions for water supply in urban areas include
centralised piped-water supply systems
decentralised piped-water supply systems
indiYidual water supply systems at household leYel
water distribution by trucNs carts or in bottles.
All systems can be applied in a combined way within the same urban settinJ.

6
Centralised piped-water supply systems consist of the followinJ components
([traction of Jroundwater or surface water resources in the immediate pro[imity of the city and
from Jreat distances dependinJ on the aYailability of resources. *roundwater is e[tracted by
usinJ seYeral wells equipped with pumps whereas e[traction of surface water requires speciÀc
intaNe facilities. ,n larJer cities the use of seYeral water sources is frequently required.
Water treatment for remoYinJ harmful chemical substances and disease-causinJ bacteria as
well as undesirable particles colour etc. from raw water. The type of treatment technoloJy
depends Yery much on the speciÀc quality of raw water. A typical basic treatment for surface
water is sand Àltration and disinfection with chlorine. &hlorine is also frequently added to
treated water for preYentinJ recontamination of water in the distribution system.
Transmission pipeworN and if required by topoJraphy pumpinJ stations for transportation
of water from the location of water abstraction to the entry points of the distribution system.
5eserYoirs for water storaJe before the water enters the distribution systems. 5eserYoirs are
needed to satisfy peaN demands durinJ times of ma[imum water consumption.
A distribution networN for the supply of water to the user. The networN is Jenerally composed
of primary and secondary main pipes and distribution branches. Distribution networNs in
larJer cities are Jenerally diYided into a ranJe of supply ]ones especially if topoJraphy
requires different pressure ]ones. Distribution networNs contain YalYes for isolatinJ ]ones
or shuttinJ down certain areas for maintenance.
Supply points can be either public standpipes or household connections.
&entralised systems for larJer cities are often comple[ systems and use seYeral water sources
sometimes located at considerable distance from the city different supply ]ones in the distri-
bution networN and sophisticated treatment technoloJy. 2peration and manaJement of cen-
tralised systems require considerable technical and orJanisational capacities and are Jenerally
assured by municipal or corporate-owned utilities.
Decentralised piped-water supply systems are based on the same components as are larJer
centralised systems but use water resources aYailable in closer pro[imity supply smaller areas
and often use only basic treatment technoloJies. Safe water resources in close pro[imity to the
supply ]one are rare in the case of densely populated urban centres but may be possible in
peri-urban areas. Decentralised systems can be manaJed by utilities but also by community-
based schemes which maNe them potential alternatiYe solutions for self-supply of communities
in situations with deÀcient public water supplies.
Individual water supply systems at a household leYel are based on shallow wells or rainwater
harYestinJ and are typical rural water supply options thouJh in some situations they may also
be appropriate in peri-urban settinJs.
Water supply by trucks or carts or in bottles is common when no other systems of water
supply are aYailable and are therefore frequently encountered in post-disaster situations where
e[istinJ infrastructure or orJanisational structures haYe collapsed. Such water supply cannot
be considered as acceptable in the lonJ term as it is Yery costly and insufÀcient quantities of
water per person are beinJ supplied.
1
Programme commencement 6. Infrastructure
&entralised water supply systems are the best option for efÀcient and safe water supply and
should always be the preferred option wheneYer the required institutional capacities are aYail-
able or can realistically be deYeloped and when there is necessary capital for inYestment.
Decentralised piped systems or indiYidual systems in urban areas may be the only option in
some urban neiJhbourhoods if public institutions are too weaN for reliable serYice proYision
or if not enouJh capital is accessible to coYer the entire urban area. 9ender-based informal
serYices should be considered only as a temporary or transitional solution and be replaced as
soon as possible by a formal water supply.
The W+2/8N,&() -oint 0onitorinJ ProJramme -0P for Water Supply and Sanitation is
responsible for monitorinJ the proJress towards the 8N 0illennium DeYelopment *oals for
water supply and sanitation. The followinJ ÀJure lists the deÀnitions used by -0P to qualify
which water supply options are accepted as ¶improYed· options and which are unacceptable
or ¶unimproYed·.
Use of the following sources:

DRINKING WATER
IMPROVED
n Piped water into dwelling, yard or plot

n Public tap or standpipe
n Tubewell or borehole
n Protected dug well
n Protected spring
n Rainwater collection
Use of the following sources:

DRINKING WATER
UNIMPROVED
n Unprotected dug well

n Unprotected spring
n Cart with small tank or drum
n Tanker truck
n Surface water (river, dam, lake, pond, stream,
canal, irrigation channel)
n Bottled water
'HÀQLWLRQRILPSURYHGDQGXQLPSURYHGZDWHUVXSSO\V\VWHPV
Adapted from W+2 ² World +ealth 2rJani]ation/8N,&() ² 8nited Nations &hildren·s )und 1

6
Urban water supply systems Suitability according to Required capacities Investment needs
WHO/UNICEF/JMP criteria
Centralised piped-water ,mproYed water supply if +iJh operation and +iJh public inYestment
supply systems properly manaJed maintenance capacities of
utilities required
Decentralised piped-water ,mproYed water supply *ood community /ow/no public inYestment
supply systems if properly manaJed and orJanisation and technical in-Nind community
faYourable local conditions sNills required contribution possible
Individual water supply ,mproYed water supply *ood awareness and /ow/no public inYestment
if properly manaJed and information of households medium inYestments by
faYourable local conditions required indiYiduals
Tanker/bottled water 8nimproYed water supply Basic awareness and 0edium public/priYate sector
supply information of households inYestments
required hiJh runninJ costs
for households
Comparison of suitability and requirements for different types of water supply system
6.1.2 Assessment of water supply infrastructure

A thorouJh assessment of the state of water supply infrastructure is the Àrst important step for
post-disaster reconstruction to allow decision-maNinJ on which parts of the infrastructure are
still functional and which can potentially be rehabilitated or whether complete reconstruction
would be more effectiYe.
)or centralised piped-water supply systems assessment should start with interYiews of man-
aJement staff and users of the system to determine the pre-disaster state of infrastructure and
leYel of serYice as well as the e[tent of damaJe to infrastructure and deterioration of serYice
caused by the disaster. This will help to focus assessment on the main elements of infrastructure
damaJed by the disaster.
The followinJ points of assessment of infrastructure for larJe piped-water supply systems
affected by disasters need to be considered
Water source
Natural disasters may affect the quality of water resources used for the water supply system
e.J. throuJh salinity intrusion in coastal Jroundwater or surface water bodies or chemical and
microbial contamination of water resources. AlternatiYe water sources may need to be deYel-
oped if lonJ-term contamination is liNely.
3
Facilities for water production

)acilities for water production are frequently amonJ the most affected by natural disasters
and as Ney elements of water supply infrastructure often need the most urJent attention for
rehabilitation. DamaJe from natural disasters to facilities for water production may include the
followinJ
Wells are often located in Áood-prone areas and may be contaminated or damaJed by
ÁoodinJ.
Water intaNe facilities located on riYer shores may be damaJed from ÁoodinJ.
5eserYoirs and water treatment facilities are prone to damaJe from earthquaNes.
Transmission main pipes are Yulnerable to ÁoodinJ when located close to watercourses and
are at risN of damaJe from earthquaNes.
Distribution network
The status of the distribution networN will Jenerally be closely linNed to the condition of the
housinJ infrastructure. (arthquaNes and ÁoodinJ may seYerely damaJe distribution networNs.
Areas with indiYidual water supply may also be seYerely impacted by disasters shallow wells
especially are Yery prone to contamination from ÁoodinJ.
6.1.3 Planning reconstruction of water supply infrastructure

Based on the assessment of the state of the water supply infrastructure objectiYes for
reconstruction need to be deÀned. ,n Jeneral the minimum objectiYe will be to restore the
pre-disaster leYel of serYice. +oweYer if the pre-disaster leYel of water supply was already
unsatisfactory the objectiYe of reconstruction should be to improYe water supply beyond
repairinJ damaJe from disaster. The objectiYes for determininJ a suitable leYel of serYice will
depend on the followinJ factors
urban planninJ conte[t reconstruction to e[istinJ perimeter or relocation to other areas
leYel of damaJe to infrastructure and rehabilitation needs
institutional capacities for manaJinJ centralised piped-water supply systems
inYestment budJet aYailable for reconstruction.
)or urban areas centralised piped-water systems with metered household connections should
always be the preferred option. ,f the required inYestment budJet is not aYailable or necessary
institutional capacities cannot be increased a lower leYel of serYice should be chosen for parts
of the city as a medium-term solution and conceiYed in a way to allow for future upJradinJ.
,n the followinJ paraJraph some further important desiJn considerations for piped-water
supply systems are discussed.

6
Quantity of water supplied
When desiJninJ water supply systems one main criterion is the quantity of water to be sup-
plied. ,n Jeneral a use of litres per day l/day per person will ensure consumption needs
such as hand-washinJ and basic food hyJiene but not the needs for bathinJ and laundry.
)ifty l/day is considered the minimum water-use rate to satisfy all needs for consumption and
hyJiene whereas 1 l/day is considered the optimum for urban household connections W+2
3. ,mproYinJ water supply beyond the leYel of basic needs also allows productiYe use of
water e.J. in small-scale food production and supports income Jeneration in poor households.
The quantity of water is closely related to the type of supply point public standpipes are unliNely
to supply more than l/day when the distance to the household e[ceeds 1 metres. Taps
on the house plot supply 5 l/day on aYeraJe whereas connections with pumps and seYeral
taps inside the house are able to supply 1 l/day or more.
System desiJn should be based on tarJeted water consumption rates and on locally measured
consumption rates in areas with e[istinJ Jood water supply.
Type of supply points

The different options for supply points in piped-water systems are as follows
Public standpipes located in streets where people collect water with containers. Water use
can be free of charJe or with fee collection water NiosN. +ousehold connections serYe
indiYidual households in Jeneral water fees are collected based on metered consumption
or on a lump-sum fee.
Public standpipe5
5 W(D& ² Water (nJineerinJ and DeYelopment &entre
5
Household connections includinJ connections with a sinJle tap in the yard or plumbinJ
and seYeral taps inside the house.
+ousehold connections offer the best leYel of serYice and Jenerally are the preferred option.
+oweYer public standpipes may result in serYice to poor populations that cannot afford fees for
household connections. Also standpipes may be used as initial supply points while indiYidual
households are beinJ connected proJressiYely.
Continuity of supply
Supply in piped systems can be continuous or intermittent. )or continuous supply distribution
pipes are maintained under pressure at all times and consumption throuJh supply points is
possible at any time. )or intermittent supply water is supplied to different supply ]ones on a
rotational basis and only for limited periods. ,ntermittent supply is usually used for rationinJ
water when capacity of water production is not sufÀcient to satisfy the total demand. +oweYer
often the reason for intermittent supply is poor manaJement of the system which does not
allow maintenance of pressure within the distribution networN.
Water quality from networNs operated with intermittent supply cannot be considered as safe
because low or neJatiYe pressure in pipes durinJ irreJular supply allows contamination to en-
ter the pipes. &ontinuous supply should therefore be the objectiYe wheneYer sufÀcient water
resources are aYailable.
Further reading:
WEDC – Water Engineering and Development Centre, 2000, Services for the urban poor – sections
1–6: Guidance for policymakers, planners and engineers; Andrew Cotton; WEDC, Loughborough,
Leicestershire, UK
6.2 Sanitation
6.2.1 Sanitation options
*ood enYironmental sanitation is as important for public health in urban areas as is water sup-
ply. Sanitation systems proYide the collection of used water in households and human waste
includinJ its conYeyance treatment and disposal or reuse. ,n urban areas sanitation systems
often require a comple[ arranJement of different technoloJies and orJanisational set-ups.
Sanitation systems for urban areas can be any of the followinJ
centralised systems with larJe JraYity sewer systems and central wastewater treatment plants
decentralised wastewater collection and treatment systems
on-site sanitation systems.
0any technoloJical options are aYailable for sanitation and can be applied in a combination of
ways for different situations within the same urban area. Some of the most important options
for urban settinJs are listed below. These are selected options only for a complete oYerYiew
of options the &ompendium of Sanitation Systems and TechnoloJies is recommended.
(AWA* ² (idJen|ssische Anstalt fr WasserYersorJunJ AbwasserreiniJunJ und *ewlsserschut] 8

6
The followinJ ÀJure summarises the -0P deÀnitions for improYed and unimproYed sanitation
options
SANITATION Use of the following facilities:
n Flush or pour-flush to:

IMPROVED
– piped sewer system

– septic tank
– pit latrine
n Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine
n Pit latrine with slab
n Composting toilet
Use of the following facilities:

UNIMPROVED
n Flush or pour-flush to elsewhere (i.e., not to

SANITATION
piped sewer system, septic tank or pit latrine)

n Pit latrine without slab / open pit
n Bucket
n Hanging toilet or hanging latrine
Shared facilities of any type
No facilities, bush or field
'HÀQLWLRQRILPSURYHGDQGXQLPSURYHGVDQLWDWLRQV\VWHPV7
Centralised gravity sewerage and wastewater treatment

*raYity sewers are larJe networNs of underJround pipes that conYey household wastewater
includinJ from Áush toilets as well as storm-water see also chapter .3 to a centralised treat-
ment facility usinJ JraYity. Such systems typically serYe urban centres and densely populated
sites sometimes entire urban areas. The JraYity sewer system is desiJned with many branches
typically subdiYided into main sewer lines alonJ main roads and a networN at the neiJhbour-
hood and household leYel. Because the waste is not treated before it is discharJed a constant
downhill Jradient must be Juaranteed to aYoid accumulation of solids. When a downhill Jrade
cannot be maintained a pump station must be installed. Access manholes are placed at set
interYals alonJ the sewer at pipe intersections and at chanJes in the pipeline·s route. This tech-
noloJy proYides a hiJh leYel of hyJiene and comfort for the user at the point of use. +oweYer
because the waste is conYeyed to an off-site location for treatment the ultimate health and
enYironmental impacts are determined by the treatment proYided by the downstream facility.
7 W+2 ² World +ealth 2rJani]ation/8N,&() ² 8nited Nations &hildren·s )und 1
7
street drainaJe
sewer main
Gravity sewerage, manhole and household connection8
9arious technoloJies are aYailable for central wastewater treatment ranJinJ from technically
sophisticated systems liNe actiYated sludJe treatment to efÀcient low-tech systems such as waste
stabilisation ponds. ,mportant criteria for choosinJ the appropriate treatment technoloJies are
required efÁuent standards access to inYestment capital e[istinJ manaJement capacities and
aYailable land.
1 anaerobic facultatiYe 3 aerobic maturation
:DVWHVWDELOLVDWLRQSRQGVDYHU\HIÀFLHQWZDVWHZDWHUWUHDWPHQWWHFKQRORJ\ZLWK
low maintenance needs but high land requirements
PlanninJ construction operation and maintenance require e[pert NnowledJe. *raYity sewers
are e[pensiYe to build and because the installation of a sewer line is disruptiYe and requires
e[tensiYe coordination between the authorities construction companies and the property own-
ers a professional manaJement system must be in place.
Decentralised or community-based systems

Decentralised wastewater collection and treatment systems are based on simpliÀed sewer sys-
tems for collection of wastewater that has been partly treated. Those systems typically serYe
limited areas such as smaller neiJhbourhoods in peri-urban areas.
8 (AWA* ² (idJen|ssische Anstalt fr WasserYersorJunJ AbwasserreiniJunJ und *ewlsserschut] 8

(AWA* ² (idJen|ssische Anstalt fr WasserYersorJunJ AbwasserreiniJunJ und *ewlsserschut] 8
8
6
SimpliÀed sewers comprise a seweraJe networN that is constructed usinJ smaller-diameter
pipes laid at a shallower depth and at a Áatter Jradient than those used in conYentional sew-
ers. This allows for a more Áe[ible desiJn with lower costs and a hiJher number of connected
households. ([pensiYe manholes are replaced with simple inspection chambers. (ach discharJe
point is connected to an interceptor tanN to preYent ¶settleable· solids and rubbish from enter-
inJ the sewer. ,n addition each household should haYe a Jrease trap at the sewer connection.
Another Ney desiJn feature is that the sewers are laid within the property boundaries rather
than beneath the central road.
Because simpliÀed sewers are laid on or around the property of the users hiJher connection
rates can be achieYed fewer and shorter pipes can be used and less e[caYation is required as
the pipes will not be subjected to heaYy trafÀc loads. +oweYer this type of conYeyance tech-
noloJy requires careful neJotiation between staNeholders since desiJn and maintenance must
be jointly coordinated.
SimpliÀed sewers can be installed in almost all types of settlements and are especially appro-
priate for dense urban communities. 2peration and maintenance of simpliÀed sewers can be
carried out by municipal utilities or community Jroups.
inspection chamber
6LPSOLÀHGVHZHUV\VWHPZLWKFROOHFWLRQSLSHVRQSORWDQGLQVSHFWLRQFKDPEHUV
functioning as settling tanks5
Wastewater collected in simpliÀed sewers can be treated in small-scale wastewater treatment

plants or discharJed into a branch of a conYentional sewer system.
9arious technoloJies are aYailable for decentralised wastewater treatment to suit local condi-
tions and requirements reJardinJ efÁuent standards access to inYestment capital e[istinJ
manaJement capacities and aYailable land. ,n Jeneral decentralised systems need to be easier
to operate and maintain than are central wastewater treatment plants because of lower capaci-
ties at the local leYel. Natural treatment systems such as constructed wetland are especially
suitable for these small-scale treatment plants.

aquatic plants macrophytes
inlet air pipe
8 cm
outlet
JraYel slope 1 drainaJe pipe
([DPSOHRIDVPDOOVFDOHZDVWHZDWHUWUHDWPHQWSODQWYHUWLFDOÁRZFRQVWUXFWHGZHWODQG51
On-site systems
2n-site systems proYide most functions of a sanitation system at the housinJ location and
Jenerally serYe one indiYidual household. Waste and wastewater are collected treated and
stored on site. Disposal or reuse may also happen on site. 2n-site sanitation frequently inYolYes
separate systems for different household wastes e.J. separate facilities for collection of faeces
and urine and of Jrey water wastewater from Nitchen and bathinJ. 0any on-site sanitation
systems and technoloJies e[ist some of the most common ones are described below
Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines are waterless toilets that collect faeces and urine in a
simple earth pit. A superstructure and YentinJ system maNes the latrine safe and hyJienic to
the user. /iquids are drained in the underJround in order to aYoid microbial contamination of
drinNinJ water latrines haYe to be placed at a certain minimum distance !3 metres from
water sources such as shallow wells. Solids accumulate in the pit when the pit is full either it
needs to be emptied or a new latrine needs to be built nearby.
Áy screen
! 3 cm
! 11 cm Yent pipe
air currents
Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine5

1
6
8rine-diYertinJ dehydration toilets 8DDT are a different type of waterless toilet where urine is
collected separately in containers and faeces are collected in sealed chambers. The separation
of urine allows complete dryinJ of faeces. A double-Yault system for faeces collection where
one Yault receiYes faeces and the other stores preYiously collected faeces for about si[ months
ensures that no fresh faeces need to be handled when emptyinJ the chamber. 8DDTs do not
need replacement as do 9,P latrines and do not contaminate Jroundwater additionally dried
faeces and collected urine can be used as fertilisers e.J. on site in Jardens. ,f no space for
on-site reuse is aYailable collection systems are required.
Áy screen
! 3 cm
! 11 cm Yent pipe
Yiew A
urine diYersion
urine
tanN
Yiew A section
Double-vault urine-diverting dehydration toilet53
Flush toilets or pour-Áush toilets connected to septic tanNs collect and pre-treat urine faeces
ÁushinJ water and optionally also Jrey water. Treatment in a septic tanN is based on settlinJ and
anaerobic diJestion of solids the solid-free efÁuent is then either inÀltrated on site or needs to
be collected in a simpliÀed sewer system. DiJestion of solids Jreatly reduces the accumulation
of sludJe nonetheless the septic tanNs require de-sludJinJ eYery few years.
11
access coYers
inlet inlet
tee liquid leYel
scum
outlet
settlement ]one
sludJe
Septic tank5
2n-site systems Jenerally require some space on the plot for the facilities and are therefore
rarely appropriate for densely populated urban centres. ,n urban areas on-site sanitation is
often a Yery Yiable solution especially if public sanitation serYice proYision is weaN. 2n-site
sanitation is user based inYestment maintenance and operation are to a larJe e[tent proYided
by the households. +oweYer the quality of on-site sanitation Jreatly depends on the awareness
Nnow-how and resources of households. (fforts towards awareness-raisinJ and information-
JiYinJ as well as Ànancial support are often required to ensure sustainability and safety of
on-site sanitation. )urther most urban on-site sanitation requires some collection serYices e.J.
sludJe from septic tanNs or latrines needs to be collected treated or disposed of safely. These
serYices need to be orJanised by community Jroups public utilities or priYate serYice proYiders.
Shared facilities
Shared sanitation facilities such as public toilet blocNs are sometimes used in densely populated
poor neiJhbourhoods. TechnoloJies for public toilet facilities are similar to on-site sanitation
or sometimes use small-scale wastewater treatment. Public toilets are particular common as
temporary solutions in post-disaster situations as they can be installed quicNly and serYe larJe
numbers of users. +oweYer accordinJ to -0P criteria shared facilities cannot be considered as
a sustainable and safe sanitation solution in the lonJ term and in post-disaster reconstruction
should be replaced by an improYed solution as promptly as possible.
1
6
Public toilet in India

*T= ² Deutsche *esellschaft fr Technische =usammenarbeit 7
6LWXDWLRQDVVHVVPHQWDQGGHÀQLWLRQRIREMHFWLYHV
A thorouJh assessment of the state of sanitation infrastructure is the Àrst important step for
post-disaster reconstruction. ,nterYiews with manaJement staff and users in the different areas
of the urban settinJ may be the best startinJ point to determine the pre-disaster state of in-
frastructure and leYel of serYice as well as the main damaJe to infrastructure and deterioration
of serYice caused by the disaster. This will enable identiÀcation of the main damaJe caused by
the disaster and elements of infrastructure needinJ detailed assessment. DamaJe from natural
disasters to sanitation facilities often includes the followinJ
Sewers may be cloJJed with silt and debris after ÁoodinJ or may be ruptured by earth-
quaNes.
Wastewater treatment plants may be damaJed from earthquaNes or ÁoodinJ particularly
when located close to watercourses.
DamaJe to on-site sanitation facilities will be closely linNed to the condition of buildinJ
infrastructure.
13
6.2.3 Planning reconstruction of sanitation infrastructure

Based on the assessment of the state of the sanitation infrastructure objectiYes for urban
reconstruction of sanitation systems need to be deÀned. ,n Jeneral the minimum Joal will
be to restore the pre-disaster leYel of serYice. +oweYer if the pre-disaster leYel of sanitation
was already unsatisfactory the objectiYe of reconstruction should be to improYe the situation
beyond repairinJ damaJe from the disaster. The objectiYes for determininJ a suitable leYel of
serYice will depend on the followinJ factors
urban planninJ conte[t reconstruction on e[istinJ perimeter or relocation to other areas
leYel of damaJe to infrastructure and rehabilitation needs
institutional capacities for manaJinJ centralised sewer systems
inYestment budJet aYailable for reconstruction.
)or sanitation there is no ¶one si]e Àts all· solution reconstruction should always be tailored to
the speciÀc situation which can Yary from one neiJhbourhood to the other.
0any sanitation systems haYe components inteJrated into the buildinJ infrastructure e.J.
Áush toilets septic tanNs etc. When entire neiJhbourhoods need to be completely rebuilt or
relocated there is the chance to rethinN the sanitation systems and apply solutions which are
better than was the infrastructure prior to the disaster.
,nYestment and manaJement of a decentralised and on-site sanitation system is hiJhly de-
pendent on inYolYement of indiYidual households. ,t is therefore Yery important to focus on
awareness-raisinJ and information-JiYinJ as well as on ensurinJ participation of users in
sanitation planninJ.
Further reading:
Leicestershire, UK
EAWAG – Eidgenössische Anstalt für Wasserversorgung, Abwasserreinigung und Gewässerschutz, 2008,
Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies; Elizabeth Tilley, Christoph Lüthi, Antoine Morel,
Chris Zurbrügg and Roland Schertenleib; Eawag/Sandec, Dübendorf, Switzerland:
www.eawag.ch/forschung/sandec/publikationen/sesp/dl/compendium_high.pdf
IFRC – Post-disaster community infrastructure rehabilitation and (re)construction guidelines, 2012
1
6
6.3 Drainage
6.3.1 Basic considerations
DrainaJe systems remoYe storm-water and wastewater from neiJhbourhoods to minimise public
health risNs inconYenience to inhabitants and damaJe to other infrastructure. The objectiYes
of drainaJe are
minimisinJ ÁoodinJ of houses
preYentinJ erosion and damaJe to buildinJs
eliminatinJ standinJ water and the resultant risNs from mosquito-transmitted diseases
reducinJ the e[tent and duration of ÁoodinJ of streets to acceptable leYels.
DrainaJe must handle two Yery different types of water

Storm-water is water from rain eYents which occur infrequently but can Jenerate larJe Áows
of water requirinJ eYacuation. The Áow depends on climatic conditions in tropical climates
the intensity of rainfall can be e[tremely hiJh. There are two main causes of ÁoodinJ by
storm-water
² inundation from a surroundinJ area e.J. from a riYer or canal which is ÁowinJ at an
abnormally hiJh leYel
² inability of the drainaJe system to remoYe the required quantity of storm-water resultinJ
from intense rainfall.
Wastewater occurs in comparatiYely small but permanent Áows. The Yolume of wastewater Drainage
is closely linNed to the consumption of drinNinJ water. &laudia Schneider SNat
As with seweraJe there is a hierarchy in drainaJe systems

