Assessment of Jaundice in The Hospitalized Patient PDF
Assessment of Jaundice in The Hospitalized Patient PDF
Assessment of Jaundice in The Hospitalized Patient PDF
KEYWORDS
! Jaundice ! Cholestasis ! Hyperbilirubinemia ! Benign postoperative jaundice
! Cholestasis of sepsis
KEY POINTS
! Jaundice signifies a disorder in bilirubin metabolism.
! A thorough assessment of the clinical history and physical exam findings together with
laboratory analysis and imaging studies are required to determine the cause of jaundice.
! The clinician must be able to recognize which conditions associated with jaundice warrant
urgent endoscopy or evaluation for liver transplantation.
OVERVIEW
Jaundice originates from the Latin word “galbinus,” which describes a yellow-green
color. Icterus comes from the Greek word “ikteros,” which meant both yellow bird
and jaundice; historically, yellow birds were used as a “cure” for jaundice.1 However,
it has since come to be understood that jaundice is not a disease but rather a feature of
disordered bilirubin metabolism that often signifies liver dysfunction. In general, the
yellow discoloration occurs as a result of bilirubin deposition in the sclerae, mucosa,
and skin when levels rise higher than 3 mg/dL.2 Management is aimed at identifying
and addressing the cause of the dysregulation in bilirubin metabolism.
Jaundice in the hospitalized patient is not an uncommon consultation for the general
gastroenterologist. The National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey analyzed
more than 1 billion emergency department visits from 1995 to 2004 and found that
400,000 patients had a diagnosis of jaundice. Nearly 50% of these were older than
age 15; certainly the frequency and cause of jaundice depends on the patient popu-
lation being studied.3
Disclosures: None.
a
Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of California, San Francisco, 513
Parnassus Avenue, Med Sci Room S-356, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; b Division of Gastroen-
terology and Hepatology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 Southwest Sam Jackson
Park Road, Portland, OR 97239–3098, USA
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected]
PATHOGENESIS
More than 75% of bilirubin is made from senescent red blood cell (RBC) breakdown in
the reticuloendothelial system, with the remaining coming from ineffective RBC pro-
duction or heme proteins, such as myoglobin and cytochrome enzymes.2,4 Hepato-
cytes take up and conjugate this bilirubin within the sinusoids before excretion in
the biliary tree.
Unconjugated bilirubin is fat-soluble, allowing it to cross the blood-brain barrier. In
the newborn, it is this unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia that can lead to kernicterus.
Unconjugated bilirubin becomes conjugated via the glucuronosyltransferase enzyme;
in this form, the bilirubin becomes soluble in bile. Conjugated bilirubin can then be
transported to the gallbladder where it is stored, transported to the duodenum to be
excreted in stool, or converted into urobilinogen and excreted via the kidney
(Fig. 1). The components of bile are integral for fat metabolism, absorption of fat-
soluble vitamins, and excretion of bilirubin and its waste products.
It is postulated that bile flow can be altered by specific cytokines (tumor necrosis
factor-a, interleukin-1 and -6) by upregulating expression of intercellular adhesion
molecules, which in turn alters bile flow.5 Bile flow can also be affected by endotoxins
and exotoxins that are associated with infections or inflammatory states. Thus it is not
surprising that common causes of hyperbilirubinemia encompass various viral and
bacterial infectious etiologies.
Highlights:
! Bilirubin is produced by senescent RBC breakdown, ineffective RBC production,
and heme proteins
! The enzyme glucuronosyltransferase conjugates bilirubin, which is then con-
verted to urobilinogen in the liver before being stored or excreted in the bile ducts
! Bile flow can be altered by cytokines in inflammatory states
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
Rather than providing an exhaustive differential, this article focuses on the most com-
mon conditions and those diagnoses that should not be missed.
of the biliary tree. Bilomas may develop after cholecystectomy or other intra-
abdominal procedures and can result in external compression of the biliary tree.9
Major Points:
! Choledocholithiasis and biliary strictures can lead to extrahepatic cholestasis
Box 1
Various medications known to cause drug-induced liver injury
fibrosis and cirrhosis. Patients with new-onset jaundice with underlying chronic liver
disease should be evaluated as to the cause of their decompensation, such as infec-
tion, development of hepatocellular carcinoma, or cholangiocarcinoma, in addition to
the common causes of acute liver injury described previously. In addition, DILI por-
tends a worse prognosis in patients with underlying chronic liver disease.