Tertiary drains are those drains at the neiJhbourhood leYel which collect and deliYer drained
water to the outfall point at the site boundary.
Secondary drains run past the site and collect water from the tertiary drains.
Primary drains such as larJe drainaJe canals streams or riYers collect water from the sec-
ondary drains.
,t is important to realise that the drainaJe problem does not end once a drainaJe networN has
been desiJned for the site in question. The drainaJe water which has been collected from the
site discharJes into a nearby secondary drain if this has insufÀcient capacity to cope with the
additional Áows its water leYel rises and water cannot escape from the site drains. )loodinJ
then occurs on the site and the fundamental problem has not been solYed. &onsideration must
always be JiYen to the downstream part of the drainaJe system.
15
Site
Tertiary drains
Secondary drain
¶2utfall· of the site drainaJe
Basic layout of a drainage system55
The principal problems in the desiJn and implementation of drainaJe relate to the slope of
the Jround. DifÀculties are encountered on Jround which is either Áat or e[cessiYely steep
Flat ground DrainaJe by JraYity implies that all drains must slope downhill. This is achieYed by
followinJ the land·s natural contours. 2n low-lyinJ or Áat sites which are beinJ reconstructed it
is difÀcult to create the required slope and Jround preparation must ensure adequate contour-
inJ of the Jround to permit drainaJe. The aYailable options include
ÀllinJ and contourinJ
moYinJ the outfall closer to the site by means of a canal
constructinJ the outfall drain as a buried pipeline.
Steep ground StronJ erosion and risN of landslides may result from insufÀcient drainaJe of
sites with steep slopes. Drains should follow a path parallel to the contours for short distances to
help reduce the speed of the Áow. Where the drains run steeply downhill they need to be lined
and include structures to reduce the Yelocity of this Áow such as a series of downward steps.
6.3.2 Technological options
On-site disposal of wastewater

Wastewater can be disposed of on site by inÀltration pits after pre-treatment in septic tanNs
or directly see chapter .. .ey factors are the quantity of wastewater the plot si]e and the
permeability of the Jround. ,f the Jround is only sliJhtly permeable or is waterloJJed durinJ
the wet season inÀltration pits will not worN. 2n-site disposal may be feasible where water is
beinJ fetched from a public water supply point. +oweYer where the houses haYe indiYidual
water connections it is unliNely to be appropriate unless the Jround is Yery permeable or the
plots are Yery larJe.
1
6
inlet
([DPSOHRIDVRDNSLWIRUWKHLQÀOWUDWLRQRI
pre-treated wastewater5
Sewerage for wastewater

Wastewater can be eYacuated by JraYity or simpliÀed sewer systems see chapter .. *raYity
sewers for e[clusiYe wastewater collection are Yery e[pensiYe usually JraYity sewers receiYe
both wastewater and storm-water. SimpliÀed sewers are appropriate only for wastewater col-
lection not for storm-water. Their lower costs howeYer maNe them an interestinJ option for
separate wastewater and storm-water systems.
Combined wastewater and storm-water sewers

&ombined sewer systems for wastewater and storm-water are a common solution. They must
satisfactorily carry hiJh Áows resultinJ from intense rainfall and Yery low Áows of wastewater
at a Yelocity sufÀciently hiJh to preYent deposition of solids. Sewers can act as tertiary and
secondary storm-water drains but usually not as primary drains. Storm-water oYerÁow facilities
will then be needed to discharJe hiJh Áows into larJe primary drains durinJ rain eYents. Sewer
pipes are particularly sensitiYe to cloJJinJ therefore a Jood maintenance of sewers as well
as efÀcient solid waste collection and street cleaninJ are crucial for the functioninJ of sewers
durinJ hiJh-intensity rainfalls.
Open channels
2pen channels are relatiYely simple to construct and maintain. They are used for primary drains
but can also act as tertiary and secondary drains. When aYailability of space is limited or when
open drains also receiYe wastewater they are often coYered with concrete slabs. 2pen channels
can be lined or unlined althouJh unlined channels are cheaper to construct they haYe much
hiJher maintenance requirements.
17
&unette channel for low Áow
SlopinJ Áoor )lood Áow
&oncrete lininJ /ow-Áow water leYel
/ined channel
Open-channel drain for wastewater and storm-water57
Roads as surface water drains

PaYed roadways and alleys can be used to carry storm-water short distances to drainaJe chan-
nels which means that water is deliberately allowed to Áow alonJ the paYed surface and there
are no channels alonJside. This worNs where the surfaces are fully paYed and well maintained
and is only applicable if separate wastewater disposal facilities e[ist. ,t is cost effectiYe and is
recommended whereYer possible.
5oad and drain in one - road

&oncrete drain elements compacted with stone and JraYel
with coYer slope ma[imum of 5
Drainage examples: covered open-channel drain; road acting as drain58
Storm-water retention
Storm-water can be stored temporarily in basins on roofs or other areas to allow water to
drain away in a controlled manner to reduce the Yolume of the peaN Áows and lessen the
required capacity of the off-site drainaJe system. The main drawbacN of this is that land is
required for the storaJe and is rarely aYailable in dense urban settinJs. +oweYer the possibility
of temporary retention in conjunction with remoYal by surface-water drains is attractiYe and
should be inYestiJated.
57 W+2 ² World +ealth 2rJani]ation 11

58 W+2 ² World +ealth 2rJani]ation 11
18
6
6.3.3 Reconstruction planning
A functioninJ drainaJe system in urban areas is a Yery important measure for preYention
of Áood damaJe. SeYere damaJe from ÁoodinJ in urban areas is often a clear indicator of
ineffectiYe drainaJe systems and reconstruction efforts must include improYement of the
drainaJe to mitiJate risNs from future eYents. Therefore it is Yery important to assess the
weaNnesses of the infrastructure as well as the operation and maintenance systems.
Special attention should be paid to the drainaJe situation in areas located on steep slopes.
These are often poor or informal settlements with Yery limited infrastructure which are e[tremely
Yulnerable to landslides durinJ prolonJed rain eYents. ,mproYinJ drainaJe is Yital for reducinJ
the risN of landslides in such areas.
+oweYer ÁoodinJ may also be inÁuenced by factors beyond urban drainaJe. 2ther aspects
of Áood protection to be considered for reconstruction of Áood-affected urban areas include
infrastructure for Áood protection such as riYer or sea dyNes
watershed manaJement such as control of deforestation
relocation of settlements to areas not Yulnerable to ÁoodinJ or landslides.
As with water supply and sanitation operation and maintenance of drainaJe infrastructure is
crucial to ensure its effectiYeness. Therefore reconstruction of drainaJe infrastructure needs to
include the deYelopment of required capacities for operation and maintenance.
Further reading:
Leicestershire, UK
WHO – World Health Organization, 1991, Surface-Water Drainage for Low-Income Communities,
Geneva
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areas...
6.4 Roads -ulien *oldstein ,)5&

Access Access proYision taNes account of the
needs of people Yehicles and serYices. Access
routes enable the inhabitants of a site to moYe
freely from their homes to other areas of the
site and to major adjoininJ areas.
People People require access to their houses.
Whilst walNinJ distances to main trunN routes
should be minimised some access restrictions
to other parts of the housinJ area may be
effectiYe in enhancinJ security and community
awareness within subsections or clusters of the
housinJ site.
1
Vehicles 9ehicles do not necessarily need to be able to reach eYery house. ,n low-income areas
which are predominantly residential pedestrian and small-Yehicle ricNshaws bicycles carts
moYements tend to dominate. DesiJn of all roads for substantial moYements of conYentional
Yehicles is unnecessary howeYer it is desirable to allow small-Yehicle access to all houses for
occasional personal transportation and to permit deliYery of buildinJ materials. Small buses
and para-transit Yehicles should be able to traYel freely on distributor roads but do not need
access to each house.
Services ,t is common practice for serYice lines to follow the street aliJnment. 0any serYices
require space and full account must be taNen of the needs of water supply and seweraJe pipes
open-channel drains and power lines. /arJe Yehicles for serYices solid waste and septic sludJe
collection do not require access to eYery house but at least smaller Yehicles or carts needed for
the serYice proYision should be able to reach eYery house and those needs must be considered.
&onsideration of these requirements leads to desiJns for a hierarchy of access. There may be
one or more site access roads leadinJ off a trunN route a site distributor then connects all the
housinJ clusters to the site access road. A cluster road JiYes access to indiYidual households
and Ànally pathways may be used to interconnect clusters.
Paving
PaYinJ has three basic functions
to proYide a hard dry access to residential commercial and industrial areas
to improYe the drainaJe
to proYide a smooth-runninJ surface with adequate sNid resistance for Yehicles.
Any access route for pedestrians or Yehicles requires a smooth surface free of obstructions or
holes which is passable in wet weather. The consequent improYements to drainaJe are usually
a hiJh priority whilst sNid resistance is of importance mainly on primary routes.
PaYinJ must haYe sufÀcient strenJth to resist the loads which are imposed on it and transmit
them to the underlyinJ Jround. Therefore an important feature of paYinJ is structural strenJth
which depends upon the materials used and the paYement thicNness. )ailure to consider the
drainaJe implications of street paYinJ worN may lead to rapid deterioration of the surface.
2ptions for pedestrian and liJhtly trafÀcNed areas i.e. those 2ptions for throuJh routes carryinJ commercial trafÀc
carryinJ some cars but few if any commercial Yehicles include
include
surface treatment
hard core or Jranular Àll
bituminous carpet
bricNs or concrete blocNs laid in sand or cement
concrete.
in-situ unreinforced concrete
hand-laid asphalt.
11
6
- 5m
1 3 1 3
- 3m
1 3
- 5m
1 3 1 3
5 - 8m
3.5 - .5m
5 - 1mm upstand 1 3
- 1m
Si]e dependent on
- m run off ma[ depth
3mm if open
1 3 - 1
5 - 1m
3.5 - m
1 3 - 1 1 3 - 1
Typical cross-sections of various types of access roads5
111
6.4.2 Planning
,n many situations paYinJ is carried out in an uncoordinated manner with no oYerall planninJ
the full beneÀts of improYed oYerall access and drainaJe are not realised. At the planninJ staJe
decisions haYe to be made about the type and width of paYinJ the methods and materials
to be used and the role that the paYinJ is to play as part of the drainaJe system. To some
e[tent these decisions are interrelated. ,n particular the materials to be used and the paYe-
ment leYels adopted will be inÁuenced by the way in which the paYinJ is to be incorporated
into the drainaJe system.
The Àrst tasN is to decide the hierarchy of access. ThrouJh streets must be distinJuished from
those that will be used for purely local access.
The paYement width required depends on the width of the street and the trafÀc to be carried
by the street. )or streets up to about ÀYe metres in width it will usually be adYisable to paYe
the whole width other than that required for any drains. )or wider streets paYinJ should usu-
ally be proYided only to accommodate access needs.
In reconstruction situations, where entire neighbourhoods are being rebuilt, it is particu-
larly important to coordinate planning and construction of the different infrastructure
components for water supply, sanitation, drainage and roads.
Further reading:
Leicestershire, UK
6.5 Solid waste management

Solid waste manaJement in urban areas is one of the most challenJinJ enYironmental issues
in disaster-affected reJions. Waste disposal practices Yary amonJ areas dependinJ on access
to disposal facilities local tradition and the deJree of JoYernmental or municipal interYention.
Quite often there is no reJular and controlled waste collection at all. ([istinJ laws reJulations
and administratiYe arranJements concerninJ waste collection and treatment are often not put
into practice. ,t is also common to Ànd that lacN of proper waste manaJement is not perceiYed
as a major problem. ,t is essential that all staNeholders Jain awareness of the need for more
sustainable approaches to waste manaJement.
,t is usual to Ànd that planners oYeremphasise the proYision of waste manaJement infrastruc-
ture such as trucN Áeets and dumpsites but neJlect to plan how and by whom waste should
be seJreJated collected treated and disposed of. A lonJ-term support proJramme for waste
manaJement should be included in any reconstruction action.
A major challenJe of waste manaJement in cities and surroundinJs is the disposal sites them-
selYes which are often uncontrolled unmanaJed and typically located alonJ YeJetation lines
or shores causinJ a pollution threat to riYers natural water systems and the Jroundwater.
11
6
Uncontrolled waste disposal

,mpacts on Jroundwater supplies the coastal ]ones and reefs are quite eYident. ,n the absence 0anuel -osp -imene] ,)5&
of alternatiYes residents often burn their waste in their bacNyards or in uncontrolled locations
in the city resultinJ in local air pollution smell and health ha]ards from the production of
dio[ins and other to[ins.
Waste materials are Jenerally not seJreJated at the source. Where marNets for recyclables e[ist
it is more liNely that seJreJation is undertaNen at household leYel.
To meet waste manaJement challenJes the followinJ steps are recommended
Solid waste manaJement should be approached in a holistic way. 8rban and settlement
planninJ community orJanisation administratiYe frameworN water resources manaJement
enYironmental protection and resource recoYery aspects should all be fully considered.
A Jood startinJ point is to assess the strenJths and weaNnesses of the former waste-
manaJement system and identify how it can be further improYed.
5ecyclables such as metals paper and plastics should be collected systematically and mar-
Neted. Sometimes this is economically unattractiYe for a sinJle household but may become
acceptable if orJanised on a neiJhbourhood or city scale.
Separate collection and treatment of the orJanic or ¶wet fraction· will allow the production
of compost and reduce the amounts of residual waste that haYe to be hauled to the disposal
facility and the associated costs.
&onsider low-cost affordable waste-manaJement technoloJies and systems.
113
Waste collection and sorting

British 5ed &ross ,f properly orJanised waste manaJement can become a source of income for small transport
entrepreneurs or community-based enterprises.
As an incentiYe to reduce waste to raise awareness and to ensure reJularity and quality
of collection and disposal serYices at least a part of the costs of solid waste manaJement
should be charJed to the residents.
As a whole there is no ready-made solution for solid waste manaJement that Àts eYery situa-
tion. (ach set of urban conditions may well haYe different requirements and the riJht solution
for a JiYen place and time will haYe to be found. As many desired improYements are related to
people·s awareness habits and customs a practical and realistic step-by-step approach inYolYinJ
as many staNeholders as possible is more liNely to bear more cost-effectiYe and appropriate
results than centrally planned proposals based on technoloJy inputs and huJe inYestments.
The location of disposal sites should be determined throuJh consultation with Ney staNeholders
includinJ local authority ofÀcials families· representatiYes and releYant orJanisations. Appro-
priate locations should aYoid neJatiYe impacts on the neiJhbourhoods includinJ from smell
smoNe water pollution insects and animals.
11
6
Selected waste-manaJement solutions must be practical and easily manaJeable under urban
conditions. TechnoloJies used should be Jradually upJraded. )or e[ample it is often better
to orJanise primary collection throuJh locally aYailable means of transport such as handcarts
horse-drawn carriaJes or tractors with trailers instead of relyinJ on costly and maintenance-
intensiYe specialised equipment liNe compactor trucNs.
/iNewise buildinJ a fully enJineered and controlled sanitary landÀll with leachate control and
landÀll Jas recoYery may be the optimum solution but to eliminate uncontrolled burninJ and
dumpinJ the desiJnation of smaller dumpsites on carefully chosen easily accessible locations
may be a better approach to improYinJ conditions until a more comprehensiYe lonJ-term
solution can be implemented. Two possible solutions could be to
proYide drainaJe trenches downhill of landÀll sites on slopinJ areas
secure and fence off disposal sites.
Rough estimate of solid waste generation per person:

(ach person is liNely to produce .5 to 1. litres of waste per day with an orJanic content of
5 to 35 per cent.
These ÀJures are liNely to Yary Jreatly howeYer and estimates should be made locally.

&onsider actiYities that will raise enYironmental awareness amonJ families and facilitate the
introduction of enYironmentally friendly healthy effectiYe efÀcient and sustainable waste-
manaJement systems.
(nsure that waste is deposited only on desiJnated sites which are chosen to minimise the
risN of water pollution uncontrolled burninJ access of animals spread of disease-carryinJ
orJanisms and the scatterinJ of waste by the wind.
/ocate disposal sites downhill from Jroundwater sources.
Position sites at least 5 metres from surface-water sources.
6.5.4 Institutional aspects

Assess all staNeholders and their real and potential responsibilities reJardinJ waste manaJe-
ment.
&onsider the local administratiYe and political situation.
5eYiew local leJislation and reJulations on waste manaJement.
Assess who owns the proposed waste-disposal site.
115
6.5.5 Social aspects

Assess which solid waste manaJement system the residents and the responsible institutions
are accustomed to i.e. collection at household leYel or at centrally located collection sites
within a neiJhbourhood.
The best results in waste manaJement are achieYed if the community recoJnises that it is in
their own interest to use the system. ([plore support and promote community participation
in all aspects of the planninJ orJanisation implementation superYision and ÀnancinJ of
waste-manaJement actiYities.
(ffectiYe solid waste manaJement in a city can be achieYed only if all citi]ens at all income
leYels are serYed by the system.
,f restricted municipal budJets accessibility limitations or incapacity to pay serYice fees
e[clude part of the households from proper waste manaJement enYironmental and health
improYements in other neiJhbourhoods will remain at risN. Therefore ways of achieYinJ full
coYeraJe for all social Jroups must be souJht.
6.6 Other urban infrastructure

6.6.1 Electricity/Energy
Phase 3 8rban households use enerJy for cooNinJ liJhtinJ heatinJ/coolinJ of air and water for power-
Phase inJ refriJerators and other household equipment and often also for other electric equipment
Phase 1 such as T9s radios and computers.
(arth
Power supply is necessary to proYide increased leYels of street and security liJhtinJ and to run
simple household appliances. The principal beneÀts of domestic connections are larJely related
to conYenience and communication e.J. charJinJ mobile-phone batteries and possibly to
status and productiYe uses.
Street liJht
Stay phase DurinJ planninJ of housinJ reconstruction it is Yery important to consider the enerJy needs of
insulator
the inhabitants includinJ objectiYes reJardinJ sustainable enerJy supply as well as e[plorinJ
Neutral
ways of improYinJ enerJy efÀciency in housinJ.
Street liJht
The cost of conYentional power supply is inÁuenced by the pro[imity of the reconstruction
area to e[istinJ three-phase power supply lines. Where e[tensions to the primary distributor
system are required alonJ with new transformers and ancillary equipment the costs become
Yery hiJh. &onYentional power supply requires distribution throuJh systems of conductors and
Anchor
plate transformers the options include either oYerhead lines or underJround cables the latter beinJ
e[pensiYe and uncommon. 2Yerhead lines may be bare or insulated and either suspended be-
Local electricity distribution tween poles or attached to the face of buildinJs in this latter case the lines must be insulated.
system
The structure of connection and consumption fees needs to be carefully considered to maNe a
power supply affordable to the poorest households. )ull-cost connection fees where the entire
costs of connection and the meter haYe to be paid Àrst are often prohibitiYe to these households.
)ee schemes where connection fees are paid in instalments and collected with consumption fees
W(D& ² Water (nJineerinJ and DeYelopment &entre
11
6
are preferable. Due to hiJh-density settlement power supply to poor neiJhbourhoods can often
be realised at a Yery low cost per capita. BillinJ and collection costs can be siJniÀcantly reduced
by efÀcient manaJement or modern technoloJies. )or e[ample prepaid card systems eliminate
the need for meter-readinJ billinJ collection and enforcement. )ull adYantaJe has to be made
of such options to brinJ down costs of power connections within poor residential areas.
5enewable enerJy solutions are often more e[pensiYe to purchase and install than are conYen-
tional sources. Because renewable enerJy is Yirtually free howeYer the economy of renewable
enerJy sources oYer the lifespan of the buildinJ is normally much better than are conYentional
systems.
Solar energy
)ew options e[ist for independent power supply in urban areas. PhotoYoltaic P9 panels are
Jenerally too e[pensiYe for poor residents to purchase. +oweYer solar panes for production of
hot water are affordable and help reduce costs of electricity consumption.
Solar enerJy can be used to proYide liJhtinJ mechanical power and electricity. SunliJht is con-
Yerted to electricity usinJ P9 cells also Nnown as ¶solar cells· or ¶solar panels·. P9 cells produce
electricity as lonJ as liJht shines on them they require little maintenance do not pollute and
they operate silently. A reliable supplier of solar panels and appropriate installation is required.
Prices for solar panels can Yary from reJion to reJion. Solar panels can be easily installed on
roofs or placed beside houses.
Photovoltaic panels, used to

produce electricity
Solar panels for hot-water production in Bruce Sutherland, City of Cape Town1
1 8N-+AB,TAT
117
Another challenJinJ issue is that of clean cooNinJ fuels in poor settlements. (nerJy in the form
of cooNinJ fuel is Jenerally the dominant enerJy need of the urban poor. The cost of charcoal
is often only marJinally lower than the cost of domestic cooNinJ Jas /P*. SubsidisinJ initial
costs of /P* stoYes and cylinders may allow substitution of charcoal or Àrewood with /P*
which would haYe many positiYe health and enYironment beneÀts.
As far as possible enerJy consumption should be reduced throuJh Jood planninJ and buildinJ
desiJn and by maNinJ use of renewable enerJy sources such as solar wind and hydro power
and Jeothermal and bio-power mass-enerJy systems. The beneÀts of usinJ renewable enerJy
include lonJ-term competitiYe price stability reduced Yulnerability to fuel supply disruptions
and minimised emissions of Jreenhouse Jases.
Technical aspects
5econstruction offers a Jood opportunity to install renewable enerJy systems especially
when the systems can be installed in a larJe number of buildinJs at the same time.
Select the renewable enerJy system most suitable for the area of reconstruction. National
meteoroloJical orJanisations usually haYe maps and data aYailable to estimate how many
windy days or sunny days the area has in a year.
Some renewable enerJy sources wind solar should haYe a conYentional bacN-up system
for days with unsuitable weather conditions.
Social aspects
Sustainable power and renewable enerJy systems must be well adapted and sensitiYe to the
users· culture.
&ooNinJ and heatinJ with fuel wood or coal can cause serious indoor pollution with associ-
ated health problems. As far as possible aYoid these Ninds of enerJy sources for indoor use.
TraininJ is necessary for the construction and maintenance of alternatiYe enerJy solutions.
Institutional aspect
Some JoYernments are actiYely promotinJ renewable enerJy sources and proYidinJ incen-
tiYes such as loans and ta[ reductions for users to install such systems.
6.6.2 Social infrastructure

8rban neiJhbourhoods of a certain si]e require social infrastructure either within the community
or outside. Social infrastructure includes
schools
NinderJartens
administration centres
shops
health centres
118
6
sport facilities
community halls
places of worship.
The proYision of social infrastructure is an essential part of deYelopinJ a functioninJ urban
neiJhbourhood and should be inteJrated in any reconstruction proJramme. Social infrastructure
buildinJs can be simple structures yet their intense usaJe by many people should be taNen
into account.
Social infrastructure buildinJs can be constructed with the same materials and technoloJies
as those used for the housinJ structures or with those in another suitable form. The location
should be well selected and easily reachable by the community members.
Rebuilding a shop
-ulien *oldstein ,)5&
11
Construction phase
7. Implementation
The construction phase of a reconstruction proJramme is crucial and throuJh careful imple-
mentation and manaJement will deliYer a quality buildinJ product and infrastructure.
,t is recommended that the followinJ steps are considered
(stablish a team for the manaJement of the implementation if appropriate continue with
the team that was formed durinJ the planninJ phase.
)ollow up on initial assessments Neep to the plan and follow jointly aJreed decisions with
the Ney staNeholders.
(stablish an aJenda for the construction phase.
)acilitate locally accepted and practical construction technoloJies for the buildinJs.
ProYide support for the selection of sustainable technoloJies/systems for sanitation drain-
aJe solid waste etc.
Prepare a bill of quantities with technical speciÀcations.
Prepare a detailed cost estimate of the buildinJ.
Draft a cost estimate for site preparation.
8ndertaNe a tender process for procurement of labour construction materials contractors etc.
Produce tender documents.
Set ¶Jreen procurement· priorities in selectinJ materials and serYices that minimise any
enYironmental impact.
Prepare a comparatiYe short analysis based on the tenders receiYed.
0eet and neJotiate with potential suppliers and contractors.
AJree terms with the selected contractor and proYide the necessary contract documentation.
Write a worNs order.
Select reliable suppliers for procurinJ quality materials on a reJular basis.
Analyse the social Ànancial technical and human resource inputs proYided by all the partners
and community members.
ProYide sNills traininJ for construction worNers and the community based on identiÀed
NnowledJe Japs.
Set safety procedures for all areas of the construction site.
(stablish performance standards.
&onduct soil testinJ.
(stablish systems for record-NeepinJ and documentation.
As a routine ensure reJular monitorinJ of construction actiYity use of materials quality etc.
Adapted from 5ed5 in 2[fam 8
1
7
,f appropriate use mechanisms for the monitorinJ of all those inYolYed.
,f necessary facilitate a real-time eYaluation with feedbacN.
0easure construction worN already completed on the construction site.
&onduct testinJ of construction materials such as a cube test for concrete checNinJ the
quality of the water used for construction etc.
5eJularly checN and certify all bills.
ArranJe a release order for payments.
(stablish a construction yard if appropriate.
&onstruct a model buildinJ if appropriate.
)acilitate community meetinJs at all staJes of the proJramme to enJaJe members in all the
processes whereYer possible.
7.1 Demolition and debris

7.1.1 Controlled demolition
,)5&·s Shelter Technical Brief of the +aiti (arthquaNe 2peration3 summarises the land-related
challenJes as “A challenge is that of rubble removal from potential building sites. While a more
straightforward task than the one above, there is an estimated 20 million cubic metres of debris
in the earthquake-affected areas and clearing it requires equipment, manpower and a place to
dump the debris. Clearing available land of debris is one solution.”
3 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 11 Debris removal

Daniel Wyss SNat
11
Construction phase 7. Implementation
DemolishinJ unsafe structures reuse of rubble and remoYal of debris are essential parts of
urban reconstruction. Debris and badly damaJed buildinJs located on priYate property need
cautious consideration suitable equipment and a riJht of access made aYailable.
The followinJ principles are recommended
Actors must consult with the local authority prior to undertaNinJ any actiYities and wher-
eYer possible siJn an aJreement clearly statinJ the scope of the project and each party·s
responsibilities.
Property owners must be informed prior to the start of demolition or remoYal actiYities and
must understand and aJree with the actiYities to be undertaNen.
Actors must consult with the releYant authorities prior to considerinJ the demolition or
remoYal of buildinJs marNed as ¶National +eritaJe· sites.
,f the owner or its representatiYe is not present actors may demolish structures or remoYe
rubble only when written authorisation has been JiYen by the local authorities after the
local authorities haYe made demonstrable attempts to contact the owner.
,n the eYent that an owner refuses to demolish/clear the plot the local authority may Jrant
written authorisation to clear the site. Actors must not enter a plot for the purpose of demoli-
tion or remoYal unless the owner or the releYant local authority has Jranted access.
Adapted from Blanco 8. &ordero &. *estion de Dpbris
The followinJ steps may apply

1. ,dentify plots for demolition or remoYal This can be carried out in a number of ways and
may include a neiJhbourhood or street surYey participatory enumeration indiYidual plot
identiÀcation from camp residents and/or ofÀcial assessment lists from national authorities/
local JoYernments. 2wners may contact debris manaJers directly and request their serYices
or proJramme planninJ information may be posted in NiosNs or public locations with the
consent of the responsible authority.
. ,dentify owner or owner·s representatiYe.
3. ,nform the owner or owner·s representatiYe of the process. These elements should be
included
a ranJe of dates when actiYities may start
a set date for the owner to remoYe any usable material
a ranJe of dates for the remoYal of rubble after demolition
conÀrmation about whether or not housinJ construction will follow once debris has been
remoYed.
. As much as is possible Yerify ownership or proof of authority oYer the plot. ,n order of
preference
5equest copies of proof of ownership and Yerify with the local authority or notary re-
cords. ,f this is not feasible
request copies of proof of ownership. ,f not aYailable
secure the siJnatures of three witnesses from the neiJhbourhood and of a local authority.
,f not aYailable
1
7
secure the siJnatures of three witnesses from the neiJhbourhood and of a community
leader. ,f not aYailable
secure siJnatures of three witnesses from the neiJhbourhood ² minimum recommended
for demolition
a written statement of authority or
a Yerbal statement of authority ² not recommended for demolition.
5. Document the riJht of access The owner or its representatiYe should siJn a written state-
ment of authorisation to aYoid future disputes. The authorisation may state that once the
debris is remoYed the Jrantor has full responsibility for securinJ the site. The authorisation
may be countersiJned by a witness and/or a community leader.
French Red Cross – Rubble removal and implementation of transitional shelters

strategy, Haiti5
The )rench 5ed &ross has committed to supportinJ 5 families in the metropolitan area
of Port-au-Prince Àrstly throuJh proYision of transitional shelters T Shelters speciÀcally in
Delmas which is a Yery densely populated area with no public land aYailable. As a result of
the earthquaNe around 5 per cent of the houses haYe been affected and 5 per cent haYe
collapsed or should be destroyed as they are too danJerous for habitation.
Due to lacN of free space rubble remoYal throuJh cash-for-worN &)W actiYity was a necessity
on priYate plots before transitional shelter implementation. The ´hiJh-intensity labour worNs
implementationµ Juidelines published by the +aitian *oYernment speciÀes that one &)W actiYity
should employ 1 worNers from the community.
AJreements for rubble remoYal and shelter implementation will then be siJned by the owners
of the land by people from the community and by the Delmas 0ayor·s ofÀce.
The operational area is consecutiYely mapped with a consequent list of beneÀciaries owners of Delmas 9: individual plot before
the destroyed houses and their former renters and the 0ayor·s ofÀce deliYers worN authorisa- clearing
tion to the )rench 5ed &ross. )rench 5ed &ross
(ach &)W·s rotation is composed of 1 worNers and ÀYe team leaders durinJ a period of 15
calendar days in three weeNs. The )rench 5ed &ross miJht launch seYeral rotations at the same
time in different locations or in the same place with not more than two rotations per worNinJ
area. 15 rotations haYe been launched by the )rench 5ed &ross 1 landowners haYe siJned
for the completion of 37 T Shelters and 15 properties haYe been cleared of rubble.
,n total 837 cubic metres of rubble has been remoYed 11 in Delmas in 15 weeNs 335
in Delmas 17 in 1 weeNs and 35 in Delmas 33 in 18 weeNs. Delmas was the Àrst blocN
to be enJaJed and was the most difÀcult to clear.
The operational cost for a &)W actiYity per weeN is 77 8S dollars equipment and salaries
for worNers. The aYeraJe cost for clearinJ the 1 properties is 8S dollars per plot which
means 1 8S dollars per shelter. )or the implementation of T Shelters the team is composed Delmas 9: cleared plot with
of one mason two carpenters and four worNers under the superYision of a )rench 5ed &ross T Shelter
proJramme ofÀcer. )rench 5ed &ross
13
7.1.2 Debris reuse

5eusinJ or recyclinJ of materials found from damaJed or destroyed buildinJs has Yarious beneÀts.
Such materials help to minimise the enYironmental impact of reconstruction are immediately
aYailable reduce the amount of debris to be cleared and help to reduce reconstruction costs.
Pure materials liNe bricNs wood concrete stone and metal sheets are best for reuse or recyclinJ
&oncrete old bricNs and stones can be used as Àll material to construct roads.
0etal sheets and bricNs can be ideal for fencinJ.
BricN masonry rubble proYides a Jood source of material for use as aJJreJate in concrete-maNinJ.
Recycled Material – Earthquake, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 2006

,n the housinJ recoYery effort in <oJyaNarta followinJ the earthquaNe bricN masonry from
damaJed and destroyed structures was used e[tensiYely to maNe cast-in-place concrete for
the permanent structures. ,n doinJ this construction costs were siJniÀcantly reduced. &rushinJ
of the bricN masonry wall rubble was performed usinJ both manual and mechanical means.
ThrouJh the process bricN rubble was crushed into Àne aJJreJate required in the mi[inJ of
mortar and concrete. The manual process was performed throuJh the use of a simple hammer
while the mechanical process required the use of a mobile stone crusher. 8sinJ the mechani-
cal deYice one stone-crusher operator and si[ support worNers could create 15 cubic metres
of aJJreJate each day relyinJ on only . litres of oil per cubic metre. SeYeral stone crushers
were deployed throuJhout the affected area and rubble-crushinJ was conducted e[tensiYely.
Earthquake Yogyakarta 2006:
collection of reusable debris
Satyarno ,. in ,5P ² ,nternational 5ecoYery Platform/8NDP ² 8nited Nations DeYelopment ProJramme ,ndia 1
material
2laY A. Saltbones ,)5&
1
7
5ubble can be processed and transformed into construction material ready to use on site.
5ubble-crushers are used for this purpose. 2ne innoYatiYe prototype is the Jabion house
which uses caJed rubble as buildinJ blocNs and is currently beinJ assessed for earthquaNe and
hurricane resistance for e[ample in +aiti.
Red Cross Red Crescent Societies – Rubble recycling and permanent housing,
a pilot project, the Gabion Core House, Haiti7
This pilot project was driYen by the efforts of the ,AS& Shelter &luster team in +aiti. The project
was implemented by the non-JoYernmental orJanisation ¶+aYen· with Ànancial support from
the American 5ed &ross and Australian 5ed &ross.
A Jabion house consists basically of Jabions. A Jabion is a wire caJe that can be stacNed Yerti-
cally in a wall and then pacNed with Yarious materials. Normally Jabions are used as retaininJ
walls but in the case of the Jabion house their desiJn has been modiÀed to allow them to be
stacNed to form a load-bearinJ masonry wall.
To enable the Jabions to effectiYely perform as a load-bearinJ wall they must
be laid in stretcher bond
be wired toJether both Yertically and hori]ontally
haYe a roof structure tied Yery stronJly to the Jabion-type walls
comprise masonry material that is pacNed tiJhtly to aYoid subsidence.
be protected from the weather in this case by plaster made from crushed rubble
be restrained at the top. This is achieYed by spacinJ 1-millimetre threaded rods at interYals
of appro[imately two metres around the perimeter wall
connect the walls in the corners Yery well
be used only as e[ternal walls use liJht wooden diYiders as internal walls.
The Jabion caJes proYide a matri[ of wire mesh throuJhout the body of the wall. ,t is this
conÀnement of the masonry both hori]ontally and Yertically as well as the tension proYided
by the tie-down rods which proYides the restrained Áe[ibility responsible for earthquaNe resist-
ance. ,t is the mass of the walls toJether with the foundation-to-top-plate tie-down proYided
by threaded rods which JiYes these buildinJs Jood resistance to hurricanes.
,n addition it is the mass of the walls and the concrete Áoor that proYide a thermal buffer to
e[ternal temperature Yariations by proYidinJ a temperinJ heat/cool banN. Also the internal
temperature is controlled by YentinJ the Jable ends.
0any of the construction processes require only semi-sNilled labour so this will enable the
employment of the most Yulnerable in the community. There is also the possibility of settinJ Forming gabion walls
up small enterprises to produce the Jabions and crush the rubble. ,)5&

15
The costs of construction are low. They do howeYer depend on a number of factors such as
labour costs pro[imity of the rubble as well as the si]e of and amenities included in the house.
,n the conte[t of the +aiti earthquaNe in 1 it was planned to produce a -square-metre
house for between and 5 8S dollars. ,f the saYed cost of trucNinJ and dumpinJ rub-
ble is deducted the cost would be between 3 and 8S dollars.
The oriJinal pilot desiJn was deYeloped to include elements that are appropriate to +aitian
architecture. The new buildinJ typoloJy allows for a shaded Yeranda at the bacN. This area of
transition between e[terior and interior typical in tropical climate architecture ensures cooler
spaces this is the area where inhabitants usually spend most of their time at home. The Jabion
structure is conceiYed as a core house two side windows will enable new doors and passaJes.
+ousinJ elements such as louYre windows railinJs Jables and others built and personalised
by each family will enhance the sense of ownership and also proYide character to the neiJh-
bourhood.
Preparing gabion cages
,)5& *abions are by nature monolithic blocNs. The wire caJes proYide a tensile capacity that holds
the rocN material as one blocN and when these blocNs are stacNed to form walls they achieYe
stability essentially by their relatiYely squat structural systems.
/ateral loads hurricane and seismic produce in-plane and out-of-plane forces and buildinJs
require systems that resist the Àrst and transfer the second. This house desiJn uses Jabion
walls to resist in-plane forces and diaJonal ties timber or steel dependinJ on costs at ceilinJ
leYel to transfer out-of-plane forces to these walls. &onsequently the plaster ÀnishinJ is not
used structurally but instead relies on Jood pacNinJ of Jabions.
7.2 Technical reference centres

Technical reference centres can be a useful means to support and bacN up aJencies that imple-
ment urban reconstruction housinJ projects.
Competence Centre for Reconstruction (CCR) in Haiti

Swiss +umanitarian Aid created a &&5 to assist the &ooperation 2fÀce based in Port-au-Prince
in 1. The &&5 tries to operate within the Yarious e[istinJ processes and networNs in an effort
to ensure better coordination of the actiYities of the many players actiYe in reconstruction worNs.
The Jeneral aim is to improYe the quality of projects and to help strenJthen local capacities by
proYidinJ speciÀc technical and methodoloJical support.
,n particular the &entre proYides solutions to speciÀc technical questions such as para-seismic
calculations. )urther the &entre has the intention of raisinJ public awareness of reconstruction
issues and it is actiYely inYolYed in traininJ in an effort to deYelop technical capacities at the
priYate as well as the JoYernmental leYel. )or e[ample the traininJ is tarJeted at buildinJ-site
staff ² includinJ entrepreneurs masons carpenters etc. ² and coYers the techniques that maNe
buildinJs earthquaNe and cyclone resistant.
1
7
7.3 Reuse of temporary shelters
The ActiYe /earninJ NetworN for Accountability and Performance in +umanitarian Action
A/NAP lists four cateJories of temporary housinJ. These differ in terms of the post-disaster
utilisation of the structure or of its basic construction materials and include8
Upgradeable housing While beinJ inhabited the temporary shelter is improYed to become
a permanent housinJ. This is achieYed throuJh maintenance e[tension or by replacinJ
oriJinal materials with more durable alternatiYes.
Reusable )ollowinJ the construction of a permanent housinJ solution the temporary shel-
ter is used for a purpose other than housinJ such as a shelter for animals a Nitchen or for
storaJe applicable in less-dense urban areas.
Resellable The temporary shelter is inhabited while parallel reconstruction actiYities are Metal-framed shelter
taNinJ place. 2nce reconstruction is complete the temporary shelter is dismantled and its
materials are used as a resource to sell. Therefore materials need to be selected for their
suitability for resale after the shelter is dismantled.
Recyclable The temporary shelter is inhabited while parallel reconstruction actiYities are
taNinJ place. The temporary shelter is Jradually dismantled durinJ the reconstruction pro-
cess and the materials from the transitional shelter are used in the construction of a durable
home.
Temporary shelters can be reused when they are still in Jood condition. These shelters
therefore should be planned and constructed to enable them to be either inteJrated into or
dismantled and recycled for use in the permanent housinJ buildinJs.
The followinJ summarises the options for reusinJ temporary shelters to form one to two-
leYelled housinJ in less-densely populated urban areas
A well-deYeloped site plan can be deYeloped once the permanent plots haYe been
identiÀed and approYed. Plots should be larJe enouJh to accommodate one family on a
lonJ-term basis. 2ne option is to install the temporary shelter at the bacN of the plot so Temporary shelters
that construction of the permanent housinJ Daniel Wyss SNat
can be carried out. The temporary shelter

could be reused as an anne[ for storaJe or
as a bathroom. A robust temporary struc-
ture and already-prepared infrastructure
sanitation pipes latrine etc. is essential if
this approach is to be adopted.
Another option is to proYide a solid foun-
dation with a Jround-Áoor slab on which
the temporary shelter is built so that the
foundation can be reused later to form the
base of the permanent house.
8 Adapted from Shelter &entre 1
17
Pre-cycling shelter designs for permanent housing

Transitional shelters T Shelters are desiJned for offerinJ the disaster-affected population hous-
inJ for a period of about ÀYe years. ,n the years after the disaster beneÀciaries may require
more space and upJrade or e[tend the T Shelter or recycle elements for inteJratinJ them into
permanent housinJ.
+oweYer the shelter desiJn and the Yarious structural elements would only haYe been re-
sistant to hurricanes Áoods and earthquaNes in their oriJinal form. Therefore the self-made
modiÀcations or recyclinJ of shelter elements represent a potential ha]ard for shelter residents
particularly if these people are not familiar with the buildinJ materials.
T-Shelter elements can be inteJrated into the permanent housinJ structure in a safe and most
effectiYe way. This is achieYed by means of desiJninJ the shelter in line with the principles of
¶pre-cyclinJ· such as those applied in the construction of e[hibition paYilions etc. Pre-cycled
structures shelter and other are desiJned for transitional as well as for permanent uses.
DesiJns of e[istinJ shelters e.J. from ,)5&·s (iJht Transitional Shelter DesiJns can be trans-
formed into Pre-cycled Shelters by small adaptations applyinJ their reuse in a pre-enJineered
manner. The safe recyclinJ options must Àt to local construction methods and buildinJ materials
and be described in a recyclinJ manual for shelter residents.
)or disaster-prone urban areas shelter project desiJns may describe how the transitional
structure can be transformed into a permanent house and which permanent house desiJns
may best utilise the shelter·s structural wallinJ and rooÀnJ elements. &onsequently Pre-cycled
Shelter Nits contain structural connections for not only the temporary shelter staJe but also
transformation of construction elements for permanent housinJ e.J. as roof Yeranda upper-
Áoor structure indoor separation walls etc. A plan set and transformation manual proYides the
residents with details of recyclinJ options and a list of speciÀc do·s and don·ts.
)or safe inteJration of T Shelter elements into permanent housinJ structures SNat Swiss
5esource &entre and &onsultancies for DeYelopment has deYeloped a modular low-cost
core-house desiJn for peri-urban neiJhbourhoods in +aiti which could serYe as one basis for
transforminJ a standard T Shelter into a Pre-cycled Shelter.
1. T Shelter stage 2. Building core-house structure 3. Integrating shelter elements (various options)
Daniel Wyss SNat
18
7
7.4 Building conversions
Conversion – the future value of built substance

When one speaNs of conYersion one assumes the chanJe of the use of a buildinJ. The strateJies
used in dealinJ with e[istinJ buildinJs ranJe from protection and conserYation to reYitalisation
all the way to temporary uses or demolition. Any Nind of buildinJ can lose its oriJinal function.
This process is by no means new to the history of the city. BuildinJs bind resources and worN-
ers and therefore were oriented towards lonJ-lastinJ permanence. As a result they proYided a
shell that could be Àlled with different functions. ,f they were no lonJer acceptable because of
practical or ideoloJical reasons one demolished them or left them to decay. 2ften howeYer
they were also reused in these cases the material mostly found a new function. The buildinJs
haYe not been conserYed in the sense of ¶musealisation· but rather conYerted transformed and
built upon. They continue to be a part of daily life only now in a new role. +oweYer the riJid
assiJnment of function in the modern era and the rise of historic conserYation haYe chanJed
the way in which we deal with e[istinJ buildinJ substance and limited this openness to reuse.
The value of a building

([istinJ buildinJs represent a resource. The Yalue of a buildinJ is measured not on its economic
but rather also on its social potential. ,f one looNs at the economic components buildinJs haYe
an intrinsic Yalue. The built substance technical infrastructure and site deYelopment are present.
,n comparison with demolition and new construction a simple renoYation often represents
siJniÀcant cost saYinJs. ,n addition often the buildinJ and capital costs haYe already been
amortised. As a result new Yalue creation can be initiated throuJh a conYersion.
,n their architecture and appearance the still-e[istinJ buildinJs show their oriJinal use and
meaninJ. They are witnesses of the past and part of the identity of a place. This is determined
not only by prominent buildinJs but rather by the ordinary buildinJs of liYinJ commerce and
production. ,n this sense buildinJs can haYe important social siJniÀcance people identify and
orient themselYes with them. ,f e[istinJ buildinJs are reused they remain an actiYe part of the
city·s built fabric. A conYersion is reasonable in terms of ecoloJical considerations as well. ,n the
sense of sustainable economic actiYity resources could be saYed material worNforce money
and no additional land will be deYeloped land consumption.
When do conversions make sense?

The question of how to deal with e[istinJ built substance often poses itself in crisis situations.
The factors of time and aYailability thereby play a siJniÀcant role the buildinJ e[ists is often
quicNly obtainable and is equipped with the most necessary infrastructure. +oweYer there are
still different aspects that need to be accounted for and considered. The followinJ questions
can help to eYaluate each particular situation and structure the consideration process
AYailability Which buildinJs are aYailable?
&ondition What is the condition of these buildinJs?
5euse potential To what e[tent are these buildinJs adaptable and alterable?
A contribution by Dr 0artina Baum (T+ =urich on the possibility of conYertinJ e[istinJ buildinJs.
1
&onstraints Are there adYerse effects and/or obliJations?

9alue What is the social Yalue of these buildinJs?
What role do they play in the city·s built fabric?
ProÀtability ,s a reuse Ànancially proÀtable?
Demand ,s there a demand for this buildinJ?
An assessment of the economic and social conte[t as well as of the marNet demand needs but
also the analysis and appraisal of the buildinJ itself buildinJ structure Yalue potential for chanJe
and its conte[t location accessibility proJramme are decision-maNinJ components. 2ne must
be able to assess what space requirements are needed for which proJramme and if the buildinJ
can accommodate these. ,n doinJ so one should not only deYelop a position in relation to the
preserYation of built substance but also determine the buildinJs that may disappear.
Despite any rush arisinJ in a crisis situation decision-maNinJ should taNe future deYelopments
into consideration. A demolition in the current situation could represent a larJe loss in relation
to the identity and history of a place in the future. ,n Jeneral a demolition is not reYersible and
can only be reYersed throuJh laborious reconstruction which would only represent a copy of
the oriJinal. As a result a certain amount of foresiJht as well as a sense for the siJniÀcance of
the past should Áow into the decision-maNinJ. The new use of a space requires an e[amination
of the place proJramme and conte[t and requires creatiYity as well.
5HWURÀWDELOLW\PDS²HODERUDWHG
by British Red Cross in Delmas
19 (Port-au-Prince, Haiti)
British 5ed &ross
5HWURÀWWLQJDQGUHSDLUV
5HWURÀWWLQJ
5etroÀttinJ aims at strenJtheninJ old or e[ist-
inJ buildinJs to maNe them earthquaNe and
hurricane resistant in order to reduce their
Yulnerability.
The current challenJe is that retroÀttinJ remains
limited in reconstruction. A larJe number of
buildinJs that can easily be retroÀtted are still
beinJ demolished and replaced or continue to
be in use in Yery Yulnerable conditions.
5etroÀttinJ should be carefully planned notinJ
the followinJ Ney points
Always inYolYe a well-qualified enJineer/
architect and sNilled contractors as retroÀt-
tinJ can be tricNy and danJerous.
,f the house is damaJed restore it to its
undamaJed pre-ear thquaNe/hurricane
condition.
13
7
Assess the Yulnerability of the structure by means of a Yulnerability assessment.
Assess one room or part of a buildinJ at a time to decide what needs to be done.
Prepare a retroÀttinJ scheme for the whole buildinJ in order to ensure proper synchronisa-
tion of all retroÀttinJ actiYities.
Prepare drawinJs necessary for implementation of retroÀttinJ and prepare quantity and cost
estimates for materials.
5etroÀttinJ may include the followinJ measures

reinforcinJ walls
installinJ cross-walls
connectinJ walls to each other
strenJtheninJ foundations
minimisinJ the number of openinJs
installinJ reinforcements around openinJs
installinJ connection ties
strenJtheninJ retaininJ walls.
Further reading:
Desai, R., Desai, R., National Centre for Peoples – Action in Disaster Preparedness (NCPDP), 2007,
0DQXDOIRU5HVWRUDWLRQDQG5HWURÀWWLQJRI5XUDO6WUXFWXUHVLQ.DVKPLU81(6&281'3*XMDUDW,QGLD
Patel D., Patel, D., Pindoria, K., 2001, Repair and strengthening guide for earthquake-damaged low-
rise domestic buildings in Gujarat, India, Gujarat Relief Engineering Advice Team (GREAT) Publications,
Gujarat, India
6FKDFKHU75HWURÀWWLQJ²6RPHEDVLFV3RZHU3RLQWSUHVHQWDWLRQ6$+FRQVWUXFWLRQFRXUVH
:DONULQJHQZZZFRQVWUXFWLRQJURXSFKV\VWHPÀOHVUHWURÀWWLQJVRPHEDVLFVSGI
Housing repair
“In some instances, the cheapest and quickest method of providing adequate housing is to repair
the damaged stock.” 7
,n particular this could be a Jood solution when the local population has not been siJniÀ-
cantly displaced. The scale of damaJe will Yary therefore assessments will be necessary to
determine the materials and leYels of sNill required for repairinJ the houses. 5epair can be far
less traumatic for surYiYors of disasters than is moYinJ into emerJency shelters or communal
centres and undertaNinJ comprehensiYe reconstruction as residents are often able to remain
in their homes.
Subject to the scale of damaJe and aYailability of local sNills people can undertaNe their own
repairs. This can help the community to return as quicNly as possible to some form of normality.
7 BaraNat S. 3
131
,f damaJe to an area is minimal and the local community can proYide materials and resources
aJencies can support efforts throuJh the proYision of adYice and by subsidisinJ materials.
AlternatiYely aJencies may choose to support the repair efforts by means of housinJ repair
toolNits which can be tailored to the needs or tarJet speciÀc areas such as roofs and windows.
5epairs are often limited to essential worNs necessary to ensure houses are habitable repairs to
rooÀnJ load-bearinJ walls and structural frames bathrooms or latrines and cooNinJ spaces or
Nitchens. DependinJ on the reJion·s climate worNs to windows doors and internal plasterinJ
may also be considered essential.
5econstruction proJrammes will need to assess the Yiability of such worN by addressinJ techni-
cal issues costs traininJ requirements and the production of Juidelines releYant to the local
conte[t.
Below are some of the issues that should be considered in a repair or retroÀt proJramme71
Issue Relevance
5elocation The repair or retroÀt option is unliNely if a house has to be relocated.
DamaJe leYel The leYel of damaJe to the house must be fully considered prior to a decision about
whether repair or retroÀt is the appropriate option.
&ost of the repair or retroÀt To be justiÀable the total cost of the repair or retroÀt option should Jenerally be lower
option Yersus reconstruction than that of demolition and reconstruction.
WillinJness and capacity of Participation of the community and families in the discussion on repair or retroÀttinJ worN
community to repair or retroÀt is essential. ,t is often not Yiewed as a Yiable or desirable option. Without local support
their houses this option could meet with passionate objection. &ommunication traininJ and public
outreach are all necessary elements of a successful repair or retroÀt proJramme.
Architectural historical cultural ,f particular houses or buildinJs haYe hiJh architectural historical cultural or socio-
and socio-economic Yalue of economic Yalue considerable effort in oYercominJ technical and cost difÀculties to
damaJed houses preYent demolition may be justiÀed. The owner may be offered e[tra Ànancial or technical
assistance if the house is considered part of the community·s heritaJe to encouraJe
preserYation of the property.
Training of home-owners
TraininJ of home-owners and unsNilled people is an essential tool for quality control. +oweYer
this does not mean deleJatinJ quality assurance to the families it means maNinJ them aware
of quality parameters and empowerinJ them to be fully part of the process. 5esponsibility for
quality control technical monitorinJ and superYision of the site should stay with professionally
trained staff.
13
7
British Red Cross, Haiti Recovery Programme7
The British 5ed &ross proYided a one-day traininJ proJramme for home-owners on the issue
of ¶Safe Satisfactory and Sustainable +ousinJ 5econstruction after (arthquaNes·. )urther a
three-day traininJ proJramme was deliYered for local builders and masons on the same sub-
ject. This was complemented by a one-day traininJ proJramme for local builders and masons
on the repair Juidelines of the 0inistqre des TraYau[ Publics Transport et &ommunications
0TPT& of +aiti.
,t has been obserYed that althouJh these traininJ proJrammes were Yery useful in introducinJ
the Yarious issues of quality control in reconstruction to the home-owners and local builders
it remains crucial that the practical buildinJ sNills will haYe to be deYeloped on site under the
superYision of the construction team.
Training provided through

theory and practice, British
Red Cross in Delmas 19,
(Port-au-Prince, Haiti)
British 5ed &ross
7.6 Construction materials