Infiltrative diseases
Although these conditions can also become chronic, they present with more of a
cholestatic process than hepatocellular injury; the first clinical symptom is often jaun-
dice. Malignancies (primarily lymphomas), amyloidosis, tuberculosis, various vasculit-
ides, sarcoidosis, granulomatous hepatitis, and stricturing biliary diseases are among
those diseases known to infiltrate the liver that must be considered in patients pre-
senting with jaundice.
Major Points:
! Acute liver failure entails acute liver injury with signs of coagulopathy
! DILI is one of the more common causes of acute liver injury. Several medications
have been implicated (see Box 1)
! Chronic and infiltrative liver diseases can lead to jaundice depending on the
extent and severity of underlying condition
Cholestasis of sepsis
Cholestasis of sepsis was first described in 1836 after a patient with sepsis related to
lobar pneumonia presented with jaundice.24 Since then, it has become a well-
recognized condition thought to occur secondary to abnormalities in the breakdown
of bilirubin itself caused by hepatocyte dysfunction or from an excess of bilirubin pro-
duction (Box 3). In the patient with sepsis, excess bilirubin production may be second-
ary to cholestasis, ischemia from prolonged hypotension or hypoxia, or direct
hepatocellular injury. Depending on the antibiotics used for management of sepsis,
superimposed DILI is not uncommon and can potentiate hepatic injury. Sulfa drugs,
penicillin derivatives, and cephalosporins in particular have been implicated in this
setting.16
Box 2
Questions for the clinician to consider in patients with postoperative jaundice
Box 3
Mechanisms leading to cholestasis of sepsis
1. Ischemia/hypoperfusion
2. Hepatocellular injury
3. Drug-induced liver injury
4. Hemolysis, toxin production
Prognosis is excellent for the mother without associated mortality, although the pru-
ritus can be especially burdensome closer to term.35 Ursodeoxycholic acid is a preg-
nancy category B drug, and is widely used to ameliorate the symptoms of pruritus.
Cholestyramine and antihistamines, such as hydroxyzine, must be used with caution
because they are pregnancy category C drugs and may lead to vitamin K malabsorp-
tion and neonatal withdrawal syndrome, respectively. However, fetal demise has been
reported at 11% in some studies and is thought to be caused by cardiac conduction
abnormalities and arrythmias that may occur as unexcreted bile salts cross the
placenta.28,36,37 Thus, fetal monitoring is often performed more frequently in the last
trimester in this patient population and labor is often induced at the first sign of fetal
distress or by 37 weeks.32,38
Post–bone marrow transplant syndromes
Despite strides made in the treatment of hematologic malignancies, the liver can
become affected by the side effects of induction therapies, such as high-dose chemo-
therapy and radiation used before allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation
(HSCT). Veno-occlusive disease (VOD) is thought to occur about 20 to 30 days after
HSCT and has an incidence of 10% to 60% depending on the type and dosage of con-
ditioning regimen.39
Although the exact inciting event that leads to VOD is unclear, some degree of dam-
age occurs in the hepatic venules that eventually leads to obliteration and necrosis of
the centrilobular zones of the liver. Because the sinusoidal endothelial cells are more
often affected than hepatic venules, it was proposed that the name be changed from
VOD to sinusoidal obstruction syndrome (SOS); hence, these two terms are often used
interchangeably.40
Patients who have had prior HSCT, who received abdominal irradiation or condition-
ing regimens with busulfan/melphalan, or who have known underlying liver diseases
are more likely to develop VOD/SOS complications post-HSCT. These patients gener-
ally present with jaundice, abdominal pain from capsular stretching caused by hepa-
tomegaly, and fluid retention or ascites as outflow obstruction ensues.41 Bilirubin
levels are generally greater than 2 mg/dL. Diagnosis is generally made clinically and
generally liver biopsy is unnecessary. Treatment is supportive and aimed at symptom
control: diuretics and salt restriction and removal of any potential hepatotoxic agents
are key.