Permanent urban housinJ must be constructed of materials
that are able to withstand natural ha]ards. ,nformal housinJ is
typically built with cheap materials that either are of poor quality
or are improperly made for instance concrete blocNs with hiJh
quantities of sand or un-reinforced concrete and materials that
are not appropriate for the risN proÀle of the area e.J. earth
bricN. These materials may offer little protection from e[ternal
forces such as shaNinJ earthquaNes wind Àre loadinJ snow
loads amonJst others.
BuildinJ materials are made either from naturally aYailable
sources liNe inorJanic materials e.J. clay stone steel or
from orJanic raw materials wood. SupportinJ the use of
enYironmentally sustainable buildinJ materials is essential in
reconstruction actiYities.
Paving blocks made out of crushed cement bricks, produced
after the Haiti earthquake by IFRC’s Integrated Neighbourhood
Programme
Britt &hristiaens ,)5&
7 British 5ed &ross 1-11
133
The appropriateness of a particular buildinJ material can neYer be Jeneralised. Whether a

speciÀc buildinJ material is sustainable or not depends on the local conte[t. The quarryinJ
of soil must also not jeopardise ecoloJically sensitiYe areas aJricultural land or other sources
of liYelihoods.
,t is essential therefore to
inYestiJate the purchasinJ policy or ¶Jreen procurement· Juidelines of your orJanisation if
they e[ist. )or e[ample the use of ha]ardous materials such as asbestos is not acceptable
nor is usinJ unsustainably manufactured products such as illeJally loJJed rainforest timber.
Reuse and recycling of materials:

The reuse and recyclinJ of construction materials has to be considered carefully durinJ the
planninJ phase.
8se pure materials liNe bricNs wood concrete stone and metal sheets. These are best able
to be reused or recycled.
AYoid if possible all types of composite materials e.J. prefabricated solid foam-metal or
foam-plaster elements. They are difÀcult to separate and recycle.
There is a risN that soil for land ÀllinJ may be taNen from foothills in secondary and tertiary
forest areas. This needs to be monitored and manaJed to minimise soil erosion and impacts
on YeJetation and the landscape. To ensure more sustainable landÀll checN the oriJin of soil
that is to be used for land ÀllinJ.
For easier reuse and recycling of materials:

Select buildinJ materials that are easy to disconnect and detach.
AYoid sophisticated compounds and composites in buildinJ materials.
AYoid complicated bondinJ aJents and adhesiYes when not necessary.
To save natural resources and energy:

&hecN whether you can use recycled material.
)ind out whether there are materials aYailable from demolished buildinJs nearby.
5euse debris if it is suitable e.J. timber and rooÀnJ components are robust and cost-
effectiYe materials that can sometimes be easily reused.
5ecycle debris material e.J. rocNs sand and concrete slabs can proYide e[cellent Àll for
concrete if they are Àrst washed sorted and sometimes crushed or Jround into smaller
particles.
Further reading:
World Wildlife Fund, American Red Cross, 2010, Toolkit Guide – Green Recovery and
Reconstruction: Training Toolkit for Humanitarian Aid, Creative Commons, San Francisco, USA:
http://green-recovery.org/
13
7
The followinJ summarises the Ney issues reJardinJ sustainable buildinJ materials

Wood An often-reported challenJe is that suppliers sometimes deliYer unspeciÀed or illeJally
sourced timber to construction sites.
,t is important therefore to

faYour wood from plantations manaJed by certiÀed companies
aYoid illeJally loJJed timber and choose certiÀed timber. Because timber certiÀcates can be
falsiÀed be careful to inYestiJate the certiÀcatinJ authority·s reliability and the authenticity
of the certiÀcate.
Concrete/brick &oncrete and bricN production requires amonJst others larJe supplies of
sand JraYel for concrete and appropriate clay for bricNs. ,n the reconstruction process when
demand is hiJh many people remoYe raw material from the closest riYerbeds or mountains.
Such practices are hiJhly destructiYe and can haYe deYastatinJ effects e.J. on wetlands coral
reefs or forest ecosystems.
To follow a more enYironmentally sustainable approach

8se only raw materials that are produced in an enYironmentally acceptable manner and
aYoid usinJ materials e[tracted from sensitiYe areas.
&hecN the oriJin of sand. AYoid the use of coral sand and inappropriately quarried supplies.
)ind out whether quarry sites are rehabilitated afterwards.
The careful use of buildinJ materials can lead to a siJniÀcant reduction in a project·s enYiron-
mental impact. 8sinJ local materials for e[ample can minimise transport-related emissions.
The use of local materials also helps to preserYe local cultural identity and NnowledJe in project
areas. ,n summary
)aYour locally produced buildinJ materials.
,dentify and Yerify that supplies and raw materials come from enYironmentally friendly
practices and suppliers.
To safeJuard the health of the residents

Do not use asbestos.
Do not use to[ic materials.
Do not use materials containinJ chloroÁuorocarbons &)& e.J. in refriJerators or air-
conditioners.
135
Asbestos risks and how to avoid them

Asbestos is a mineral that occurs in nature. ,t has been used in oYer 3 products includinJ
a Yariety of buildinJ products such as cement rooÀnJ sheets insulation and pipe laJJinJ be-
cause of its hiJh tensile strenJth relatiYe resistance to acid and temperature YaryinJ te[ture
and Áe[ibility. ,t does not eYaporate or dissolYe burn or underJo siJniÀcant reactions with
other chemicals these attributes maNe asbestos Yery useful but also non-biodeJradable and
enYironmentally ha]ardous.
([posure to asbestos can cause lunJ disease and cancer dependinJ on the concentration in the
air and the lenJth of e[posure time. All forms of asbestos are carcinoJenic and no safe leYel of
Poster produced by IFRC to
e[posure is Nnown. )ibrosis of the lunJs due to asbestos is called asbestosis. When asbestos
raise the awareness of the Àbres penetrate the lunJs and become lodJed within the lunJ lininJs or pleurae cancer of the
asbestos risk in post-disaster pleura Nnown as mesothelioma may deYelop. Some intestinal cancer stomach pharynJeal
debris treatment colorectal has also been identiÀed as haYinJ been caused by inJestion of asbestos.
(meline Decoray )5&/,)5&
The ,nternational /abour 2rJani]ation and the W+2 haYe

called for a ban on the production of all types of asbestos
which Nills oYer 1 people annually. Asbestos products
are already banned in countries includinJ all (uropean
8nion states. Some donor countries such as the 8nited .inJ-
dom and Australia haYe prohibited the use of asbestos in their
tsunami-related reconstruction projects. &ountries in which
asbestos-containinJ materials A&0 are beinJ used should
deYelop certiÀcation and speciÀcations for all A&0 products
establish standards for the worN enYironment
reJulate asbestos handlinJ disposal and to[icity testinJ
and the use of personal protectiYe equipment.
The best and recommended way to aYoid the risNs and un-
necessary deaths associated with e[posure to asbestos is to
aYoid usinJ buildinJ products with A&0.
,n cases where e[istinJ A&0 products are beinJ remoYed
worNers should be proYided with personal protectiYe equip-
ment includinJ well-tested respirators to ensure that no
asbestos fibres can enter their lunJs. The proper use of
respirators requires traininJ maintenance and Jood storaJe.
After worN washrooms should be made aYailable and worNers
should taNe showers. WorN clothinJ should not be brouJht
home but cleaned at the premises.
13
7
BuildinJs constructed usinJ poor-quality materials low-quality concrete or inadequate steel
reinforcement are usually badly damaJed by disasters. Project manaJers should therefore
always JiYe special attention to usinJ hiJh-quality buildinJ materials. Try to ensure that the
deliYered material is of Jood quality by reJularly testinJ the aJJreJates sand and stone
water and cement used.
AJJreJates must be free from clay loam leaYes or any other orJanic material. &lay or soil
coatinJ on aJJreJates preYents adhesion of the cement to the aJJreJate slows down the
settinJ and hardeninJ processes and reduces the strenJth of the mortar.
Water should be of drinNinJ quality without pronounced taste. Water containinJ salt e.J.
sea water should neYer be used for mi[inJ concrete as the salt reduces the strenJth of the
concrete and also corrodes steel reinforcement in the concrete.
The most common type of cement is ordinary Portland cement. AlthouJh freshly produced
cement is normally of sufficient quality it can lose quality throuJh poor storaJe and
transport.
7.6.3 Economic aspects

The cost of buildinJ materials often determines what types of products are used. The cheapest
materials howeYer are not always the most suitable ones. )actors such as quality durability
maintenance cost and reliability of supply must also be considered. ,t is particularly important
to assess the maintenance and potential repair cost of materials oYer the entire life cycle of the
buildinJ to optimise oYerall lonJ-term cost saYinJs. 2ther important economic considerations
that may affect the appropriateness of materials include
Prices of buildinJ materials can increase suddenly especially in post-disaster situations Consult with house users/owners
where urJent demand often e[ceeds supply siJniÀcantly. ,t is wise to plan for some Ànancial AJostino Pacciani ,)5&
reserYes to aYoid oYerstretchinJ the project
budJet.
8sinJ locally produced materials can saYe
transport costs strenJthen the local material
production industry stimulate local job crea-
tion and aYoid ta[es on imported material.
Production of buildinJ materials at the con-
struction site is often cheaper than usinJ
prefabricated materials or elements and may
also enable better quality control.
7.6.4 Socio-cultural aspects

,n some cases residents haYe abandoned their
homes because they did not feel comfortable
with the materials used. Therefore maNe sure
137
that users accept and feel comfortable with the construction materials chosen. To help ensure
users· satisfaction and the cultural appropriateness of materials note the followinJ adYice
&onsult with the users/owners reJardinJ whether certain materials are considered to be of
a low standard or otherwise inappropriate.
Assess whether local raw materials are beinJ e[tracted or collected under safe and healthy
worNinJ conditions.
7.6.5 Regulatory and institutional aspects

,t is crucial that the selected materials comply with releYant leJal standards national buildinJ
codes and local reJulations reJardinJ safety enYironmental sustainability technical feasibility
etc. To help ensure compliance
5eJularly checN the speciÀcations and sources of deliYered material.
5eject materials if necessary.
0aintain transparent dealinJs with suppliers at all times.
Support awareness campaiJns which focus on the importance of usinJ leJal buildinJ materials.
7.7 Construction technologies

The selected construction technoloJies should be low cost practical and enYironmentally
appropriate. When selectinJ the most suitable construction methods for urban areas project
manaJers should choose those that best suit local conditions such as the aYailability of build-
inJ techniques material and sNilled worNers.
DependinJ on local urban conditions project manaJers may want to choose from amonJ the
followinJ methods
7.7.1 On-site construction

All raw materials and construction products are transported to the construction site for assem-
bly. Some elements such as windows or doors may be prefabricated. &oncrete elements used
for the foundation columns and beams can be produced on site if there is enouJh space there.
.ey factors to consider
,ndiYidual elements should not weiJh more than 15 NiloJrams so that three worNers can
moYe them safely. AYoid bulNy elements.
&oncrete elements should be cast in wooden or steel moulds.
The on-site construction option is more labour intensiYe and it requires reJular quality
control on site.
5aw materials should be aYailable locally.
138
7
7.7.2 Prefabrication
(ntire walls Áoors and roofs are ready-made produced in the factory and shipped to the build-
inJ site. ,t is essential that access roads are sufÀciently wide and can bear heaYy load trucNs to
transport the prefabricated elements to the site. Prefabrication allows for quicNer and easier
construction than do on-site methods and can help to reduce labour costs and ensure qual-
ity control. Because construction with wall modules is rather complicated Jood planninJ and
orJanisation is essential. ,n too many instances prefabricated houses that fail to meet this basic
requirement haYe been e[ported to deYelopinJ countries.
.ey points to consider
SNilled staff and special equipment are often needed.
(nsure that prefabricated buildinJs are desiJned to suit local conditions climate subsoil
culture etc.. )or e[ample the routine for cleaninJ houses differs amonJ cultures. ,t can be
common to wash Áoors with a lot of water in which case Áoors and the lower parts of walls
must be desiJned to withstand water.
7.8 Construction elements

The main construction elements of a buildinJ are the foundations supportinJ frames Áoors
walls with door and windows ceilinJ and roof. Simple construction techniques should be
chosen to accomplish an appropriate reconstruction. /ocal worNers and contractors need to
haYe sufÀcient capacities to ensure that the houses are built safely and with Jood quality. ,f
needed additional traininJ may be recommended.
The followinJ steps are adYised
&hecN whether the material and technoloJy can be used and clearly understood by the local
worNers and contractors.
&hecN whether special sNills e[perience or equipment are required.
Assess whether repairs and replacements will be possible usinJ local resources.
Metal frame
When possible select construction elements that are easy to dismantle to enable future Daniel Wyss SNat
recyclinJ and reuse.
7.8.1 Foundation
The quality and lifespan of a house depend to a Jreat e[tent on how the foundations are made.
Poor foundations can ultimately lead to damaJe and deterioration that is difÀcult to repair.
The Jround under the house needs to be stronJ enouJh to support the buildinJ eYen if it is
Áooded or e[posed to earthquaNes. A proper assessment of the underJround area and remoYal
of oYerlyinJ earth of poor quality are essential in all cases.
The type of foundation to be used should be selected early in the planninJ process because
it will inÁuence the buildinJ·s oYerall desiJn.
13
.ey criteria for consideration when selectinJ a foundation include

Jround quality which is determined throuJh a soil inYestiJation
the anticipated load of the buildinJ i.e. its weiJht when fully occupied
aYailability of equipment and sNilled worNers.
Design tips for earthquake-safe foundations

&hecN soil type and water leYel.
Assess soil strenJth for seismic desiJn of foundations in accordance with buildinJ codes.
AYoid usinJ isolated footinJs with no ties.
8se reinforced concrete-strip footinJs under load-bearinJ walls.
Soft clays and sand of loose-to-medium density which are waterloJJed may liquefy durinJ
an earthquaNe. AYoid buildinJ in such areas or seeN e[pert adYice on piled foundations and
structural desiJn.
7.8.2 Supporting frames

The supportinJ frame ¶sNeleton· of a buildinJ is often subject to local traditions and prefer-
ences. ,n situations where access to materials may be restricted alternatiYe frame systems may
need to be considered. There are at least three basic frame systems
Concrete frames
&oncrete frames are widely used in reconstruction. &olumns and beams are cast toJether into
a frame. *aps are Àlled with bricNs or blocNs. BricNs of lower quality can be used as Àll material
for e[ternal and internal walls. *ood masonry sNills are required for this approach.
To withstand earthquaNes and other natural ha]ards stronJ connections are required between
Yertical steel-reinforced concrete columns and rinJ beams. A rinJ beam is a hori]ontal beam
that follows the form of the house so named because it would looN liNe a rinJ if it were round.
The roof often rests directly on a rinJ beam.
Also crucially important for earthquaNe resistance are robust connections between supportinJ
walls and non-supportinJ walls. 8nsecured walls may fall outwards.
Steel frames
Steel frames are primarily used for constructinJ larJer houses and buildinJs. The material is Yery
stronJ but is difÀcult to worN with without specialised tools and e[pert NnowledJe. Because
steel frames are typically quite e[pensiYe they are not often used for sinJle-family houses.
An interestinJ option could be the use of cold-formed steel &)S. The adYantaJes of usinJ this
type of framinJ are liJhtness in weiJht hiJh strenJth and stiffness prefabrication and mass
production fast and easy installation on site and resistance to termites. &)S can be used in
roof and wall systems as structural components in structures and frameworNs or as corruJated
sheets and proÀles.
1
7
Timber frames
Timber frames are mostly used in one-to-two-leYelled houses. They are often more resistant to
earthquaNes and other natural disasters than are concrete frames especially if these are built
with insufÀcient or poor reinforcement and are easier to worN with. Adequate carpentry sNills
howeYer are required.
,n a situation where timber is scarce or liNely to come from illeJal loJJinJ timber framinJ is
not recommended.
7.8.3 Floors
The choice of Áoor depends on its intended use. &onsider the e[pected load wear and tear
cleaninJ method slip-resistance and the ability to resist moisture and insects.
,n hot and humid climates direct contact of the Áoor with the Jround does not proYide Jood
coolinJ. To improYe Áoor coolinJ consider the followinJ
5aise the Áoor and Yentilate the space underneath allow for a minimum of 3 centimetres
aboYe the surroundinJ Jround leYel sinJle-family houses.
(leYated Áoors also help aYoid moisture problems.
8se a liJht material that does not absorb heat such as wood.
BuildinJs eleYated on pillars offer protection from Áoods but may be more susceptible to
damaJe from earthquaNes.
To improve earthquake resistance, consider the following measures:
&RQFUHWHÁRRUV
Anchor concrete Jround Áoors and wall columns into the foundations.
Suspended concrete Áoors should be À[ed securely on their upper and lower sides to the
concrete wall columns.
7LPEHUÁRRUV
(ach Áoor beam should be secured and fastened to the Jround beam with metal straps.
7.8.4 Walls
The construction technique used for walls depends on the number of Áoors the anticipated
loads and the risN of cyclones or earthquaNes. The choice is inÁuenced also by the buildinJ
material to be used and the aYailability of sNilled worNers. Walls should be adapted to the local
climate and require as little maintenance as possible.
Walls play a crucial role in a house·s resistance to earthquaNes. (arthquaNes mostly affect build-
inJs by way of hori]ontal forces. The main danJer of hori]ontal earth moYements is that the
buildinJ·s walls and consequently roof may collapse. Therefore the main aim of constructinJ
11
earthquaNe-resistant houses is to aYoid walls

beinJ able to collapse easily and to ensure that
the roof is well secured to the walls. To maNe
houses as resistant to earthquaNes storms and
Áoods as possible the followinJ measures are
recommended
(nsure that walls are reinforced sufÀciently.
,f possible arranJe for a qualiÀed enJineer
to calculate the necessary reinforcement re-
quirements and reJularly control the quality
of installation on site.
0aNe sure that rinJ beams are adequately
connected in each corner and to the rein-
forcement within the walls and columns.
‘Rat-trap bond’ masonry
SNat
7.8.5 Windows, doors and other openings
Windows and doors proYide natural liJht communication with the outside and Yentilation. )or
climatic control reasons Jenerally all Ninds of wall openinJs are important to ensure Jood
Yentilation and coolinJ of the buildinJ.
The followinJ steps are recommended with reJard to window orientation in tropical climates
0inimise direct e[posure to sunliJht.
,f possible use trees to create additional shade.
/ocate windows toward preYailinJ winds and sea bree]es for Jood cross-Yentilation and
circulation.
In earthquake-prone areas, openings in walls must be considered carefully as they de-

stabilise the wall system, particularly in solid buildings made of bricks or concrete blocks.
The followinJ steps are recommended
(nsure that lintels penetrate the wall in order to achieYe sufÀcient bondaJe a lintel is a
hori]ontal beam that usually supports the masonry aboYe a window or door openinJ or
better use the rinJ beam itself as a lintel.
The window·s width should not e[ceed 1. metres and should not coYer more than one-
third of the wall·s width.
The lenJth of walls between openinJs must be at least one-third of their heiJht and must
not be less than one metre.
*enerally doors must open towards the outside so that residents can escape more easily if
an earthquaNe occurs.
A second door at the bacN of the buildinJ is recommended in case the main door is blocNed.
1
7
7.8.6 Roofs
The quality and state of the roof is e[tremely
important. ,t protects aJainst weather wind
heat and cold. To some e[tent roofs also pro-
tect e[ternal walls from sun and rain.
Traditional roofs made of burnt clay thatch or
earth require a Jreat deal of maintenance and
are often not suitable in urban areas. ,n addi-
tion thatched roofs are a Àre ha]ard.
)lat roofs should not be used in areas with
heaYy rains. +iJhly sNilled worNers e[cellent-
quality buildinJ materials and reJular mainte-
nance are required to Neep Áat roofs watertiJht.
)or climatic reasons consider insulatinJ the roof.
,nsulation reduces heat Jain throuJh the roof
NeepinJ temperatures inside to a minimum.
Rain gutter
&laudia Schneider SNat
For earthquake-prone areas:

5oofs should be as liJht as possible.
To achieYe the best earthquaNe resistance roofs should be well connected to all walls and
columns.
The supportinJ frame and columns should always be able to support the roof without the
walls so that eYen if a wall collapses the roof does not fall down.
For cyclone-prone areas:

5oof slopes at anJles of at least 3 deJrees reduce wind-suction forces.
StronJ connections of all roof components to the roof structure are required.
AYoid wide roof oYerhanJs separate the Yeranda structure from the buildinJ.
(nsure the roof coYerinJ is attached to the roof structure to preYent it from liftinJ.
Further reading:
Müller, H., 2009, Tsunami House User Manual, KSSS – Kotar Social Service Society, Swiss Caritas:
3UDFWLFDOKDQGERRNRQWHFKQLFDOLVVXHVRIKRXVHFRQVWUXFWLRQIRUEXLOGLQJXSWRWZRÁRRUV
ZZZ\RXQJFDULWDVFKPHGLDBIHDWXUHVJIB7VXQDPLB+RXVHB8VHUB0DQXDOBÀQDOSGI
13
7.9 Site management

DurinJ the implementation an enYironmentally friendly site manaJement and a careful handlinJ
of construction waste are essential.
,n many ways the construction phase is an important staJe in the implementation process of
urban reconstruction actiYities. Not only can many disturbances be Jenerated from the con-
struction itself but also the housinJ·s lonJ-term durability depends on whether the sustainable
features of the housinJ desiJn are implemented effectiYely durinJ the construction process.
A badly planned construction phase can result e.J. in malfunctioninJ Yentilation enerJy or
water systems in buildinJs with substandard foundations maNinJ them Yulnerable to ÁoodinJ
and earthquaNes or in buildinJs that are difÀcult and e[pensiYe to maintain and more costly
to build.
A monitorinJ and eYaluation process should therefore be strictly implemented. Any deYiations
from the plans or standards should be corrected without delay. ,n a post-disaster urban housinJ
rehabilitation the aYailability of Jood-quality materials sNilled worNers and trained superYision
staff with adequate technical and social sNills miJht be missinJ. 2rJanisations with little or
no e[perience in housinJ construction and appropriate NnowledJe of deYelopment principles
and standards may be enJaJed because of an oYerwhelminJ scale of reconstruction demand.
Therefore a reJular quality control of construction standards and at the same time adherence
Site planning and construction
to humanitarian and deYelopment principles of disaster response are crucial.
management in the
post-tsunami reconstruction in Adequate quality control in an urban reconstruction proJramme is essential to maintain mini-
the Maldives mum standards and codes of conduct.
,)5&
1
7
The followinJ steps are recommended73
5eJularly superYise the reconstruction worN to oYersee the diYerse actiYities in order to
ensure that technical and humanitarian standards are met.
(nJaJe a project manaJer with Jood construction manaJement and technical sNills. This is
an important requirement.
Support traininJ and capacity-buildinJ of the construction worNers toJether with feedbacN
and superYision support to maNe sure that technical and humanitarian standards are fol-
lowed.
&ommunicate the technical and humanitarian standards to the communities and other
staNeholders.
Train the community members to monitor the realisation of those standards.
0onitor safety standards which are jointly aJreed with the partners. This is to enhance the
personal safety of the construction worNers.
Share communication of standards feedbacN by the monitorinJ team and recommendations
for improYement with the Àeld staff and implementation team to maNe sure that these Ànd-
inJs are put into action.
2nly use construction materials with approYed quality standards or tested products whereYer
possible.
8tilise construction materials that suit the climatic enYironment of the area.
As far as possible employ only sNilled personnel with adequate technical and social quali-
Àcations.
)acilitate payments on time to ensure prompt deliYery of materials of the necessary quality.
(nsure quality checNs throuJh different methods such as reJular technical superYision re-
portinJ community monitorinJ committees and material testinJ.
Set up coordination methods to share e[periences amonJst orJanisations and partners to
maintain technical and humanitarian standards of the reconstruction proJramme.
15
7.10 Construction waste management

An important aspect of the construction phase is manaJement and minimisation of construction
waste. A certain amount of construction waste will unaYoidably be Jenerated. ,t is important to
haYe a system in place for handlinJ this waste. A ¶site waste-manaJement plan· which should
be adjusted to the urban area assists in identifyinJ the Yolume and type of construction and
demolition waste and sets out how waste disposal will be minimised and manaJed. Because
construction waste can often be recycled or reused the separation of different Ninds of waste
is recommended.
/iNewise waste remaininJ on the buildinJ site from buildinJs and infrastructure destroyed in
the disaster should be handled carefully remoYed and transported to an interim storaJe area at
a location identiÀed and aJreed with community leaders and the local JoYernmental authority.
Donor orJanisations and reconstruction contractors need to coordinate debris remoYal time-
frames to ma[imise efÀciency and achieYe adequate disposal.
Soil contamination durinJ construction can be aYoided throuJh the appropriate storaJe of fuel
and chemicals e.J. in a secondary containment of fuel tanNs and chemical containers.
Additional recommendations include
0inimise dust and noise emissions durinJ the construction phase as far as possible throuJh
cleaninJ and coYerinJ the site and minimisinJ wind e[posure.
0aintain Jood worNinJ conditions with effectiYe health and on-site safety procedures. Pro-
Yide worNers with safe transport to and from the site if needed.
&areful orJanisation of the transport of materials worNers etc. to and from the site will lower
emission leYels and saYe costs. Streets miJht be impassable. Some streets and bridJes will
not support heaYy trucNs. A Jood practice therefore is to asN for local adYice when maNinJ
transport plans.
1
7
17
Construction phase
8. Monitoring and risk reduction
8.1 Quality control

An independent e[ternal quality control proYided by inspectors for e[ample helps to ensure
the quality of any reconstruction proJramme. Those inspectors may be useful also to issue the
certiÀcates of completion that approYe the acceptable completion of homes before beneÀciaries
are allowed to moYe into them.
The most critical elements of a reconstruction that should be checNed reJularly are the
followinJ7
Foundations need to be sufÀciently deep massiYe and stronJ enouJh to resist damaJe by
Áoods and earthquaNes. BuildinJ on unstable Jround or steep slopes should be aYoided as
it would require e[pensiYe foundations to maNe a buildinJ safe. BuildinJ on slopes aboYe
1 deJrees is not recommended. &are needs to be taNen when startinJ to build walls aboYe
the plinth layer as this may become a point of weaNness.
Structural frames should be aYoided unless local builders haYe Jood NnowledJe of frame
construction. Poorly constructed and inadequately jointed frames of reinforced concrete
steel or timber can put inhabitants at hiJh risN. 2n the other hand if frames are well built
and compatible inÀll or claddinJ materials are used these can JiYe a hiJh leYel of safety.
Masonry walls need to be built with a proper bond in all directions. Walls must be straiJht
hori]ontally and plumb Yertically. &hecN for this usinJ a spirit leYel and plumb-line. ,f
walls are built with distortion eYen if it is not Yisible to the naNed eye this may be a source
of weaNness.
Doors and windows need to be eYenly distributed and not placed too closely to corners
or intersections of walls as this weaNens the walls· resistance to earthquaNes. /intels aboYe
those openinJs need to be of sufÀcient strenJth and lenJth.
Roof structures need to be anchored well to a wall plate or structural frame they also
need to be interlinNed well. DurinJ earthquaNes and stronJ storms the buildinJ needs to
maintain structural strenJth with the roof moYinJ toJether with the walls and NeepinJ them
toJether. ,f the roof becomes detached and starts to moYe independently this can speed
up the collapse of a buildinJ. The structure needs to be completed to a hiJh standard. 5oof
rafters and purlins need to be cut or cast to the correct lenJth with little marJin for error.
-oints between members need to be well made and Àt closely toJether. SufÀcient nails and
screws of the correct speciÀcation need to be used to tie joints toJether so that they do
not become points of weaNness.
Roof coverings of pitched roofs whether sheets or tiles need to be tied securely to the
frame. Where walls are at risN of beinJ damaJed by rain or humidity roofs need to proYide
sufÀcient oYerhanJ.
1 P&5 Tool 1 ² Quality &ontrol
18
8
8.2 Regular monitoring and evaluation (M&E)
5eJular self-monitorinJ and eYaluation is critical
for measurinJ the proJress of urban reconstruc-
tion proJrammes. 0 ( can be carried out in
a rather simple way by selectinJ Ney indica-
tors e.J. amounts of money spent on differ-
ent actiYities Yolumes of materials used and
timeliness of completion of actiYities and then
collectinJ and summarisinJ them on a reJular
basis e.J. weeNly or fortniJhtly.
,f any indicator shows a deYiation from the
budJet or construction plans then the cause
for the deYiation should be identiÀed so that
remedial measures can be taNen. ,n addition
an e[ternal eYaluation can assist by proYidinJ
Monitoring visit, Sri Lanka, 2009
a second and independent Yiew on crucial issues. 0onitorinJ is also Yery useful for buildinJ
SNat
the proJramme partners· credibility with the local community national authorities and inter-
national donors.
,n some recent larJe humanitarian responses corruption particularly in the construction indus-
try has been a real issue. ,t is important to be familiar with your orJanisation·s procedures for
monitorinJ and whistle-blowinJ in case of any information about misconduct.
Further reading:
IFRC – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies/Practical Action, 2010,
PCR Tool 10 – Quality Control, Switzerland/UK
Cosgrave, J., Ramalingam, B., Beck, T., 2009, Real-time evaluations of humanitarian action, An ALNAP
Guide, Pilot Version, Overseas Development Institute
OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2010, Quality Standards for
Development Evaluation, DAC Guidelines and Reference Series, OECD publishing
Transparency International, Preventing Corruption in Humanitarian Operations, Handbook of Good
Practices: www.transparency.org/global_priorities/other_thematic_issues/humanitarian_assistance/
ti_projects_activities
8.3 Maintenance
Newly built housinJ and buildinJs as well as infrastructure water supply sanitation electricity
etc. require reJular repairs to maintain their capacity and function. At the outset and durinJ
the planninJ and implementation phase maintenance issues should be discussed with the
beneÀciaries and the partners.
1
Construction phase 8. Monitoring and risk reduction
As soon as the beneÀciaries moYe into their new housinJ or newly renoYated buildinJs they
should be familiarised with the technical installations such as water supply sanitation electric-
ity waste disposal sortinJ and how to best maintain their new homes e.J. undertaNinJ small
repairs and NeepinJ the housinJ neat and clean.
The main questions concerninJ the maintenance of housinJ are who is responsible for the
maintenance who does it and who Ànances it?
8rban housinJ requires reJular maintenance reJardless of where it is built or for how lonJ
it is intended to function. 0aintenance requires reJular inspection economic resources and
NnowledJe. ,t is a Jood inYestment to include a traininJ component for maintenance in re-
construction projects. 0aintenance relies on aYailable resources and new material that is not
locally aYailable may proYe impossible to maintain.
BuildinJs in an urban enYironment are e[posed to weather and user wear and tear. 0aterials are
subject to erosion and weatherinJ immediately after construction. ,ndiYidual components can
stop functioninJ and cause damaJe to other components. A roof leaN for e[ample may result
in water damaJe inside the buildinJ. )aulty components also need to be repaired or replaced
to aYoid further damaJe to the buildinJ and potentially to its users.
The most cost-effectiYe strateJy for NeepinJ buildinJs operational is to proYide reJular main-
tenance and always repair defects while they are still manaJeable. BuildinJs that receiYe no
maintenance haYe only a limited lifespan. *ood maintenance on the other hand can lenJthen
a buildinJ·s lifespan substantially thus saYinJ resources and prolonJinJ the time before the
buildinJ will need to be partially or completely rebuilt.
ShortaJe of fundinJ is often JiYen as a reason for poor maintenance. 5emarNable results
howeYer can be achieYed with Yery limited Ànancial means if maintenance is reJular and sys-
tematic. 9ery often poor maintenance results from a lacN of awareness amonJst practitioners
and the buildinJ·s users.
To ensure proper maintenance the followinJ steps are recommended
,ndicate to users that maintenance is needed continuously and without interruption in order
to Juarantee the Jood functioninJ of the buildinJs.
Analyse attitudes towards maintenance. Possibly the Jreatest challenJe to establishinJ Jood
maintenance is maNinJ inYolYed staNeholders aware of its beneÀts. )ind out the attitudes
toward maintenance and habits of concerned staNeholders users owners local craftsmen
contractors and local authorities.
&larify who is responsible for maintenance and who controls its quality. +ow will it worN in
practice? What would hinder Jood maintenance?
When handinJ oYer completed buildinJs to users proYide basic traininJ in maintaininJ the
buildinJs. AccordinJ to the users· leYel of NnowledJe this may include information about
Jeneral cleaninJ small repairs clearinJ Jutters and storm-water drains and how to use the
sanitary facilities.
Do not hand oYer buildinJs unless all systems haYe been tested and conÀrmed to be func-
tioninJ.
15
8
&omplete the leJal requirements for reJistration of buildinJs and land with local authorities.
)ormulate minimum maintenance standards accordinJ to the buildinJ desiJn and materials
used. Technical speciÀcations drawinJs and other references to completed construction worNs
can help in the creation of standards. A Jood question to asN when deYelopinJ minimum
acceptable house standards is will it be sufÀcient to preserYe the buildinJ shell aJainst weather
and theft or must comfort and a nice clean appearance also be assured? The answer to this
question will help determine the scope and efforts of maintenance and related costs.
0aintenance will be easier in buildinJs with simple desiJns Jood-quality materials and
sufÀcient standards of worNmanship.
&larify who will pay for any needed repairs and maintenance costs. 8sers should assume
responsibility if reasonably possible.
ProYide tools for maintenance of buildinJs with community contribution where possible.
,f necessary local craftsmen can be trained to seal leaNinJ roofs adjust locNs and hinJes
and replace water tap seals broNen window panes etc.
AYoid complicated technical installations plumbinJ electrical systems etc. so any future
repairs are easier.
Promote and facilitate insurance for the buildinJs.
Example of a priority list
Cleaning:
cleaninJ of inside and outside parts of the buildinJ
remoYal of debris from Jutters and storm-water drains
cuttinJ of Jrass if needed
cuttinJ of trees and bushes when JrowinJ too closely to the buildinJ damaJinJ surfaces
or droppinJ leaYes into Jutters and onto the roof.
Preventing water damage:

NeepinJ roofs waterproof
ensurinJ quicN and free drainaJe of rainwater from the buildinJ and the site
NeepinJ installations waterproof
checNinJ reJularly foundations Áoors walls ceilinJs for cracNs
securinJ foundations aJainst erosion
inYestiJatinJ cracNs to identify the causes the causes of the cracNs should be addressed and
the more serious cracNs repaired by sNilled masons
undertaNinJ reJular rat bat insect and micro-orJanism funJus control.
151
8.4 Disaster risk reduction

There is a ranJe of methods aYailable for disaster risN reduction D55. This permits a Áe[ible
use of different tools to adapt to particular conte[ts. *enerally a mi[ of tools and methods is
used such as focus-Jroup discussions semi-structured interYiews obserYations random walNs
seasonal calendars historical proÀles household Yulnerability assessments liYelihoods analysis
institutional and social networN analysis diaJrams and collection and reYiew of secondary data.
These participatory approaches also proYide opportunities to share technical information with
communities althouJh this often requires a non-technical lanJuaJe which enables communities
to feel that their e[posure to risN is siJniÀcant in their daily liYes.
As a mi[ of qualitatiYe and quantitatiYe approaches community-based risN assessment often
concentrates on the Yulnerability and capacity aspects of risN. The 5ed &ross 5ed &rescent ap-
proach uses the Yulnerability and capacity assessment 9&A. Whilst ha]ard assessments are
often inteJrated within the 9&A they currently tend not to utilise much scientiÀc or technical
information. +oweYer as data aYailability and resolution increasinJly improYe technical ha]ard
analyses are becominJ more aYailable at the local urban leYel. Still local use of technical data
continues to be challenJed by information deliYery sometimes due to a lacN of local capacity
for understandinJ or processinJ scientiÀc/technical information.
Further reading:
IFRC – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2006, What is VCA?
An introduction to vulnerability and capacity assessment, Geneva, Switzerland
IFRC – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2007, How to do a VCA
– A practical step-by-step guide for Red Cross Red Crescent staff and volunteers, Geneva, Switzerland
IFRC – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 2007, VCA toolbox with
reference sheets, Geneva, Switzerland
The followinJ checNlist75 of disaster risN issues shows what to consider in an urban reconstruc-
tion proJramme
Assessments
0ap the history of ha]ards in particular the location frequency maJnitude and seYerity
resultinJ impact and Yulnerabilities.
Assess local construction practices and their effectiYeness in addressinJ disaster risNs in the
past.
Planning and design

Always seeN specialists· adYice on desiJn and technical standards to address ha]ard risNs.
Assess the suitability of the reconstruction site and detail a plan for site-preparation worNs.
75 Adapted from 2[fam 8
15
8
&oordinate with the Ney staNeholders inYolYed in reconstruction to e[chanJe Jood practices
and NnowledJe.
(nsure that the proJramme team has appropriate NnowledJe and e[pertise in D55 and
disaster preparedness inteJration in the reconstruction proJramme.
,ndicate the essential desiJn considerations which are necessary to address speciÀc ha]ard
risNs.
5eYiew e[istinJ codes of practice for ha]ard resistance to assess whether they are adequate
or whether they need to be adapted to the JiYen conte[t.
Study Jood practices and challenJes of other reconstruction proJrammes to assess the
suitability of codes of practice and norms.
5XOHVRIWKXPE²KRZWRVHOHFWWKHEHVWÁRRGLQJUHVSRQVHVWUDWHJ\
BuildinJs should be eleYated but aYoid complicated stilt constructions.
Access ways to buildinJs haYe to be safe and dry.
Any land ÀllinJs or new dams should allow run-off of water from heaYy rains or tidal waYes.
)loodinJ response strateJy should not create any unwanted water ponds.
Materials and technologies

5eYiew e[istinJ Juidelines for what are the Ninds of materials and technoloJies to be used
to reduce disaster risNs.
8se only new construction technoloJies which are properly tested for addressinJ ha]ard risNs.
(stablish a reconstruction manaJement system which is competent to JiYe the technical
inputs and superYision required for dealinJ with ha]ard risN conditions to monitor construc-
tion material quality and to build on local capacities.
Community aspects
ProYide the necessary resources for adequate maintenance of housinJ to ensure that the
constructed buildinJ withstands ha]ard risNs.
Support communities to deYelop continJency plans and rescue plans and to understand
the Yarious ha]ard threats.
)acilitate the inteJration of D55 aspects into other sector interYentions to deYelop a one-
proJramme approach.
8.4.2 Roles and responsibilities in disaster preparedness

The communities are the Àrst responders in any emerJency situation and are also the ones
that haYe to deal with a whole ranJe of disaster issues. With reJard to enhancinJ communi-
ties· disaster preparedness awareness-raisinJ of school children is essential. &hildren should be
153
educated in what they can contribute to prepare their families for emerJencies of all Ninds. The
children·s interest could stimulate parents to taNe action in preparinJ for emerJency situations
due to disasters. This may create a Jeneration which is conscious of how they can protect and
help themselYes in a ranJe of incidents.
There is an acceptance that communities Nnow their own risNs better than does any e[ternal
orJanisation or indiYidual and community priorities can be Yery different from what supportinJ
orJanisations may anticipate.
Due to the participatory nature of the community assessment local authorities are usually
inYolYed to assure their consent with planned risN-reduction measures and to a certain de-
Jree strenJtheninJ sustainability. ,n Jeneral the process should brinJ communities and local
authorities into closer contact and encouraJe partnerships with other staNeholders with the
aim of reducinJ potential disaster risN.
Partnerships but also the need for communities to be self-supportinJ and sustaininJ are
essential. Disaster preparedness requires that the concerned parties around and within a
community taNe oYer the necessary roles and responsibilities. There is a Jreat need for bet-
ter coordination and stronJer partnerships between communities local urban authorities and
national JoYernments with the aim to recoJnise and accept each other·s responsibilities and
tasNs within disaster preYention.
2n one hand national JoYernments need to do more such as to clarify Ànancial needs of
communities on the other hand communities and families haYe a certain responsibility for
maNinJ their homes safer.
*oYernments need not only to proYide Ànancial support for disaster-preparedness actions in
communities but also to encouraJe families and indiYiduals to inYest in reducinJ their own
assets· e[posure to natural ha]ards. )inancial support could be mobilised throuJh credit/
microÀnance schemes which are set up speciÀcally as risN-reduction measures.
8rban JoYernments should haYe Ney roles as ¶risN reducers· 7
They proYide infrastructure and serYices some perhaps are contracted to priYate enterprises
or N*2s.
They Juide where deYelopment taNes place ² for instance inÁuencinJ where urban settle-
ments deYelop and where they do not and what proYision they haYe to aYoid Áoods or Àres.
They reJulate ha]ardous actiYities that can cause disasters industries transport accidents.
They haYe an inÁuence on land aYailability land-use reJulations ]oninJ bureaucratic
procedures for buyinJ or obtaininJ land and what can be built on it the quality of land-
use manaJement inÁuences the proportion of poorer Jroups haYinJ to liYe on ha]ardous/
disaster-prone sites.
They encouraJe/support household/community action that reduces risN for instance better-
quality housinJ safer sites and Jood infrastructure.
They proYide ¶law and order· which should also act to protect the poor from risN.
7 Adapted from African 8rban 5isN Analysis NetworN A85AN 7
15
8
*RYHUQDQFHVXUURXQGLQJWKH6DLQW/RXLVÁRRGLQJSUREOHP77
Background
,n this project (NDA-Tiers 0onde a SeneJalese enYironmental N*2 used a ranJe of action-
research methods to e[plore the leYels of risN people were e[posed to and to understand the
JoYernance challenJes that underpinned this risN. A manaJement committee was set up which
brouJht toJether all possible actors interested in tacNlinJ Áood risNs. This committee deÀned
the Ney proJramme components and superYised their implementation.
Saint /ouis SeneJal is rapidly e[pandinJ. ,t Jrew from 115 in 18 to in .
The majority of those affected by Áoods are Yery poor. 0any are rural-urban miJrants who
left the countryside durinJ the drouJhts of the early 17s. DurinJ this period they came
to inhabit the lower lyinJ areas of the city. When the rains haYe returned durinJ the last ten
years these areas haYe Áooded. As a means of Áood preYention the population of low-lyinJ
areas uses household waste to maNe barriers aJainst Áoodwaters but this Jenerates additional
health ha]ards. At its heart Áood risN in Saint /ouis is a problem of JoYernance basic data is
not aYailable and policy or projects to reduce risN or undertaNe urban deYelopment are often
uncoordinated and not inclusiYe.
Activities
Photographic reports showed how local conditions shape Áood risN. )or e[ample household
waste contributed heaYily to the contamination of Áood waters. ,nterYiews with local residents
conÀrmed that people were in constant fear of natural disasters and the threat of disease.
Public meetings allowed residents to thinN throuJh ways in which chanJes in behaYiour miJht
reduce risN. ,n particular practices of disposinJ of household waste in public areas were chal-
lenJed. This can disrupt the Áow of water increasinJ risN from ÁoodinJ and malaria. Public
meetinJs were also held in conjunction with the 2fÀce for Public +ealth and the mayor.
There was much discussion of the ways in which urban deYelopment and risN-manaJement
strateJies currently in use can serYe to shift risN between places rather than necessarily reduce
it. The area most at risN from ÁoodinJ was identiÀed ² a neiJhbourhood called PiNine ² and
as a result residents formed a Commission of Prevention and Fight Against Floods. This
project also proYided a mechanism for sharinJ e[periences between communities at risN. )or
e[ample SananNorba YillaJe in 0ali has undertaNen the diJJinJ of Áood channels. ,n this case
local residents initiated the project made bricNs and proYided labour in partnership with the
&anadian (mbassy.
The lesson learned is that community solidarity plays a Ney role in oYercominJ Áood risN. 0eet-
inJs were also held to assess the role of &iYil Defence in disaster manaJement. These actiYities
haYe brouJht different interest Jroups and communities toJether to reÁect on Áood risN and
its possible improYement. The result has been that throuJh this process new information has Floods in urban areas of
been Jenerated and shared and new institutional ties made that can contribute towards the Saint Luis in Senegal
buildinJ of a JoYernance system to support risN reduction in the city. 0arta Pena ,)5&
77 African 8rban 5isN Analysis NetworN A85AN 7
155
Future priorities
The project built on (NDA·s past worN and will feed into future worN on urban enYironmental
conditions public health and risN and its focus on education and empowerment throuJh
JoYernance reform not least throuJh the worN of a multi-staNeholder manaJement commit-
tee. (NDA-Tiers 0onde aims to further deYelop this initiatiYe as an action-research project
combininJ research with measures aimed at behaYioural chanJe of both communities and
local authorities. ,t has a stronJ interest in e[pandinJ this e[perience in Saint /ouis to other
countries in West Africa.
8.4.3 Community-based risk assessment

&ommunity-based risN assessment should not be carried out to Jather information only but
rather to form a core component of community-based disaster risN manaJement. By beinJ
enJaJed throuJhout participatory assessment processes the community·s awareness and
understandinJ of risNs are enhanced.
(qually important throuJh ¶learninJ by doinJ· communities become aware of their own
resources capacities and ways of manaJinJ risN. This helps create a sense of ownership and
empowerment JeneratinJ a culture of preYention within Yulnerable communities.
DurinJ and after a community-based risN assessment local disaster-risN-manaJement plans
should be deYeloped. These should include continJency plans deÀninJ not only what to do in
case of a disaster but also who will be responsible for distinct actiYities.
,n order to enhance communities· resilience it is necessary to deYelop action plans for e[ample
a Community Flood Action Plan. These plans are tarJeted to those at risN of ÁoodinJ where
they themselYes haYe a role to play in manaJinJ the risN.
)urther a Community Risk Register is recommended. Such a reJister maps all ha]ards and
threats for the concerned district. This helps the community and the responsible local authority
to prioritise the main risNs. The authorities toJether with the communities identify how to treat
these risNs either throuJh reduction of impact or probability. This includes eYerythinJ from a
small correction to lonJ-term measurements.
8.4.4 PASSA – Participatory Approach to Safe Shelter Awareness

8rban reconstruction efforts in ha]ard-prone areas can be enhanced throuJh the inteJration
of disaster preparedness and risN-reduction elements. Any urban reconstruction proJramme
should Jo beyond mere housinJ proYision. What does it mean ² preparinJ for disasters? What
are the ¶inJredients· of Jood urban JoYernance to enhance community contracts? What are
participatory budJets? What is PASSA ² Participatory Approach to Safe Shelter Awareness? And
what is continJency planninJ and urban simulations?
The purpose of the PASSA methodoloJy is to proYide urban communities with tools to improYe
their liYinJ conditions build safer housinJ and desiJn more sustainable settlements by utilis-
inJ a step-by-step method. PASSA tools offer communities NnowledJe and traininJ to solYe
their own housinJ problems and aim at encouraJinJ chanJes in their behaYiour and attitudes.
15
8
The method includes the followinJ actiYities78
DeYelopinJ a KLVWRULFDO SURÀOH to allow the community to identify ha]ards and Yulner-
abilities that e[ist in the community usinJ local historical NnowledJe.
,dentifyinJ frequency and impact of hazards to enable the community to classify the most
important shelter ha]ards usinJ pictures photos etc.
8ndertaNinJ community mapping and visits to map the community·s housinJ conditions
and identify potential ha]ards.
&lassifyinJ safe shelter and unsafe shelter usinJ three-pile sortinJ drawinJs and sets of
cards to facilitate the cateJorisation of safe unsafe and in-between housinJ and settlement
components in the community.
,dentifyinJ options for solutions usinJ the safe and unsafe piles from the preYious actiYity
to enable participants to identify options for safe housinJ and understand how effectiYe
each solution is at improYinJ housinJ safety.
Planning for change to facilitate deYelopment of a community action plan &AP to improYe
housinJ safety.
(stablishinJ a problem box to allow the community to reYiew preYious decisions and
Yalidate all steps and decisions taNen.
,nstallinJ a monitoring plan to enable the community to monitor and eYaluate proJress
and outcomes aJainst the aJreed community safe-housinJ plan.
Measuring achievement usinJ Yarious tools this actiYity will facilitate the identiÀcation of
Ney results.
PASSA group meeting

78 Adapted from ,)5& 1 PASSA ² Participatory Approach to Safe Shelter Awareness British 5ed &ross
157
PASSA: Haiti Recovery Programme, British Red Cross, 2010–2011

British 5ed &ross supported by ,)5& decided to use the PASSA tool in the community where
other reconstruction projects were beinJ implemented in order to raise the awareness of risNs
within the built enYironment.
The British 5ed &ross chose to use and deYelop only speciÀc Ney actiYities from the PASSA tool
in order to continue the e[istinJ Yital participatory approach. The PASSA actiYities haYe also
become part of the monitorinJ process to checN that the selected approach is fully participatory
i.e. includinJ the community at all steps of the project. The selected PASSA actiYities included
historical proÀlinJ
ha]ard mappinJ
community mappinJ
issues of safe and unsafe shelter
options for safe-shelter solutions
planninJ for chanJe
identiÀcation of any problems
monitorinJ
measurinJ achieYements.
8.4.5 Vulnerability analysis

&ommunities often lacN a Jood understandinJ of ha]ards and their associated risNs. ,f they want
to become more resilient they need to deYelop sNills to analyse and understand the ha]ards
that affect their liYes. ,n order to achieYe this orJanisations can worN directly with communi-
ties to carry out a systematic Yulnerability analysis and/or train community leaders to facilitate
community analysis. An analysis of Yulnerabilities can be completed in a participatory way
and can help to identify households within a community and those most in need of support.
An analysis of ha]ards can include the followinJ Ney issues7