VOD/SOS can be difficult to distinguish from acute graft-versus-host disease
(GVHD) that generally occurs 3 weeks post-HSCT as engraftment ensues. In addi-
tion to cholestasis, GVHD patients generally have hepatocellular injury as evi-
denced by elevated serum aminotransferases. Unlike VOD/SOS, GVHD rarely
causes liver injury alone and causes more systemic symptoms; these patients
often have intestinal or skin manifestations that can help to distinguish this con-
dition.42 Transjugular liver biopsy may be useful to distinguish VOD/SOS from
GVHD if the diagnosis is unclear because the treatment of the latter involves
more aggressive immunosuppressive regimens that would be ineffective for the
former diagnosis.43
Major Points:
! Acute cholangitis: Underlying choledocholithiasis, stricturing disease, or malig-
nancies altering bile flow can lead to cholangitis and often require emergent
ERCP
! Benign postoperative jaundice: Gilbert syndrome, liver hypoperfusion intraoper-
atively, massive blood transfusions perioperatively, and various anesthetics can
lead to isolated hyperbilirubinemia
Assessment of Jaundice in the Hospitalized Patient 163
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
A careful history with a thorough review of systems and physical examination help aid in
the diagnosis of jaundice in the hospitalized patient. Chopra and Griffin44 reported, “The
diagnosis of jaundiced caused by extrahepatic biliary obstruction can be made with
90% accuracy from results of only the medical history, physical examination, and routine
laboratory tests.” Pasanen and coworkers45 studied 220 patients with jaundice and
created a diagnostic scoring system (using duration of jaundice, serum protein levels,
age, and presence of fevers) to help compare the sensitivity and specificity of clinical
evaluation and imaging modalities; clinical evaluation alone had a sensitivity of 86%
without adding any other studies to help aid in the diagnosis. Although clinical history
and examination plays a large role in diagnosing the cause of the jaundice, laboratory
markers and imaging studies can provide further insight on the underlying pathology.
History
The clinical presentation of jaundice can vary from being an incidental finding with mild
scleral icterus to overt discoloration throughout the body. When evaluating a patient
with jaundice, the timing of symptoms and the rate of development of jaundice can
be essential in making the diagnosis. The presence of abdominal pain or symptoms
may point toward choledocholithiasis.
In addition, the clinician should ask in detail about alcohol and drug use, the route of
drug administration, use of any over-the-counter medications or herbal remedies, sex-
ual and travel histories, tattoos and in what type of setting they were placed, history of
prior blood transfusions, prior surgeries, presence of similar symptoms previously,
and any significant family history. It is important to assess for underlying chronic liver dis-
ease and/or occult cirrhosis and the possibility of undiagnosed congenital liver diseases.
A thorough review of symptoms with special consideration to constitutional symp-
toms, color of urine and stool, weight loss, pruritus, abdominal pain, and associated
arthralgias and malaise can help provide clues to distinguishing between the possible
etiologies of the jaundice (Box 4).
Major Points:
! It is essential to understand the rate of development of jaundice and timing of
symptoms to help establish the underlying diagnosis
! A detailed social and medication history can help provide clues as to the
diagnosis
Box 4
Key findings in the history that may point toward a certain diagnosis
Infectious etiology: Fevers, chills, fatigue, nausea and vomiting, acute-onset jaundice
Noninfectious etiology: Pruritus, weight loss, abdominal pain
Autoimmune etiology: Arthralgias, malaise, fatigue, slow-onset jaundice
164 Kathpalia & Ahn
Physical Examination
Certain findings on the physical examination alone can help determine the severity and
cause of the underlying liver disease. For example, the clinician may perform a more
extensive work-up for chronic liver disease if spider angiomata, palmar erythema,
Dupuytren contractures, ascites, caput medusa, or clubbing are observed on exami-
nation. If Wilson disease is suspected, an ophthalmologic consultation should be ob-
tained to look for Kayser-Fleischer rings or sunflower cataracts. Hyperpigmentation of
the skin and metacarpal changes together with signs of cardiomyopathy (jugular
venous distention or extra S3 or S4 heart sounds) point the clinician to consider the
diagnosis of hereditary hemochromatosis.