,dentify what different ha]ards haYe affected the community or particular Jroups both on
a reJular and a one-off basis.
Prioritise the different ha]ards e.J. accordinJ to seYerity numbers affected or frequency.
)urther e[plore the prioritised ha]ards with the followinJ questions and tools
² What is the typical frequency and duration of this ha]ard has it chanJed oYer time?
² Are there any warninJ siJns that a ha]ard eYent is liNely to occur are there any early-
warninJ systems?
1 P&5 Tool 3
158
8
² Are there any underlyinJ causes of the ha]ards and does the community understand
them or how to address them?
² Which Jroups within the community are most affected and how?
² Which communal or indiYidual assets are affected and how?
² +ow do different Jroups typically respond immediately after the ha]ard occurs are there
continJency plans safe areas emerJency resources response orJanisations etc.?
² What particular lonJ-term copinJ strateJies do these people and particularly Yulnerable
Jroups use to recoYer from the ha]ard impact?
² Based on the issues raised what opportunities and capacities are aYailable or could be
strenJthened to help people cope and recoYer when ha]ards and stresses occur?
SuJJested tools to use are focus Jroups ha]ard mappinJ storytellinJ the (00A ² (merJency
0arNet 0appinJ and Analysis toolNit to analyse chanJes to marNet systems etc.
Further reading:
Focus groups
OMNI Institute, Toolkit for Conducting Focus Groups, OMNI, Denver, USA:
www.omni.org/docs/focusgrouptoolkit.pdf
Hazard mapping
ACF – Action Contre la Faim, Multi-Hazard Mapping using Geographic Information System (GIS), ACF,
Community-based Disaster Risk Reduction Project Bicol Region, Philippines:
ZZZSUHYHQWLRQZHEQHWÀOHVB$&)SGI
Noson, L., Hazard Mapping and Risk Assessment, Regional Workshop on Best Practices in Disaster
Mitigation: www.adpc.net/audmp/rllw/PDF/hazard%20mapping.pdf
EMMA
Emergency Market Mapping and Analysis Toolkit: http://emma-toolkit.org/get/download/
Storytelling
SDC – Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, 2006, Story Guide – Building bridges using
narrative techniques, SDC, Berne, Switzerland
Knowledge Sharing Toolkit, Storytelling: www.kstoolkit.org/Storytelling
IFRC – Participatory Approach for Safe Shelter Awareness (PASSA), 2011
IFRC – ‘No time for doubt’ – Tackling Urban Risk: a glance at urban interventions by Red Cross
Societies in Latin America and the Caribbean, 2011
Shelter Report 2012 – Build hope: housing cities after a disaster – Habitat for Humanity, 2012
15
8.4.6 Contingency plans

&ontinJency planninJ is an important component within the broader frameworN of disaster
preparedness which includes early-warninJ mechanisms capacity-buildinJ creation and main-
tenance of stand-by capacities and stocNpilinJ amonJ others.
&ontinJency planninJ is a process that includes four broad components. /ocal JoYernments
and orJanisations may follow these steps8
Preparation Prepare for and orJanise the continJency-planninJ process.
Analysis Analyse ha]ards and risNs build scenarios and deYelop planninJ assumptions.
Response planning DeÀne response objectiYes and strateJies deÀne manaJement and
coordination mechanisms deYelop and approYe a response plan.
Follow-up and continuation of the process (nhance preparedness and continue the plan-
ninJ process.
A Jood disaster continJency plan consists of orJanisinJ resources assessinJ risNs deYelopinJ
a plan implementinJ the plan and monitorinJ it. The plan is a constantly chanJinJ document
and needs reJular updates. The plan needs to be Áe[ible because communities and resources
chanJe oYer time. The Joal of a continJency plan is to decrease or preYent the loss of life. The
plan aims at reducinJ property damaJe resultinJ from natural ha]ards. 8rban communities need
to understand that continJency plans miJht be different for different types of emerJencies
dependinJ on the type of ha]ard ÁoodinJ earthquaNe cyclone etc..
The followinJ steps are recommended at household leYel
Assess your risks Determine the potential problems in your household and in your com-
munity. ,nclude cyclones or wind storms in your plan if you liYe in an area prone to these
meteoroloJical eYents.
Develop a plan and set priorities 0aNe an eYacuation map of your home. ,nclude each
room and possible escape routes from each room. &onsider where your family would meet
if a disaster happened while your children were at school and you were at worN. /earn how
to turn off your utilities.
Implement the plan and monitor its progress +old reJular traininJs at home. 0aNe sure
eYeryone Nnows where to Jo and what to do in an emerJency.
Organise your resources TaNe an inYentory of resources that would be needed and aYailable
in the eYent of Yarious emerJencies. 5esources can be other people as well as orJanisations.
&reate an emerJency list of contacts. &reate an inYentory of household items and family
assets. .eep it in a waterproof and Àreproof safe.
Make an emergency kit ,nclude blanNets food water a ÁashliJht and batteries. ,f possible
add a Àrst-aid Nit e[tra clothes a toolNit tape a rope a utility Nnife and e[tra medication
if applicable.
8 Adapted from 2&+A ² 8nited Nations 2fÀce for the &oordination of +umanitarian Affairs Disaster
5esponse Preparedness ToolNit www.ocha.unog.ch/drptoolkit/PContingencyPlanning.html
1
8
8.4.7 Communication and disaster preparedness
*ood communication is often a challenJe in dealinJ with disasters. ,n order to ensure proper
disaster preparedness it is essential to address the followinJ questions
+ow do people behaYe when they obtain risN information?
What is the role of social networNinJ in sharinJ information about disaster risN?
+ow do new communication networNs support the e[chanJe of risN information that could
enhance the resilience of communities?
Experience from Mexico City81

,n the pre-disaster phase it is important to put into place early-warninJ systems. 2ne of the
early-warninJ systems that 0e[ico &ity employs is a messaJe S0S to phones with a distinct
sound in the messaJe. The sound that is played in the messaJe alerts local people that the
messaJe is important and that it should be read immediately. <et durinJ a disaster it is im-
portant to maNe sure that there is a plan in place so disasters are handled appropriately and
emerJency situations are eliminated eYen if 1st-century technoloJy is not worNinJ.
Further information can be found at:
INFOASAID: www.infoasaid.org
Communicating with disaster affected communities Haiti: http://cdac-haiti.org/en/content/what-cdac
81 The World BanN/,nternational BanN of 5econstruction and DeYelopment 1
11
Annex I: References
Abhas .. -. Safer Homes, Stronger Communities – A Handbook for Reconstructing after
Natural Disasters The World BanN
Adams -. 1 Managing Water Supply and Sanitation in Emergencies 2[fam 2[ford 8.
Astrand -. 1 Construction in Developing Countries, Swedish Mission Council StocNholm Sweden
A85AN ² African 8rban 5isN Analysis NetworN 7 Investigating urban risk accumulation
in six countries in Africa ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies/
Pro9ention &onsortium www.proventionconsortium.org/themes/default/pdfs/urban_risk/
AURAN_May07.pdf
BaraNat S. 3 Housing Reconstruction after ConÁict and Disaster Number 3 +umanitarian
Practice NetworN 2Yerseas DeYelopment ,nstitute /ondon 8.
BenJtsson /. /u ;. *arfield 5. Thorson A. Yon Schreeb -. 1 Internal Population
Displacement in Haiti – Preliminary analyses of movement patterns of Digicel mobile phones:
1 January to 11 March 2010 .arolinsNa ,nstitute Sweden/&olumbia 8niYersity New <orN 8SA
Blanco 8. &ordero &. *estion de Dpbris Documenting Right of Access to Private Property for
Debris Removal or Demolition +aiti KWWSKDLWLKXPDQLWDULDQUHVSRQVHLQIR/LQN&OLFNDVS["ÀO
eticket=OqPCyopeGv8%3D&tabid=157&mid=1116
British 5ed &ross 1-11 PowerPoint presentation Recovery Programme, Integrated Project
in Delmas 19, Red Cross Red Crescent Societies +aiti (arthquaNe British 5ed &ross 5ecoYery
ProJramme
&arlqYist B. 18 Maintenance of Institutional Buildings – A Management Perspective /und

8niYersity /und Sweden
&+) ,nternational 1 Assessing needs in different neighbourhoods of Port-au-Prince

contribution by &+) to the Shelter &luster TW,* ² Technical WorNinJ *roup
&uny ). Thompson P. 181 Economic Issues in Housing Reconstruction ,ntertect WashinJton
D& 8SA
DaYis -. /ambert 5. Engineering in Emergencies – A practical guide for relief workers
,TD*/5ed5 /ondon 8.
Desai 5. Desai 5. National &entre for People·s ² Action in Disaster Preparedness N&PDP
7 Manual for Restoration and RetroÀtting of Rural Structures in .ashmir 8N(S&2/8NDP
*ujarat ,ndia
DiPretoro S. 11 BeneÀciary Satisfaction and Program Evaluation /atin America and the
&aribbean American 5ed &ross and &hile 5ed &ross 5(D &ard ProJram
(AWA* ² (idJen|ssische Anstalt fr WasserYersorJunJ AbwasserreiniJunJ und *ewlsserschut]

8 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies (li]abeth Tilley &hristoph /thi
Antoine 0orel &hris =urbrJJ and 5oland Schertenleib (awaJ/Sandec Dbendorf Swit]erland
www.eawag.ch/forschung/sandec/publikationen/sesp/dl/compendium_high.pdf
1
)orsman A. 1 A Situational Analysis of Metropolitan Port-au-Prince, Haiti – Strategic citywide
spatial planning 8N-+AB,TAT Nairobi .enya
*T= ² Deutsche *esellschaft fr Technische =usammenarbeit 3 Guidelines for Building
Measures after Disasters and ConÁicts (schborn *ermany
*T= ² Deutsche *esellschaft fr Technische =usammenarbeit 7 Data sheets for Ecosan
Projects 3 ² A&TS (co-friendly Public Toilet &entre BanJalore ,ndia .en *nanaNan S.S.
Wilson 0artin WaÁer -ohannes +eeb Deutsche *esellschaft fr Technische =usammenarbeit
*T= *mb+ ecosan proJram
*ut P. AcNerNnecht D. 13 Climate Responsive Building-Appropriate Building Construction in
Tropical and Subtropical Regions SNat St.*allen Swit]erland
+arYey P. BaJhri S. 5eed B. Emergency Sanitation-Assessment and Programme Design
W(D& Water (nJineerinJ and DeYelopment &entre /ouJhborouJh 8niYersity /eicestershire
8.
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies Earthquakes ²
Guidelines on preparing, responding and recovering *eneYa Swit]erland 1
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies PowerPoint
presentation From Camp to Community *eneYa Swit]erland
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 1 Haiti earthquake
2010 – One-year Progress Report *eneYa Swit]erland
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 1 Owner-Driven
Housing Reconstruction Guidelines ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent
Societies *eneYa Swit]erland
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 1 Participatory
Approach for Safe Shelter Awareness (PASSA) case study sheet *eneYa Swit]erland
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 1 World Disasters
Report 2010 – Focus on Urban Risk *eneYa Swit]erland
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies/Practical Action 1
P&5 Tool 3 ² /earninJ from Disasters Swit]erland/8.
PCR Tool 6 – Integrating Livelihoods Swit]erland/8.
PCR Tool 7 – Planning with the People Swit]erland/8.
PCR Tool 8 – Participatory Design Swit]erland/8.
PCR Tool 10 – Quality Control Swit]erland/8.
,+& ² ,nternational +ousinJ &oalition/8nited States AJency for ,nternational DeYelopment

8SA,D 11 Haiti Shelter Sector Assessment: One year after the earthquake ,+& WashinJton
D& 8SA www.intlhc.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/IHC-Haiti-Shelter-Sector-Assessment.pdf
13
,5P ² ,nternational 5ecoYery Platform/8NDP ² 8nited Nations DeYelopment ProJramme ,ndia
1 Guidance Note on Recovery – Shelter ,nternational 5ecoYery Platform Secretariat .obe
-apan
0inNe *. 1 Construction Manual for Earthquake-Resistant Houses Built of Earth *ate-Basin/
*T= (schborn *ermany
0ller +. Basic Construction Training Manual for Trainers SNat )oundation St.*allen
Swit]erland
2(&D ² 2rJanisation for (conomic &o-operation and DeYelopment 1 Promoting Haiti·s
Reconstruction: Service Delivery Guidance Partnership for Democratic *oYernance www.oecd.
org/dataoecd/21/16/44538012.pdf
2[fam 8 Beyond Brick and Mortar – Handbook on Approaches to Permanent Shelters in
Humanitarian Response 2[fam ,nternational 2[ford 8.
Patel D. Patel D. Pindoria .. 1 Repair and strengthening guide for earthquake-damaged
low-rise domestic buildings in Gujarat, India *ujarat 5elief (nJineerinJ AdYice Team *5(AT
Publications *ujarat ,ndia
Phelps P. 1 PowerPoint presentation Options for the establishment of a housing
reconstruction framework for Haiti 0eetinJ on +ousinJ 5econstruction and Transitional Shelter
*oYernment of +aiti ,nterim +aiti 5econstruction &ommission 0inistry of PlanninJ and ([ternal
&ooperation Port-au-Prince +aiti
5ed &ross 5ed &rescent Societies 11 Shelter Technical Brief, Haiti Earthquake Operation
– Àrst 12 months ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies *eneYa
Swit]erland
5othenberJer S. =urbrJJ &. (nayetullah ,. Sinha 0. Decentralised Composting for
Cities of Low- and Middle-Income Countries (awaJ/Sandec Dbendorf Swit]erland Waste
&oncern DhaNa BanJladesh
Schacher T. RetroÀtting – Some basics PowerPoint presentation SA+ construction course
WalNrinJen ZZZFRQVWUXFWLRQJURXSFKV\VWHPÀOHVUHWURÀWWLQJVRPHEDVLFVSGI
Schneider &. Schwitter D. et. al. 7 After the Tsunami – Sustainable building guidelines for
South-East Asia SNat ² Swiss 5esource &entre and &onsultancies for DeYelopment/8N(P SB&,
² 8nited Nations (nYironment ProJramme ² Sustainable BuildinJs and &onstruction ,nitiatiYe
St.*allen Swit]erland and Paris )rance
Shelter &entre 1 &ase Study Number 5 ² Transitional Shelter Understanding Transitional
Shelter from the Emergency through Reconstruction and Beyond ² A/NAP ,nnoYations www.
DOQDSRUJSRROÀOHVLQQRYDWLRQFDVHVWXG\QRVKHOWHUSGI
Shelter &luster Technical WorNshop /eoJane ² +aiti 1 PowerPoint presentation

Housing, Land and Property Issues in Post-Earthquake Haiti – Supporting Return, Recovery and
Reconstruction +ousinJ /and and Property WorNinJ *roup +aiti
Stul] 5. SNat RooÀng Primer – A catalogue of potential solutions St.*allen Swit]erland
Stul] 5. 0uNerji .. 13 Appropriate Building Materials SNat St.*allen Swit]erland
1
The World BanN *)D55 ² *lobal )acility for Disaster 5eduction and 5ecoYery and 8N,SD5
² 8nited Nations ,nternational StrateJy for Disaster 5eduction 11 World Reconstruction
Conference (proceedings): Recovering and reducing risks after natural disasters The World BanN
WashinJton D& 8SA
The World BanN/,nternational BanN of 5econstruction and DeYelopment 1 Understanding

Risk – Innovation in Disaster Risk Assessment – Proceeds from the 2010 Understanding Risk (UR)
forum The World BanN WashinJton D& 8SA
TwiJJ -. - TechnoloJy Post-Disaster Housing Reconstruction and Livelihood Security
Disaster Studies WorNinJ Paper No. 15 BenÀeld +a]ard 5esearch &entre /ondon 8.
8N-+AB,TAT ² 8nited Nations +uman Settlements ProJramme Sustainable Urban Energy
Planning – A handbook for cities and towns in developing countries 8N-+AB,TAT 8N(P ,&/(, ²
/ocal *oYernments for Sustainability
8N-+AB,TAT ² 8nited Nations +uman Settlements ProJramme 1 Land and Natural
Disasters: Guidance for Practitioners Nairobi .enya
8N-+AB,TAT ² 8nited Nations +uman Settlements ProJramme 1 Solid Waste Management
in the World·s Cities – Water and sanitation in the world·s cities 2010 (arthscan /ondon and
WashinJton D& 8SA
8N,SD5 ² 8nited Nations ,nternational StrateJy for Disaster 5eduction Terminology on
Disaster Risk Reduction ,nternational StrateJy for Disaster 5eduction www.unisdr.org/eng/
terminology/terminology-2009-eng.html
8nited Nations 8 ([ecutiYe editors Tom &orsellis and Antonella 9itale Shelter &entre
Transitional settlement and reconstruction after natural disasters 8nited Nations *eneYa
Swit]erland
8niYersity of Westminster The Built Environment Professions in Disaster Risk Reduction
and Response – A guide for humanitarian agencies 0a[ /ocN &entre 8niYersity of Westminster
/ondon 8.
Wates N. The Community Planning Handbook (arthscan /ondon 8.
W(D& ² Water (nJineerinJ and DeYelopment &entre Services for the urban poor – sections
1–6: Guidance for policymakers, planners and engineers Andrew &otton W(D& /ouJhborouJh
/eicestershire 8.
W+2 ² World +ealth 2rJani]ation 11 Surface-Water Drainage for Low-Income Communities
*eneYa Swit]erland
W+2 ² World +ealth 2rJani]ation 3 Domestic Water Quantity, Service Level and Health
*uy +oward -amie Bartram *eneYa Swit]erland
W+2 ² World +ealth 2rJani]ation/8N,&() ² 8nited Nations &hildren·s )und 1 Progress on
Sanitation and Drinking-water 1 8pdate W+2/8N,&() -oint 0onitorinJ ProJramme -0P
for Water Supply and Sanitation
World Wildlife )und/American 5ed &ross 1 Toolkit Guide – Green Recovery and
Reconstruction: Training Toolkit for Humanitarian Aid 0odule 3 &reatiYe &ommons San
)rancisco 8SA http://green-recovery.org
15
Annex II: Further reading
Assessment
(,A tools that can be used in post-disaster settinJs include
(nYironmental Stewardship 5eYiew for +umanitarian Aid (S5 www.worldwildlife.org
*uidelines for 5apid (nYironmental ,mpact Assessment in Disasters 5(A
www.proventionconsortium.org
)lash (nYironmental Assessment Tool )(AT www.ochaonline.un.org
(nYironmental Needs Assessment in Post-Disaster Situation A Practical *uide for
,mplementation (NA www.oneresponse.info
,)5& 5 Guidelines for Emergency Assessment ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed
&rescent Societies *eneYa Swit]erland
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies What is VCA? An
introduction to vulnerability and capacity assessment ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed
&rescent Societies *eneYa Swit]erland
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 7 How to do a VCA ² A
practical step-by-step guide for Red Cross Red Crescent staff and volunteers ,nternational )ederation
of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies *eneYa Swit]erland
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 7 VCA toolbox with
reference sheets ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies *eneYa Swit]erland
8NDP ² 8nited Nations DeYelopment ProJramme 1 Disaster Assessment Disaster 0anaJement
TraininJ ProJramme www.proventionconsortium.org/themes/default/pdfs/DisasterAssess.pdf
Construction
AJarwal A. 7 Cyclone Resistant Building Architecture 8NDP Disaster 5isN 0anaJement
ProJramme
Ashmore -. )owler -. Timber as a Construction Material in Humanitarian Operations 2&+A/
,)5&/&A5( ,nternational www.humanitariantimber.org
Desai 5. Desai 5. 8 Manual on Hazard Resistant Construction in India – For reducing vulnerability
in buildings built without engineers National &entre )or People·s Action in Disaster Preparedness
N&PDP *ujarat ,ndia
0TPT& ² 0inistqre des TraYau[ Publics Transports et &ommunications/0,&T ² 0inistqre de l·,ntprieur

et des &ollectiYitps Territoriales 1 Guide de Bonnes Pratiques pour la Construction de Petits
Bâtiments en Maçonnerie Chaînée en Haïti +aiti A user-friendly and easy-to-understand handbooN
of masonry worNs for small buildinJs ZZZVKHOWHUFHQWUHRUJVLWHVGHIDXOWÀOHVJXLGHBERQQHVB
SUDWLTXHVBÀQDOBSGI
0TPT& ² 0inistqre des TraYau[ Publics Transports et &ommunications 1 Guide Pratique de
Réparation de Petits Bâtiments en Haïti +aiti *uidelines on technical issues of house construction for
buildinJ up to two Áoors VKHOWHUFHQWUHRUJVLWHVGHIDXOWÀOHVJXLGHBGHBUHSDUDWLRQVBBMDQSGI
0ller +. Tsunami House User Manual .SSS ² .otar Social SerYice Society Swiss &aritas
Practical handbooN on technical issues of house construction for buildinJ up to two Áoors www.
\RXQJFDULWDVFKPHGLDBIHDWXUHVJIB7VXQDPLB+RXVHB8VHUB0DQXDOBÀQDOSGI
1
Schacher T. 7 ConÀned Masonry – An illustrated guide for masons Swiss AJency for DeYelopment
and &ooperation SD& VKHOWHUFHQWUHRUJVLWHVGHIDXOWÀOHVVFKDFKHUBFRQÀQHGPDVRQU\KDQGRXW
engl-23307.pdf
Simpson/StronJ-Tie High Wind-Resistant Construction www.strongtie.com/ftp/catalogs/c-hw09/C-
HW09.pdf
Simpson/StronJ-Tie Seismic RetroÀt Guide ZZZVWURQJWLHFRPIWSÁLHUV)3/$16SGI
Stul] 5. 0uNerji .. 13 Appropriate Building Materials – A catalogue of potential solutions SNat
St.*allen Swit]erland
World Wildlife )und/American 5ed &ross 1 Toolkit Guide – Green Recovery and Reconstruction:
Training Toolkit for Humanitarian Aid, Module 3 &reatiYe &ommons San )rancisco 8SA http://
green-recovery.org
Contingency planning
2&+A ² 8nited Nations 2fÀce for the &oordination of +umanitarian Affairs Disaster 5esponse
Preparedness ToolNit www.ocha.unog.ch/drptoolkit/PContingencyPlanning.html
Disaster preparedness
Asian Disaster 0anaJement News 9ol. 1 No. 1 -anuary ² April 1 Earthquake Risk Management
BanJNoN Thailand
(00A ² (merJency 0arNet 0appinJ and Analysis ToolNit http://emma-toolkit.org/get/download/
*T= ² *esellschaft fr Technische =usammenarbeit Guidelines – Risk Analysis – a Basis for
Disaster Risk Management (schborn *ermany
*T=/National +ousinJ DeYelopment Authority 0inistry of +ousinJ and &onstruction 5
Guidelines for Housing Development in Coastal Sri Lanka Statutory Requirements and Best-Practice
Guide to Settlement Planning – Housing design and service provision with special emphasis on disaster
preparedness &olombo Sri /anNa www.humanitarian-srilanka.org/new/Tsunami_Meeting/12Jan06/
Guidelines%20.pdf
Wamsler &. Urban Risk Reduction and Adaptation – How to promote resilient communities and
adapt to increasing disasters and changing climatic conditions 9D0 Publications *ermany
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 11 Participatory Approach
for Safe Shelter Awareness (PASSA), ,)5& *eneYa Swit]erland
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 1 Earthquakes –
Guidelines on preparing, responding and recovering, ,)5& *eneYa Swit]erland
Focus groups
20N, ,nstitute Toolkit for Conducting Focus Groups 20N, DenYer 8SA www.omni.org/docs/
focusgrouptoolkit.pdf
General
A/NAP Flood disasters – Learning from previous relief and recovery operations Pro9ention &onsortium
ZZZSURYHQWLRQFRQVRUWLXPRUJWKHPHVGHIDXOWSGIV$/1$33UR9HQWLRQBÁRRGBOHVVRQVSGI
A/NAP /essons Responding to Urban Disasters – Learning from previous relief and recovery operations
Pro9ention &onsortium www.proventionconsortium.org/themes/default/pdfs/alnap-provention-
lessons-urban.pdf
17
A/NAP 1 “We·re not in the Àeld anymore” – Adapting humanitarian efforts to an urban world
bacNJround paper 7th A/NAP 0eetinJ &hennai ,ndia 17-18 -anuary 1 www.alnap.org/pool/
ÀOHVEDFNJURXQGSDSHUSGI
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies/+elp AJe ,nternational 11
Guidance on including older people in emergency shelter programmes ,)5&/+elp AJe ,nternational
/yons 0. Schilderman T. et al. 1 Building Back Better – Delivering people-centred housing
reconstruction at scale Practical Action 5uJby 8.
The World BanN *)D55 ² *lobal )acility for Disaster 5eduction and 5ecoYery and 8N,SD5 ² 8nited
Nations ,nternational StrateJy for Disaster 5eduction 11 World Reconstruction Conference
(proceedings): Recovering and reducing risks after natural disasters The World BanN WashinJton D&
8SA
8niYersity of Westminster The Built Environment Professions in Disaster Risk Reduction and
Response – A guide for humanitarian agencies 0a[ /ocN &entre 8niYersity of Westminster /ondon 8.
+abitat for +umanity 1 Shelter Report 2012 – Build hope: housing cities after a disaster
N5&/Shelter &entre 1 Urban Shelter Guidelines
American 5ed &ross/World Wildlife )und WW) 11 Green Recovery and Reconstruction Training
Toolkit for Humanitarian Aid (GRRT)
8N-2&+A 18 Shelter After Disasters ,an DaYis et all
The World BanN / *fD55 1 Safer Homes, stronger Communities – A Handbook for Reconstructing
after Natural Disasters
Hazard mapping
A&) ² Action &ontre la )aim Multi-Hazard Mapping using Geographic Information System (GIS) A&)
&ommunity-based Disaster 5isN 5eduction Project Bicol 5eJion Philippines www.preventionweb.
QHWÀOHVB$&)SGI
Noson /. Hazard Mapping and Risk Assessment 5eJional WorNshop on Best Practices in Disaster
0itiJation www.adpc.net/audmp/rllw/PDF/hazard%20mapping.pdf
Host families
Haiti Shelter Cluster, Shelter Cluster Technical Working Group (TWIG), 2010, Host Families Shelter
Response Guidelines for Haiti
9irdee -. 1 +ost &ommunity *uidelines ² Supporting Host Families in Haiti by Tracking Movement,
Understanding Needs and Directing Responses ,nter-AJency StandinJ &ommittee ² +aiti Shelter
&luster/&aritas/&ordaid
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 1 Supporting Host families
and communities after crises and natural disasters ,)5& *eneYa Swit]erland
&a/P 1 Cash Transfer Programming in Urban Emergencies: A toolkit for practitioners
http://www.cashlearning.org/downloads/resources/calp/CaLP_Urban_Toolkit_web.pdf
Land use
*T= 1 Land Use Planning – Methods, strategies and tools Deutsche *esellschaft fr Technische
=usammenarbeit *T= (schborn *ermany
18
8N-+AB,TAT 8 Secure Land Rights for All 8N-+AB,TAT Nairobi .enya
8N-+AB,TAT ² 8nited Nations +uman Settlements ProJramme 1 Land and Natural Disasters:
Guidance for Practitioners Nairobi .enya
Mapping
Altan 2. BacNhaus 5. Boccardo P. =latanoYa S. 1 Geoinformation for Disaster and Risk
Management – Examples and Best Practices -oint Board of *eospatial ,nformation Societies
&openhaJen DenmarN
&ambridJe 8niYersity &entre for 5isN in the Built (nYironment &85B( 1 Disaster Recovery
Indicators 8niYersity of &ambridJe 8.
Monitoring and Evaluation