Major Points:
! A thorough physical examination can help identify signs of end-stage liver
disease
! Wilson disease and hemochromatosis have particular physical examination find-
ings that are highly specific for those diseases
Laboratory Findings
Laboratory testing may help the clinician determine whether the jaundice is caused by
obstruction alone or if there is a concurrent mixed obstructive process. It is ideal to
obtain prior laboratory testing, if available, to help serve as a baseline and comparison.
In addition, historical laboratory findings can also allow for an assessment of the rate
of development of jaundice and can help the clinician correlate the new clinical symp-
toms with recent events (ie, surgical procedures, new medications, toxin exposures,
trauma, and so forth).
The initial laboratory work-up should include a complete blood count with peripheral
smear (to look for signs of hemolysis) along with a complete metabolic panel (Box 5). If
there is a mild elevation in the liver function tests and bilirubin, but the patient is
asymptomatic, the blood work should simply be repeated. Alkaline phosphatase is
present in the bile canaliculi and can serve as a direct marker for biliary obstruction.
However, it can also be produced by bone, placenta, and the kidney. Thus, if the alka-
line phosphatase alone is elevated, g-glutamyltranspeptidase, found in the biliary
epithelium, can help distinguish biliary from nonbiliary causes of alkaline phosphatase
Box 5
Overview of basic laboratory studies and their significance in the work-up of jaundice
Complete blood count: To check hemoglobin; peripheral smear to look for signs of hemolysis
(schistocytes) especially if liver function tests normal
Alanine aminotransferase: Primarily cytosolic enzyme, more specific for liver injury
Aspartate aminotransferase: Cytosolic and mitochondrial enzyme; less sensitive and specific
compared with alanine aminotransferase
Bilirubin: Total and fractionated can help determine intrahepatic versus extrahepatic cause
Alkaline phosphatase: Primarily found in bile canaliculi of the liver, but also produced by bone,
placenta, and kidney
g-Glutamyltranspeptidase: Found in biliary epithelium, poor specificity
5-Nucleotidase: Confirmatory test along with alkaline phosphatase and g-
glutamyltranspeptidase to suggest hepatobiliary process
International normalized ratio: Marker of synthetic liver functioning
Assessment of Jaundice in the Hospitalized Patient 165
despite its limited specificity. Another serum marker, 5-nucleotidase, often a send-out
test in most institutions, can help confirm a hepatobiliary process as the cause of the
alkaline phosphatase elevation.4 Bilirubin should be fractionated to help distinguish
intrahepatic versus extrahepatic causes. Coagulation studies can aid in the assess-
ment of the degree of hepatic dysfunction.
After the basic work-up is completed, further laboratory studies can be ordered based
on the clinician’s suspicion for the underlying cause of jaundice (Box 6). For example,
autoimmune markers may be helpful in a young woman with constitutional symptoms
or arthralgias. Primary biliary cirrhosis may be considered in an elderly woman with pru-
ritus and jaundice, whereas primary sclerosing cholangitis should be prominent on the
differential in a young patient with inflammatory bowel disease and new onset of jaun-
dice. Serologic markers for viral hepatitis should be ordered based on the patient’s
risk factors and travel history. Wilson disease and hereditary hemochromatosis might
be considered in younger patients especially with family history of liver disease.
Major Points:
! A basic laboratory work-up including complete blood count, complete metabolic
panel, and coagulation studies should be performed on all patients with new-
onset jaundice
! Once this basic work-up is completed, further autoimmune markers, viral serol-
ogies, or other disease-specific laboratory findings can be ordered at the clini-
cian’s discretion
Imaging Studies
There are a variety of imaging studies of varying diagnostic value in the work-up for
jaundice (Table 1). Ultrasound is considered first-line therapy in the assessment of
jaundice because of its cost-effectiveness and lack of radiation exposure. Studies
suggest increased sensitivity in nonobese patients with higher bilirubin concentrations
and prolonged duration of jaundice.47 Ultrasound can provide direct visualization of
Box 6
Laboratory markers that may aid in understanding the cause of the jaundice
Autoimmune markers
Autoimmune hepatitis: ANA, ASMA, anti-LKM1
Primary biliary cirrhosis: AMA
Primary sclerosing cholangitis: p-ANCA
Viral hepatitis serologies
Other viral serologies: CMV, VZV, EBV, HSV, HIV
Wilson disease: Urinary copper, serum ceruloplasmin
Hemochromatosis: Iron saturation, ferritin, HFE gene testing
a1-Antitrypsin deficiency: Measurement of enzyme activity or serum protein electrophoresis46
Malignancy: Tumor markers AFP, CEA, CA19-9
Table 1
Diagnostic modalities (from least to most invasive) to consider ordering in the patient with
jaundice
the biliary dilatation, presence of gallstones, and if performed with Doppler can assess
the patency of the portal and hepatic veins and the hepatic artery. However, ultra-
sound has limitations in obese patients and is an operator-dependent test.