&osJraYe -. 5amalinJam B. BecN T. Real-time evaluations of humanitarian action An A/NAP
*uide Pilot 9ersion 2Yerseas DeYelopment ,nstitute
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies/Practical Action 1 PCR
Tool 10 – Quality Control Swit]erland/8.
2(&D - 2rJanisation for (conomic &o-operation and DeYelopment 1 Quality Standards for
Development Evaluation DA& *uidelines and 5eference Series 2(&D publishinJ
Transparency ,nternational Preventing Corruption in Humanitarian Operations, Handbook of Good

Practices www.transparency.org/global_priorities/other_thematic_issues/humanitarian_assistance/
ti_projects_activities
Participatory approaches
Tool 8 – Participatory Design Swit]erland/8.
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 1 Owner-Driven Housing
Reconstruction Guidelines Swit]erland
Tool 7 – Planning with the people Swit]erland/8.
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 1 Post-disaster community
infrastructure rehabilitation and (re)construction guidelines ,)5& *eneYa Swit]erland
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 1 Post-disaster Settlement
Planning Guidelines ,)5& *eneYa Swit]erland
5HWURÀWWLQJ
Desai 5. Desai 5. National &entre for People·s- Action in Disaster Preparedness N&PDP 7
Manual for Restoration and RetroÀtting of Rural Structures in .ashmir 8N(S&2/8NDP *ujarat ,ndia
Patel D. Patel D. Pindoria .. 1 Repair and strengthening guide for earthquake damaged low-rise
domestic buildings in Gujarat, India *ujarat 5elief (nJineerinJ AdYice Team *5(AT Publications
*ujarat ,ndia
Schacher T. RetroÀtting ² Some basics PowerPoint presentation SA+ construction course
WalNrinJen Swit]erland ZZZFRQVWUXFWLRQJURXSFKV\VWHPÀOHVUHWURÀWWLQJVRPHEDVLFVSGI
1
Standards
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies/+elp AJe ,nternational 1
Guidance on Including Older People in Emergency Shelter Programmes ,)5& *eneYa Swit]erland
www.helpage.org/resources/publications/
The Sphere Project 11 Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response
*eneYa Swit]erland www.sphereproject.org
Storytelling
.nowledJe SharinJ ToolNit StorytellinJ www.kstoolkit.org/Storytelling
SD& ² Swiss AJency for DeYelopment and &ooperation Story Guide – Building bridges using
narrative techniques SD& Berne Swit]erland
Transitional shelter
8nited Nations 8 ([ecutiYe editors Tom &orsellis and Antonella 9itale Shelter &entre Transitional
settlement and reconstruction after natural disasters 8nited Nations *eneYa Swit]erland
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 11 Transitional Shelters
– Eight designs ,)5& *eneYa Swit]erland
Shelter Projects 8//1 ,)5&/8N+&5/8N-+abitat www.sheltercasestudies.org
Urban planning
)orsman A. 0ohlund g. 1 Citywide Strategic Planning 8N-+AB,TAT Nairobi .enya
Trohanis =. Shah ). 5anJhieri ). Building Climate and Disaster Resilience into City Planning and
Management Processes )ifth 8rban 5esearch Symposium Sustainable DeYelopment Department
(ast Asia and the PaciÀc 5eJion The World BanN
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 1 Post-disaster community
infrastructure rehabilitation and (re)construction guidelines ,)5& *eneYa Swit]erland
,)5& ² ,nternational )ederation of 5ed &ross and 5ed &rescent Societies 1 Post-disaster Settlement
Planning Guidelines ,)5& *eneYa Swit]erland
Water supply
W(D& ² Water (nJineerinJ and DeYelopment &entre Services for the urban poor – sections
1–6: Guidance for policymakers, planners and engineers Andrew &otton W(D& /ouJhborouJh
/eicestershire 8.
(AWA* ² (idJen|ssische Anstalt fr WasserYersorJunJ AbwasserreiniJunJ und *ewlsserschut]

8 Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies (li]abeth Tilley &hristoph /thi Antoine
0orel &hris =urbrJJ and 5oland Schertenleib (awaJ/Sandec Dbendorf Swit]erland www.eawag.
ch/forschung/sandec/publikationen/sesp/dl/compendium_high.pdf
W+2 ² World +ealth 2rJani]ation 11 Surface Water drainage for Low-Income Communities
*eneYa Swit]erland
17
Annex III: Links
General
www.sheltercentre.org
www.recoveryplatform.org
www.alnap.org
Community action planning

www.communityplanning.net
Earthquake-resistant construction
ZZZFRQÀQHGPDVRQU\RUJ
www.structureparasismic.com/MaMaisonParasismique.html
www.safestronghome.com
www.strongtie.com
Intergovernmental coordination in Latin America/Caribbean:

www.minurvi.org
Land issues
www.gltn.net
Mapping
www.openstreetmap.org
www.esri.com
www.hazards.fema.gov/femaportal/wps/portal
Water supply, sanitation, solid waste management

www.sandec.ch
www.cwgnet.net
www.waste.nl
171
Annex IV: Practical checklists
ATC-20 Detailed evaluation safety assessment form8: PaJe 1
Inspection Final Posting from paJe

,nspecteur ,D ________________________________________________________________________________ ,nspected
AfÀliation ____________________________________________________________________________________ 5estricted use
8nsafe
,nspection date and time _______________________________________________ A0 P0
Building Description Type of Construction

BuildinJ name ________________________________________________________ Wooden frame &oncrete sheer wall
Address _______________________________________________________________ Steel frame 8nreinforced masonry
_________________________________________________________________________ Tilt-up concrete 5einforced masonry
&oncrete frame 2ther ___________________________
BuildinJ contact/phone ______________________________________________
Number of stories aboYe Jround _____ below Jround ______________ Primary Occupancy
Appro[. ´)ootprint areaµ square feet ________________________________ DwellinJ &ommercial *oYernment

2ther residential 2fÀces +istoric
Number of residential units __________________________________________ Public assembly ,ndustrial School
Number of residential units not habitable ___________________________ (merJency serYices 2ther ___________________________
Evaluation
,nYestiJate the buildinJ for the conditions below and ticN the appropriate column. There is room on the second paJe for a sNetch.
Overall hazards: Minor/None Moderate Severe Comments
&ollapse or partial collapse ____________________________________________________________
BuildinJ or storey leaninJ ____________________________________________________________
2ther ___________________________ ____________________________________________________________
Structural hazards:
)oundations ____________________________________________________________
5oofs Áoors Yertical loads ____________________________________________________________
&olumns pilasters corbels ____________________________________________________________
DiaphraJms hori]ontal bracinJ ____________________________________________________________
Walls Yertical bracinJ ____________________________________________________________
Precast connections ____________________________________________________________
2ther ___________________________ ____________________________________________________________
Non-structural hazards:
Parapets ornamentation ____________________________________________________________
&laddinJ Jla]inJ ____________________________________________________________
&eilinJs liJht À[tures ____________________________________________________________
,nterior walls partitions ____________________________________________________________
(leYators ____________________________________________________________
Stairs e[its ____________________________________________________________
(lectric Jas ____________________________________________________________
2ther ___________________________ ____________________________________________________________
Geotechnical hazards:
Slope failure debris ____________________________________________________________
*round moYement Àssures ____________________________________________________________
2ther ___________________________ ____________________________________________________________
General Comments: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
8 Adapted from Applied TechnoloJy &ouncil 15-7 www.atcouncil.org/pdfs/rapid.pdf
17
ATC-20 Detailed evaluation safety assessment form PaJe
BuildinJ name ________________________________________________________ ,nspector ,D __________________________________________________________
Sketch (optional)
ProYide a sNetch of the buildinJ or damaJed
portions. ,ndicate damaJe points.
Estimated Building Damage

,f requested by the jurisdiction estimate buildinJ
damaJe repair cost/replacement cost e[cludinJ
contents.
None
ଇ²ଇ1
1ଇ²ଇ1
1ଇ²ଇ3
3ଇ²ଇ
ଇ²ଇ1
1
Posting
,f there is an e[istinJ postinJ from a preYious eYaluation ticN the appropriate bo[.
PreYious postinJ INSPECTED RESTRICTED USE UNSAFE ,nspector ,D _________________ Date _________________
,f necessary reYise the postinJ based on new eYaluation and team judJment. Severe conditions endanJerinJ the oYerall buildinJ are Jrounds for
an 8nsafe postinJ. /ocal Severe and oYerall Moderate conditions may allow a 5estricted 8se postinJ. ,ndicate the current postinJ below and at
the top of paJe 1.
INSPECTED *reen placard RESTRICTED USE <ellow placard UNSAFE 5ed placard
5ecord any use and entry restrictions e[actly as written on placard ______________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Further Actions TicN the bo[es below only if further actions are needed.
Barricades needed in the followinJ areas ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
(nJineerinJ (Yaluation recommended Structural Geotechnical Other: _______________________________________________
2ther recommendations _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
&omments _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
173
Neighbourhood enumeration questionnaire83
(Provided by Habitat for Humanity International, 5 December 2010)
SurYeyor·s ,nitials ¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬..¬¬ SurYey No. ¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬.

Date and Time ¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬..
*PS &oordinates ¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬.. Picture
Respondent’s name¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬
&ontact Phone ¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬
1. Household composition: who stays regularly at the home (spends the night)
Name Sex Age Relation to Occupation (2) Vulnerability (3) Level of

(F/M) the head of education
household (1) completed (4)
a +ead of +ousehold -----N/A----
b
c
d
e
f
J
h
1. 5elation to head of household a spouse b siblinJ c child d parent e Jrandparent f Jrand-

child J niece/nephew h aunt/uncle i cousin j e[tended family N friend of family l another
relation e[plain
. 2ccupation a currently worNinJ b currently not worNinJ c reJular day worNer d irreJular
day worNer e small merchant f student J transporter h contractor/repairs i artisan j public
serYant N seeNinJ employment l reliJious worNer m farmer n metal worNer o cash for worN
p other e[plain
3. 9ulnerability a female head of household b handicapped c sinJle-parent household d preJ-
nant woman e child head of household f widower J chronically ill h landless i internally
displaced person j elderly !5 years
. /eYel of education completed a neYer attended school b NinderJarten c primary school
d secondary school e uniYersity f professional school J Yocational school h literacy school
i other e[plain
83 ,+& ² ,nternational +ousinJ &oalition/8nited States AJency for ,nternational DeYelopment 8SA,D 11
http://intlhc.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/IHC-Haiti-Shelter-Sector-Assessment.pdf
17
2. House conditions (original home, not camp)
a Was your house damaJed by the earthquaNe? <es No
b AT&- rapid assessment result 5ed <ellow *reen Not eYaluated
c 0aterial of the house Tarp &orruJated iron sheets &oncrete blocN Wood 2ther .................................
d +ow biJ is your home? ................m [ ................m ................m
d +ouse location before the earthquaNe Simon 1 3 5 7 8
2ther area Pele &ite Dieu Seul P&S
2ther name ......................................
e Do you sleep in this same house? <es No

f ,f not where do you sleep?
J +ow many families share the buildinJ? 1 3 5+

i What year did you moYe to Simon Pele?
Where did you moYe from? ..........................................
j Do you feel safe where you liYe? <es No
N +ow many rooms are in your house? 1 3 5+
l Does your house leaN? <es No
3. For home before the earthquake (not camp): Information regarding the house
structure
Do you own, rent or just occupy your house (not owner, but not paying)?
If owner: Since what year?

Did you buy it or inherit it or build it yourself?
Who did you buy / inherit from?
If renter: Since what year?
Who is the owner?
If just occupying: Since what year?
Do you haYe an aJreement with the owner?
Who is the owner?
175
4. For land before the earthquake (not camp): information regarding the land
Do you own, rent or just occupy the land (not owner, but not paying)?
Owner: Since what year?

Did you buy it or inherit the land? 2r other
e[planation?
Who did you buy / inherit from?
Renter: Since what year?
What Nind of rent ² normal or rent to buy?
Who is the owner of the land?
If just occupying? Since what year?
Do you haYe an aJreement with the owner?
Who is the owner of the land?
5. People living in the house
a Do you haYe reJularly stayinJ Juests? <es No
b ,f yes how many on aYeraJe? 1 3 5 +

+ow much are the main e[penses per month? in +aitian dollars
c Where do the children spend the daytime?
6. Health
a Was anybody in your family sicN last weeN? <es No
b +ow many times did you eat yesterday? 1 3 +
c ,f times did you snacN? <es No
7. Transportation
a What Nind of transport do you use to Jet to worN? or whoeYer the main income earner is
WalN Tap tap Ta[i Bicycle Personal car / motorbiNe
b +ow much does it cost per day for this trip? in +aitian dollars enter number
c Where does your family do its shoppinJ?
,n Simon Pele Port-au-Prince downtown &ite Soleil &roi[ de Bouquets Delmas Tabarre
17
8. Economic activity
a Do you haYe worN? <es No
b ,f yes are you paid on a reJular basis? <es No Self-employed
c Do you pay income ta[? <es No
d Do you taNe out loans? <es No e ,f yes durinJ what times of the year?
-anuary )ebruary 0arch April 0ay
-une -uly AuJust September 2ctober
NoYember December All year
2ther e[plain .................................................................................
(lectricity &lothinJ
Transport 0edical costs
5ent and home maintenance School fees
)ood and drinNinJ water
9. Water and sanitation
a Where do you Jet water for cleaninJ? Well &ommunal tap paid &ommunal tap free
5ainwater catchment TrucN Buy in the marNet/stall 2ther e[plain .....................................................................
b Where do you Jet water for drinNinJ? Well &ommunal tap paid &ommunal tap free
5ainwater catchment TrucN Buy in the marNet/stall plastic sacNs or 5-Jallon bottles
2ther e[plain ....................................................................
c Who retrieYes the water? Woman 0an *irl Boy (lder
d +ow lonJ does it taNe? - 5 minutes 5 - 1 minutes 1 - 3 minutes 3 - minutes + minutes
e ,s there a toilet in the area? <es No
f Temporary Permanent
J +ow lonJ does it taNe to Jet there? /ess than 1 minute - 5 minutes + minutes
h priYate communal
i +ow many families do you share the toilet with? 1 family - 3 families - 5 families + families
+ow many times per month is JarbaJe collected in your neiJhbourhood? ..........................................
Who collects JarbaJe in your neiJhbourhood? ..................................................................................................
10. Disaster risk reduction
+aYe you eYer e[perienced...? )loodinJ )ire disaster (Yiction None

,f so how many times?
a Where did you Jo durinJ hurricanes before the earthquaNe?
b Where do you Jo durinJ bad weather now?
177
Roles of professionals in urban reconstruction8
Assessments / Risk mitigation
Architects Surveyors Planners Engineers

ProYide an assessment of Assess the Jeneral stocN (stimate Yulnerability relatinJ Assess the stability and
the way people build in the of buildinJs and proYide to the way land is used and Yulnerability of e[istinJ
area their use of dwellinJs costs of mitiJatinJ potential settlements buildinJs and structures particularly Yital
community facilities and disaster impacts by infrastructure are located facilities identify failure
other buildinJs can help strenJtheninJ structures taNinJ into account climate modes and consequences.
pinpoint historic and and planninJ alternatiYe chanJe impacts assess
culturally important buildinJs procedures and improYinJ potential access issues
at risN. reJulations. durinJ a disaster analyse the
effectiYeness of reJulations
and policies.
)acilitate community surYeys AdYise on the cost and ,dentify the risNs associated Specify structural
and adYise on the planninJ deliYery of ¶risN mitiJation· with areas adYise on risN- requirements and retroÀttinJ
of community shelters and particularly roles and reduction plan for quality measures to mitiJate disaster
dwellinJs. responsibilities of owners deYelopment in the riJht impacts identify post-disaster
and tenants of buildinJs and locations deYelop reJulations response mechanisms desiJn
assets marine surYeyors can that are practical and cost and implement risN-reduction
inform on enYironmental effectiYe to implement traininJ for communities in
resources to reduce risN in facilitate deYelopment of collaboration with social-
coastal areas. staNeholder partnerships and deYelopment professionals.
community consultation.
Disaster preparedness

ProYide adYice on buildinJ AdYise on the cost and /ocate settlements and deÀne Specify measures for
use in the eYent of ha]ard. deliYery of disaster- those most at risN adYise of proYidinJ temporary
preparedness measures. relocation measures before strenJtheninJ of e[istinJ
durinJ and after a disaster structures in the face of
transport planninJ for access ha]ards identify Yulnerable
in disaster situations. structures and measures
to be taNen in the eYent of
damaJe to the buildinJs
deYelop emerJency response
plans to proYide Yital serYices
water waste water transport
loJistics communications
power.
8 Adapted from 8niYersity of Westminster
178
Reconstruction

ProYide an assessment of &arry out buildinJ-condition Assess potential locations Structural surYeys of buildinJs
traditional patterns of use of surYeys includinJ assessment for interim settlements and infrastructure identify
space buildinJ materials and of Ney buildinJs and oYerall transitional dwellinJs and safe sites for settinJ up facili-
technoloJy worN as part of damaJe assessment capture Yital facilities in consultation ties establish safe and cost-ef-
social surYey teams. detailed information related with Ney staNeholders. fectiYe procedures for remoYal
to land ownership tenure of rubble and clearinJ sites
and reJistration. assess further enYironmental
risN in the near term.
Procure and analyse satellite WorN with surYeyors to re- 5elate mappinJ results to
imaJery to establish Yiew mappinJ and establish sources of Ney Yital serYices.
boundaries for planninJ and boundaries and proYide esti-
property-recoYery purposes. mates if not already aYailable
of land use transport and
access lines and water bodies
and the impact on them after
the disaster.
WorN with social- &arry out surYeys of land Access and proYide ProYide information on
deYelopment aJencies and property ownership information on population access and proYision of Ney
to carry out surYeys with at the Jround leYel reYiew households social and Yital serYices.
community Jroups and construction sNills in the local economic actiYity and
households for which shelter community. carry out additional
needs to be proYided. participatory surYeys as
necessary consultation with
communities about their aims
and objectiYes.
,nterpret housinJ needs (Yaluate oYerall housinJ
assessment in particular with needs establishinJ the scale
reJard to issues related to and type of infrastructure
land title tenure and cost. and housinJ and land re-
quired for permanent hous-
inJ consider layout desiJn at
the settlement leYel.
&arry out land surYeys in AdYise on optimum ProYide enJineerinJ
consultation with planners locations for housinJ based assessment on suitability
and other specialists on economic social and of areas of permanent new
such as hydroloJists and enYironmental considerations deYelopment.
Jeotechnical scientists e.J. Áood risN and access to
identify in consultation with income-JeneratinJ actiYities
local communities and local identify in consultation with
authorities the e[chanJe local communities and local
purchase and transfer of land. authorities the e[chanJe
purchase and transfer of land.
17
Reconstruction (continued)

(stablish footprints of ProYide detailed contour StrateJic-leYel physical AdYise on ciYil worNs required
dwellinJs and other typical surYeys for planninJ planninJ and local area to implement the physical
and Ney buildinJs draw up purposes planninJ surYeyors planninJ location of plan.
local area layouts and site may be enJaJed to carry out buildinJs Ney facilities
planninJ in consultation site planninJ. transport routes and access
with communities and local e[istinJ and new.
authorities ensure oYerall
appropriateness to local
culture.
(stimate quantities and cost ,dentify Ney infrastructural SuperYise the remoYal
of rubble remoYal. issues and priorities for and clearinJ of sites
action. reclaim buildinJ material
householders may want to
claim material from their
indiYidual homes.
)ine-tune property (stablish with leJal
boundaries and ownership assistance a reJistry
proYide input into resolYinJ where one does not e[ist
conÁictinJ land-ownership resolYe ownership issues in
claims and the protection of consultation with authorities
community land riJhts from and communities.
commercial land Jrabs.
,mplement boundary/ AdYise on physical planninJ
cadastral surYey. and ¶intense· areas of
particular importance to
communities and local
authorities.
&arry out case-by-case
resolution dependinJ on the
nature of the dispute.
DesiJn and plan landscape ProYide baseline surYey Plan oYerall sitinJ of DesiJn and plan drainaJe
elements. information for planners and settlements and access and further ciYil worNs related
architects. routes and infrastructure to the physical plan.
be inYolYed in reJulatory
Juidance and enforcement.
WorN with households and Allocate housinJ in Allocate dwellinJs in
communities to ensure consultation with community the oYerall plan for each
that housinJ is allocated Jroups with reference to the settlement accordinJ to
appropriately accordinJ to structure of the compensation needs assessments.
needs and preferences. plan and procedure.
18
Reconstruction (continued)

AdYise on buildinJ-related ,mplement codes and Propose ways to monitor and AdYise on buildinJ and
reJulations. reJulations within the enforce reJulations adYise infrastructure reJulations.
conditions of leases and on lonJer-term policy and
ownerships. plan deYelopment to support
future risN reduction and
efÀcient reaction to risNs.
DesiJn and plan buildinJ tech- Assess capital costs as well as 0anaJe oYerall impact on DesiJn typical safety features
noloJy for dwellinJs includinJ lifetime costs of dwellinJs. use of serYices and transport in traditional buildinJs new
coYered open and semi-open etc. draw up and amend buildinJs and buildinJs to be
spaces and YeJetation aYoid local planninJ policies and retroÀtted.
desiJn faults that will require Juidelines to taNe account
costly and frequent mainte- of new housinJ and site-
nance and repair. planninJ requirements.
SuperYise and adYise as the SuperYise the buildinJs as ProYide bacNJround Train any Yolunteers and
buildinJs are constructed. they are constructed such information on by-laws professionals to ensure safety
that costs and quality are construction practices and standards are maintained.
maintained. compliance.
DeYelop interface between Publish desiJn Juidance on Publish information on DesiJn to meet demand and
infrastructure and buildinJs/ ownership and infrastructure land-taNe for near-site and other performance criteria
boundaries. and quality control. on-site facilities conÀrm that set out by the reconstruction
infrastructure meets demand as authority superYise and train
well as reJulation requirements professionals to ensure safety
deYelop inteJrated spatial standards are maintained.
strateJies/action plans.
ProYide traininJ in ProYide traininJ in condition ProYide traininJ in research ProYide traininJ in safe
construction retroÀttinJ and surYeys land surYeys costinJ and risN assessment when installation maintenance
maintenance of dwellinJs and and planninJ of projects. desiJninJ transitional and and upJrade of basic
non-dwellinJs. permanent settlements infrastructure enerJy water
monitor compliance with electrical waste and transport.
reJulations/policies.
2Yersee the deliYery of 0onitor quality and cost ProYide strateJic input ProYide technical input into
dwellinJs and community control of the deliYery into establishinJ aims project planninJ and identify
facilities with the assistance of dwellinJs/community and objectiYes of projects items that may delay or risN
of community Jroups and the facilities with the assistance priorities for action the project.
deliYery of facilities such as of community Jroups and for community consultation and
hospitals with speciÀc clients. facilities such as hospitals with planninJ at the settlement
speciÀc clients. leYel.
,dentify the contribution ,dentify complete capital cost ProYide bacNJround estimates 0onitor costs for retroÀttinJ
communities are maNinJ to as well as life-cycle analysis of of demand for fundinJ safety features in new
dwellinJs and non-dwellinJs costs identify other sources of required hiJhliJht chanJes buildinJs and ciYil worNs
and feed that into cost model. Ànance. in proJramme and projects associated with reconstruction.
adYise on locally Jenerated
reYenue.
181
Operation/Maintenance

5eYiew and reYisit dwellinJs 5eYiew and reYisit Periodically reYiew the de- Periodically reYiew the
and non-dwellinJs obserYinJ reconstruction sites mand for infrastructure and strenJth and stability of Ney
the way people are chanJinJ periodically and carry its capacity reYiew disaster buildinJs as well as dwellinJs
their lifestyles and habits out condition surYeys of preparedness plans in consul- and infrastructure serYices
in relation to the use of Ney buildinJs dwellinJs tation with local communities carry out further traininJ
buildinJs ensure safe and understandinJ operational monitor reJulations and com- if required to build a sNills
sustainable adaptations. costs and labour use. pliance to them and reYise if base.
necessary.
8ndertaNe life-cycle studies ([plore the cost-planninJ WorN with resident 8ndertaNe life-cycle studies
of reconstruction projects implications in life-cycle communities in reYiewinJ of infrastructure projects and
and plan for their eYentual studies of reconstruction and renewinJ plans for plan for their eYentual re-
replacement worN with projects and of new the lonJ-term sustainable placement worN with e[istinJ
e[istinJ communities to deYelopments that reduce deYelopment of disaster- communities to desiJn new
desiJn new deYelopments Yulnerability to ha]ards of affected or ha]ard-prone infrastructure deYelopments
that reduce their Yulnerability e[istinJ communities. settlements deYelop renewal that reduce their Yulnerability
to ha]ards. and reJeneration strateJy for to ha]ards carry out reJular
the settlement as a whole. checNs on safety of infra-
structure deYelopment and
maintenance of manaJement
plans.
AdYise on reducinJ AdYise on reducinJ and AdYise on maNinJ safety AdYise on cost-effectiYe
operational and manaJement serYicinJ debt by utilisinJ the reJulations cost less to retroÀttinJ e[tensions and
costs. Yalue of land and buildinJs to implement. safe new construction.
the fullest.
,dentify reJular houseNeepinJ (nsure repair and 0onitor any issues that
and maintenance procedures maintenance are obliJatory are leadinJ towards major
to aYoid major repair. and cost-effectiYe. repair of buildinJs or require
addressinJ to stop unsafe
construction.
(stimate operational costs 5aise awareness and &arry out reJular checNs
and ownership of repair and encouraJe education amonJ monitorinJ and traininJ of
maintenance. the Jeneral public enforce specialist worNers proYide
compliance where necessary. Juidance on infrastructure
maintenance proYision.
ProYide traininJ in buildinJ ProYide traininJ in ProYide traininJ in planninJ ProYide traininJ in safety
desiJn construction and cost-effectiYeness and for professionals in local and stability of the structures
e[tensions for professionals responsibility for maintenance authorities coYerinJ as well as in understandinJ
as well as communities. and manaJement. future risN assessment enYironmental risNs and risNs
and risN reduction when from construction practices.
planninJ deYelopments and
settlements.
18
A programme approach to urban neighbourhood recovery and permanent
housing reconstruction (American Red Cross)85
Situation
,n Port-au-Prince the pre-earthquaNe physical condition of many of the neiJhbourhoods was
weaN ha]ardous and/or inadequate. The earthquaNe e[acerbated an already Yulnerable situa-
tion and created neiJhbourhoods with considerable and e[tensiYe damaJe. )ormer residents
now liYe in dense spontaneous camps under plastic sheetinJ tents relatiYely close to their
damaJed homes so reunitinJ residents with their houses is Jenerally possible. The buildinJs
in these neiJhbourhoods are usually of one-storeyed concrete-blocN construction. (ach dam-
aJed buildinJ has been structurally e[amined and marNed either Jreen no siJniÀcant damaJe
yellow structurally sound but needs repair or red needs e[tensiYe reconstruction or should
be demolished. Based on this structural e[amination proJrammes are tarJetinJ the clean-up
of Jreen houses and repair of yellow houses.
Programme task outline

Task 1 ² DeÀne the neiJhbourhood The neiJhbourhood is deÀned both by physical boundaries
and afÀnity relationships these also set the boundaries for each project. The neiJhbourhood
should be larJely residential. ,nitial beneÀciary consideration should be JiYen to former resi-
dents but beneÀciary identiÀcation can be problematic. The ¶afÀnity· requirement is necessary
for community cohesion neiJhbourhood inYolYement and participation in the neiJhbourhood
desiJn function.
Task 2 ² SurYey and parcel map the neiJhbourhood 0appinJ is critical to the process. ,t is
necessary to accurately establish land riJhts for the project aJree the parcel boundaries before
demolition and proYide a basis for the settlement desiJn particularly for improYinJ road access
to land and drainaJe. ,n addition the mappinJ process must not create a parallel ciYil land
system but aim to Àll in the Japs of the e[istinJ system. The process will be participatory by
inYolYinJ members of the community. This mappinJ actiYity must be undertaNen in partnership
with local JoYernment and the national JoYernment·s land reJistration ofÀce in order to merJe
new plot information into the +aitian ciYil land system when such a system is established.
Task 3 ² Assess the road and drainaJe needs 5oads are important as they often form the
storm-water sewer and sanitation sewer systems of the settlement. 5oads are also necessary for
construction loJistics as well as proYidinJ a useful liYelihoods Yehicle. &rushed rubble is used
as the road base as well as the curbs Jutters and drainaJe channels. The Ànal road surface if
any could be constructed from crushed rubble to create paYinJ bricNs a common road surface
in +aiti. This approach has Jood liYelihoods potential.
Task 4 ² ,dentify the houses red to be demolished and Ànalise desiJns for the replacement
of buildinJs 5ed houses Jenerally will be replaced with similar houses. DesiJn chanJes may
be necessary throuJh consultation with the neiJhbourhood desiJn process. All desiJn worN
would be done in participation with the community and home-owners.
183
Task 5 ² Start rubble remoYal demolition and clean-up There needs to be a rubble plan that
inteJrates with other tasNs in the oYerall proJramme and with the phases and sequencinJ of
these actiYities. /arJe rubble deposits need to be remoYed immediately. Smaller rubble piles
that do not interfere with the oYerall proJramme need to be cleared throuJh a cash-for-worN
proJramme if possible.
Task 6 ² (stablish the neiJhbourhood desiJn plan &reate the ¶master· plan for the neiJhbour-
hood. This process may inYolYe re-parcellinJ land swaps and reconÀJurations. 5oads and
drainaJe are important factors. &ommunity participation is critical and the initial parcel map
is mandatory. The objectiYe is to deYelop the best neiJhbourhood desiJn realistically possible
within the conte[t. This actiYity will set the tone for the community for the ne[t 3 to 5 years.
Task 7 ² Assess and specify the completion worN needed on the Jreen houses and the repair
worN on the yellow houses and conduct repair worN WhateYer worN is needed to brinJ the
Jreen and yellow houses to the ¶Ànal· permanent home status as established by the proJramme
would be speciÀed scheduled and done. The proJramme enYisions ¶core· repair. That is build-
inJs would be completed to a structurally sound safe and habitable condition. )inishinJ worN
such as plasterinJ walls addinJ interior doors paintinJ and other amenities would be the
responsibility of the home-owner as their resources allow. )or this ÀnishinJ proJramme ¶owner
driYen· assistance would be proYided for up to 18 months after the construction proJramme
ends. 5epairs would be in accordance with the 0inistry of Public WorNs repair Juidelines. The
housinJ status of the home-owner would be equiYalent to their housinJ status before the
earthquaNe plus qualiÀed improYements.
Task 8 ² Assess water and sanitation needs ,n a settlement situation one has to looN at the
cumulatiYe effect of all the latrines and waste water. Since one cannot haYe sanitation without
water water and sanitation are a mandatory interYention in settlement deYelopment.
Task 9 ² Determine the e[tent to which the proJramme will need TraininJ proJrammes for
tradesmen home maintenance proJrammes for home-owners disaster risN-reduction pro-
Jrammes and community health proJrammes and implementation proJrammes. /ocal labour
contractors and tradesmen will be used wheneYer possible. Where necessary tarJeted traininJ
proJrammes will be proYided. The other listed proJrammes are standard American 5ed &ross
community interYentions.
Task 10 ² (stablish a rubble-processinJ site within the community 5ubble will be crushed on site
and can be used for road substrates aJJreJate wall footers where walls are not load-bearinJ
paYinJ bricNs and aJJreJate for plaster Ànishes. 5ubble not used would be handled in accord-
ance with the rubble-remoYal proJramme of the ,nterim +aiti 5econstruction &ommission.
Task 11 ² Decide on material manufacture if any and how to maintain buildinJ material qual-
ity control This tasN is formulated dependinJ on the characteristics of the project and the
e[tent to which liYelihoods components are included. There are a number of potential options
includinJ local factory quality-assistance proJrammes which could be part of an economic
recoYery proJramme.
Task 12 ² Start housinJ rehabilitation 0any of the approaches and methodoloJies that are
currently beinJ used on the Jreen-yellow shelter-repair proJrammes would be included into
the standard community-assistance proJramme approach.
18
Summary of design principles for safety (for small buildings only)8
Designing for earthquake resistance Designing for wind resistance
Select a solid site. AYoid landÀlls Áood plains and steep Select a sheltered site.
slopes.
AYoid lonJ and narrow metres streets.
0aNe buildinJs liJht to reduce the hori]ontal forces caused
Position houses in a staJJered way rather than in rows.
by earthquaNes.
&reate wind-breaNs by plantinJ trees hedJes etc.
0aNe roofs liJht to aYoid them pushinJ walls sideways and
0aNe buildinJs heaYy so it is more difÀcult for the wind to
fallinJ in on people.
blow them away.
DesiJn compact buildinJs with a symmetrical shape and
8se a compact shape with low walls to present minimum
closely spaced walls in both directions. ,f that cannot be
obstruction to winds.
done desiJn them in separate blocNs.
8se a hipped roof pitched at 3 to 5 deJrees with small
Separate adjacent small buildinJs by at least 7.5 centimetres.
eaYes to preYent uplift. AYoid Jables as they may be pushed
AYoid Jables as they may fall inwards. inwards.
,f buildinJs haYe more than one Áoor opt for similar Áoor ,f a Yeranda is required separate Yeranda frame and coYerinJ
shapes and desiJns. from the main roof.
Position the foundations on rocN or Àrm soil. AYoid stepped Tie rooÀnJ sheets well to the roof frame ÁyinJ sheets can be
foundations. lethal. ,n the case of JalYanised corruJated iron *&, sheet
rooÀnJ proYide oYerlaps of .5 corruJations and more-
ProYide stronJ joints between structural components. 8se a
closely spaced ¶8· bolts alonJ ridJes and e[ternal walls.
rinJ beam and a plinth beam where possible use bracinJ at
corners. 5einforce structural connections with ¶hurricane straps·.
,f masonry walls are used create Jood bond especially at 0aNe solid foundations well anchored to the Jround.
corners and intersections.
ProYide stronJ structural joints and fi[inJs especially
,f concrete pillars are used lap Yertical reinforcements mid- between walls and foundations and walls and roof. 8se
way between Áoors and not just aboYe Áoors. diaJonal bracinJ.
.eep openinJs to a minimum well distributed oYer the *iYe walls a rouJh Ànish to reduce wind suction.
buildinJ and within walls. .eep them centrally positioned
Position openinJs centrally and away from corners and
at least centimetres away from the inside of corners and
intersections. ProYide openinJs on both sides of rooms so
intersections and from the nearest other openinJ.
that the wind can eYentually pass throuJh rather than lift
the roof.
(nsure all windows can be closed. AYoid louYres ² if they are
essential proYide storm shutters or board them up before
storms.
1 P&5 Tool 8 ² Participatory DesiJn
185
Designing to cope with landslides 'HVLJQLQJWRFRSHZLWKÁRRGV
AYoid buildinJ on steep slopes and do not maNe steep cuts AYoid sites close to riYers and other waterways that are
in slopes to maNe space for infrastructure or housinJ Neep Nnown to Áood.
any cuts shallow as steep cuts may become unstable.
ProYide for Jood site drainaJe and Jood waste manaJe-
Drain slopes well as they can become unstable and lose ment as waste may blocN waterways.
bearinJ capacity when soaNed. )or the same reason aYoid
Plan for measures such as small dams or Jabions that can
the use of ¶soaNaways· e.J. for sanitary systems or used
reduce the speed of water.
household water on slopes. 8se stepped drains to reduce
the speed of downward Áow of water. Plan any new infrastructure Yery carefully. Some such as
road or railway embanNments may haYe deYastatinJ effects
AYoid blocNinJ natural drainaJe ways with buildinJs or
by redirectinJ Áood waters.
infrastructure.
/ift buildinJs onto stilts or raised platforms ² where the latter
AYoid stepped buildinJs where possible. &reate terraces for
is used a larJer platform for a cluster of houses is preferable
small buildinJs but aYoid deep cuts and Àlls. .eep any inÀll
oYer sinJle platforms to reduce the effect of erosion.
at the lower end to a minimum and stabilise this well.
ProYide deep foundations that Neep buildinJs in place eYen
Plan for construction of retaininJ walls to retain the slope
in stronJ currents eYentually include a rinJ beam at plinth
aboYe terraces and any inÀll at the lower end.
leYel. The minimum depth should be millimetres in solid
5educe erosion by plantinJ appropriate YeJetation on soils ² if stones are used select anJular not round ones.
slopes.
AYoid the use of soil in foundations or walls that may be
reached by flood waters. These lower sections of walls
should be made of more durable materials that can resist
the shocNs of debris ÁoatinJ in water.
Protect orJanic materials such as timber and bamboo from
the effects of humidity.
18
$VVHVVPHQWRIVWUHQJWKRIQDWXUDOVRLOVQRWÀOOVRURUJDQLFFOD\VVLOWV87
The tables below proYide Juidance reJardinJ how to assess the strenJth of natural clay or sand
soils. Also included is an assessment of the allowable bearinJ pressures for shallow foundations
on natural clay or sand.
These are appro[imate Yalues and will need to be determined by a site surYey in order to desiJn
the foundation. A site enJineer should always proYide adYice on allowable foundation pressures.
5ocN soil is Jenerally acceptable for foundations of buildinJs that are only up to two Áoors hiJh.
Cohesive soils (clay)

Consistency Field assessment of soil Typical values of allowable
strength bearing pressure (kN/m2)
9ery stiff ,ndented by thumbnail ! 3
brittle or Yery touJh
Stiff ,ndented by thumb pressure 15 ² 3
cannot be moulded in
ÀnJers
)irm 0oulded by stronJ ÀnJer 75 ² 15
pressure
Soft 0oulded by liJht ÀnJer 35 ² 75
pressure
Soils that are not cohesive (sand and/or gravel)

Consistency Field assessment of soil Typical values of allowable
strength bearing pressure (kN/m2)
Dense +iJh resistance to ! 35
penetration by handlebar or
picN a[e
0edium dense DifÀcult to e[caYate by 1 ² 35
shoYel
/oose (asily e[caYated by shoYel ² 1
only small resistance to
penetration by handlebar
87 Adapted from Patel D. Patel D. Pindoria .. 1
187
Basics on material testing methods
0ost countries haYe established quality standards for buildinJ materials and in some cases pro-
ducers of materials are required to proYide certiÀcates which proYe that the standards are met.
8nfortunately it is quite common for such certiÀcates to lacN YeriÀcation or eYen to be falsiÀed
as is often the case of e.J. certiÀed timber. ,t is recommended that the quality of construc-
tion materials be assessed wheneYer their oriJin and quality are in doubt. Below are a few tips
about how to assess materials when testinJ facilities are not aYailable.
The recyclinJ of materials can be a cheap and easy way of ÀndinJ construction materials and
is Jenerally a Jood enYironmental practice. The quality of recycled materials howeYer should
always be YeriÀed as eYen hiJh-quality construction materials may be damaJed in disaster
situations.
Cement
When cement is rubbed between ÀnJers and thumb it should feel liNe a smooth powder
such as Áour.
&hecN the cement for any lumps and remoYe them.
NeYer use cement that has been stored for more than si[ months.
Concrete blocks
*ood-quality concrete blocNs are produced and stored under a sunshade and haYe a cement-
to-aJJreJate mi[ ratio of 1²8 with clean raw materials sand JraYel drinNinJ-quality water
and fresh cement.
BlocNs should be properly cured for 1 days and handled with care until used for masonry
worN.
Fired bricks
The quality of a bricN is Jood if there is a clear rinJinJ sound when two bricNs are strucN
toJether.
A bricN should not breaN when dropped Áat on hard Jround from a heiJht of one metre.
A Jood Àred bricN has a surface so hard that a ÀnJernail cannot scratch it.
188
Sand and aggregates
Dirty sand should neYer be used in masonry worN because it will reduce the mortar·s adhesiYe
quality considerably.
To checN whether sand is suitably clean use the hand test
5ub a sand sample between damp hands. &lean sand will leaYe the hands only sliJhtly
stained.
2r use the bottle test

)ill a bottle halfway up with sand. Add clean water until the bottle is three-quarters full.
ShaNe the bottle thorouJhly and leaYe it for one hour. &lean sand will settle immediately.
Silt and clay will settle slowly on top of the sand. The thicNness of the clay and silt layers
should not equal more than ten per cent of the sand layer·s thicNness.
Sand from the sea is unsuitable for mortar as it contains salts which neJatiYely inÁuence
the mortar·s moisture and oYerall quality.
Water
Water should be of drinNinJ-water quality and haYe no pronounced taste or smell.
Seawater should not be used.
5ainwater collected from roofs can be used for mi[inJ mortar or concrete.
Water mi[ed with any Nind of oil should not be used for mi[inJ mortar or concrete.
Water should be stored carefully to preYent it from becominJ contaminated.
18
Annex V: Contacts
Skat – Swiss Resource Centre and Consultancies for Development

9adianstrasse
&+- St.*allen
Swit]erland
Tel +1 71 8 55

www.skat.ch
&ontact &laudia Schneider [email protected]
IFRC – International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

&hemin de &rets 17
1 Petit-Saconne[ *eneYa
Swit]erland
Tel +1 73 81

www.ifrc.org
&ontact Sandra D·8r]o [email protected]
1
11
About this handbook Programme preparation Programme commencement Construction phase Annexes
1 Needs assessment and analysis 2 Methodological approach 3 Who is involved? 4 Preparation 5 Planning and design process 6 Infrastructure 7 Implementation 8 Monitoring and risk reduction
Introduction
What is the scope of the handbook? Roles and How to identify and Water supply system Annex I: References
General Types of approaches Authorities Settlement planning Technical aspects Water supply Demolition and debris Controlled demolition Quality control
responsibilities select beneficiaries options
Technical experts Environmental aspects Assessment of water Debris re-use
Who is the handbook for? Community action plan supply infrastructure Regular monitoring and Annex II: Further reading
Community assessment Selection of approach Social mobilisation
Civil society (CAP) Socio-economic aspects Planning reconstruction Technical reference evaluation (M&E)
of water supply centres
How should it be used? Regulatory aspects infrastructure Annex III: Links
Damage assessment Interim arrangements Resettlement packages Organisational set-up Maintenance
Reuse of
Principles of Sanitation Sanitation options
What does it include? Host families temporary shelters
Programme planning housing design Annex IV: Practical checklists
Land assessment Mapping Situation assessment and Disaster risk reduction Basic considerations
definition of objectives
Permanent solutions Relocation Building conversions
Legal status Land survey and Building form Technical aspects Planning reconstruction Roles and responsibilities Annex V: Contacts
of sanitation in disaster preparedness
Overview Participatory Cash-based solutions acquisition infrastructure
Economic aspects Community based
enumeration Retrofitting and repairs
Material-based solutions risk assessment
Why focus on the urban context? Site selection Technical aspects Socio-cultural aspects Drainage Basic considerations
Environmental impact PASSA - Participatory
assessment Approach to Safe Shelter
Participatory approaches Social aspects Regulatory aspects Technological options Construction materials Environmental aspects Awareness
Urban risks
Legal aspects Reconstruction planning Technical aspects Vulnerability analysis
Institutional assessment
Principles of sustainable reconstruction Cross-cutting principles Gender-sensitive
in the urban context programming Economic aspects Contingency plans
Roads Basic considerations
Further assessments Elderly, disabled or Communication and
chronically ill Socio-cultural aspects
Planning disaster preparedness
Livelihoods Regulatory and
Institutional aspects
Data quality Solid waste management Basic considerations
Use of information
technology Construction
Technical aspects On-site construction
technologies
Environmental aspects Prefabrication
Institutional aspects
Construction elements Foundation
Social aspects
Supporting frames
Other urban Floors

Electricity / Energy
infrastructure
Social infrastructure Site management Walls
Windows, doors and

other openings
Construction waste
management Roofs
0ore frequently towns and urban aJJlomerations are
affected by natural disasters. /arJe cities and meJa-cities
concentrate and maJnify risN but smaller cities also suffer
from e[posure to multiple risNs. Therefore inYolYement
in reconstruction and rehabilitation efforts in urban and
peri-urban areas has become increasinJly siJnificant.
)ield-focused Juidance for practitioners and decision-
maNers on Ney issues to inform current transitional
shelter proJramminJ and the initiation of reconstruction
and repair proJrammes in the urban conte[t is crucial
to ensure a sustainable recoYery. There are Yarious
reconstruction manuals aYailable ² yet most of them
focus only on rural areas. &onsequently Swiss 5esource
&entre and &onsultancies for DeYelopment SNat and
the ,nternational )ederation of the 5ed &ross and 5ed
&rescent ,)5& haYe compiled these Juidelines with a
focus on the urban conte[t.
,SBN 78-3-815-17-8

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Sustainable Reconstruction in Urban Areas

Programme preparation .........................................................................................................................

1. Needs assessment and analysis ...............................................................................................

2. Methodological approach ..........................................................................................................8

Programme commencement ................................................................................................................

3. Who is involved? .............................................................................................................................

Construction phase ..................................................................................................................................1

8. Monitoring and risk reduction ................................................................................................18

Annex I: References ..........................................................................................................................1

This publication sets a milestone in this direction.

*raham 6aunders -rJ &hristen

ProMect &oordinator 6andra D·8r]o 6helter and 6ettlements Department ,)5&

$&) $ction &ontre la )aim

Apartment tenant 2ccupant who rents the apartment formally or informally.

Disaster A serious disruption of the functioninJ of a community or a society causinJ widespread

*,S A computer system capable of assemblinJ storinJ manipulatinJ and displayinJ

8sers The beneÀciaries and residents of reconstructed housinJ.

Earthquake damage in Bhuj, India (2001) Earthquake damage in Haiti (2010)

The objectiYes of the handbooN are to

Who is the handbook for?

3 Adapted from 8niYersity of :estminster 

How should it be used?

What does it include?

6LJQLÀFDQFHRIWKHXUEDQFRQWH[W &onsiders why the focus is on the urban.

Sustainable reconstruction DeÀnes the principles and elements required to achieYe a

 Adapted from A85AN 7

7 Adapted from Abhas .. -. 

 There is increased incidence of informal housinJ located in hiJh-risN areas.

Principles of sustainable reconstruction in the urban context

1 Adapted from Abhas .. -. 

Reconstruction and sustainable urban development11

 Assessment of locally available skills and capacities for reconstruction

 Vulnerability and capacity assessment 9&A of the community

 PASSA Participatory Approach for Safe Shelter Awareness

 Assessment of potential constraints on schedulinJ of reconstruction measurements durinJ

1 Adapted from 5ed5 in 2[fam 8

 Are there any other risNs besides those

Vulnerable groups should always be included in the community-assessment process. 9ulner-

1.3 Damage assessment

1 Adapted from Abhas .. -. 

1.4 Land assessment

 supportinJ international standards for leJal adjudication of riJhts to pre-disaster land

 deYelopinJ administratiYe functions to brinJ coher-

Remote sensing after the earthquake in Haiti 201017 &ase study

17 The :orld %anN/,nternational %anN of 5econstruction and DeYelopment 1

,n addition to the improYement in access to remote sensinJ data improYements in information

Geographical information system (GIS)

)ollowinJ the 1 +aiti earthquaNe 2penStreet-

1.4.2 Legal status

Plot Picture  Ownership :ho claims to own the land ² JoYern-

Categories before the disaster

POST-DISASTER NON- POST-DISASTER DISPLACED

SETTLEMENT TYPOLOGIES SETTLEMENT TYPOLOGIES

House Apartment Dispersed self- Short-term

Apartment Hosting by Collective

&ase study Participatory enumeration, Haiti1

The speciÀc +aitian land administration conte[t is characterised by a lacN of accurate or

)or the state

1 Adapted from &+) ,nternational 1

Programme preparation .........................................................................................................................

1. Needs assessment and analysis ...............................................................................................

2. Methodological approach ..........................................................................................................8

Programme commencement ................................................................................................................

3. Who is involved? .............................................................................................................................

Construction phase ..................................................................................................................................1

8. Monitoring and risk reduction ................................................................................................18

Annex I: References ..........................................................................................................................1

*raham 6aunders -rJ &hristen

ProMect &oordinator 6andra D·8r]o 6helter and 6ettlements Department ,)5&

Apartment tenant 2ccupant who rents the apartment formally or informally.

Disaster A serious disruption of the functioninJ of a community or a society causinJ widespread

*,S A computer system capable of assemblinJ storinJ manipulatinJ and displayinJ

The objectiYes of the handbooN are to

3 Adapted from 8niYersity of :estminster

6LJQLÀFDQFHRIWKHXUEDQFRQWH[W &onsiders why the focus is on the urban.

Sustainable reconstruction DeÀnes the principles and elements required to achieYe a

Adapted from A85AN 7

7 Adapted from Abhas .. -.

There is increased incidence of informal housinJ located in hiJh-risN areas.

1 Adapted from Abhas .. -.

Assessment of locally available skills and capacities for reconstruction

Vulnerability and capacity assessment 9&A of the community

PASSA Participatory Approach for Safe Shelter Awareness

Assessment of potential constraints on schedulinJ of reconstruction measurements durinJ

1 Adapted from 5ed5 in 2[fam 8

Are there any other risNs besides those

1 Adapted from Abhas .. -.

supportinJ international standards for leJal adjudication of riJhts to pre-disaster land

deYelopinJ administratiYe functions to brinJ coher-

17 The :orld %anN/,nternational %anN of 5econstruction and DeYelopment 1

,n addition to the improYement in access to remote sensinJ data improYements in information

)ollowinJ the 1 +aiti earthquaNe 2penStreet-

Plot Picture Ownership :ho claims to own the land ² JoYern-

&ase study Participatory enumeration, Haiti1

)or the state

1 Adapted from &+) ,nternational 1

The data capturinJ process is illustrated below

&onsolidate spatial data household data and

. Post-enumeration process/practical use of data

*enerally an (,A consists of three steps

StaNeholder 1 StaNeholder StaNeholder 3

5 Adapted from Abhas .. -.

Adapted from Abhas .. -.

7 Adapted from Abhas .. -.

8 5ed &ross 5ed &rescent Societies 11

Host family support programme in Haiti &ase study

5ed &ross 5ed &rescent Societies 11

3 The Sphere Project 11

31 DiPretoro S. 11

3 Adapted from )orsman 1

Post-earthquake reconstruction in the city of Bhuj, Gujarat, India3

Steps in deYelopment of the plan included

selectinJ reliable and sNilled local partners

conÀrminJ aYailable budJet

selectinJ the location and tarJet Jroup community.

selectinJ a multidisciplinary team accordinJ to the proJramme·s objectiYes includinJ

aJreeinJ on decision-maNinJ procedures

establishinJ ofÀce manaJement budJet

openinJ a banN account.

3 Adapted from Abhas .. -.

,dentify/select the community representatiYes to participate in the &AP. There should be at

&arry out the aJreed follow-ups.

&ommunicate the results of the &AP worNshop to the releYant staNeholders.

Adapted from 5ed5 in 2[fam 8