Based on institutional availability and the findings on ultrasound, MRI or CT scans
are generally obtained next and can more precisely identify obstructive masses,
parenchymal liver disease, and features of cirrhosis.2 However, cholesterol stones
can be missed on CT because they are isodense with bile, which is why ultrasound
is considered the gold standard for cholelithiasis.48
Next, imaging studies that allow for direct therapeutic intervention can be per-
formed. Assy and colleagues5 found that “percutaneous transhepatic cholangiog-
raphy (PTC) and ERCP have in common 99% sensitivity and specificity for the
diagnosis of biliary obstruction, and both are capable of demonstrating the site and
the nature of the obstruction in more than 90% of patients.”49 Both PTC and ERCP
not only aid in diagnosis by direct visualization of the obstruction, but these tests
also allow for direct therapeutic intervention whether it be stone removal, sphincterot-
omy, stent placement, or drainage maneuvers if necessary. PTC is preferred for higher
biliary obstructions (eg, at the bifurcation of the hepatic ducts), whereas endoscopic
ultrasound and ERCP remain the gold standard for extrahepatic biliary disease
causing jaundice. Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography is a useful test in
the patient with low pretest probability of finding an obstructive lesion that would
require therapeutic intervention or in the patient with multiple comorbidities where
diagnosis should be fully confirmed before proceeding with the more invasive
ERCP. In the event of an obstructive lesion, magnetic resonance cholangiopancrea-
tography may help guide planning between ERCP and PTC.50
Major Points:
! Ultrasound is the most cost-effective and safe imaging study to perform in the
work-up for jaundice
! PTC and ERCP allow for direct visualization of the biliary tree with the ability to
provide therapeutic interventions concurrently if necessary
this is a nuclear medicine test and thus can be more time consuming than other imag-
ing modalities.51
Liver biopsy is considered the gold standard diagnostic modality but given possible
morbidity, is not considered a first-line diagnostic test. The experienced clinician rea-
ches for the liver biopsy at the appropriate time, generally when the patient continues
to have abnormal liver function tests with jaundice without definitive signs of obstruc-
tion on imaging or endoscopic studies. The transjugular approach, often done in the
interventional radiology suite, is associated with reduced bleeding complications
and is preferred, especially if the patient has a degree of coagulopathy. Transjugular
liver biopsies also allow for measurement of the hepatic venous pressure gradient
that can assess for underlying portal hypertension in the patient with jaundice. Biopsy
can guide not only therapy but also provide prognostic information based on the
degree of liver injury.4
Major Points:
! HIDA scans are useful if there is a high suspicion of biliary obstruction
! Liver biopsy, although the gold standard diagnostic modality for evaluating jaun-
dice, is infrequently obtained, especially if a diagnosis can be made clinically
PROGNOSIS
In most cases of jaundice, the underlying cause is often multifactorial (ie, an elderly pa-
tient started on antibiotics for septic shock from an acute abdomen, in the intensive
care unit with hypotension requiring pressors, and now with persistent jaundice). How-
ever, if triggers are identified and addressed, most patients without underlying chronic
liver disease recover with time. Prompt diagnosis and treatment of the triggers that led
to the jaundice in the first place is key to reducing morbidity and mortality.
Major Points:
! Generally, prognosis is favorable if the underlying cause of jaundice is deter-
mined and the patient has no prior chronic liver disease
Given the high mortality with acute liver failure if left untreated, the jaundiced patient
presenting with altered mental status and coagulopathy without pre-existing liver dis-
ease requires special attention. In addition, those diseases, such as obstructive chol-
angitis, that have potential therapeutic interventions (ie, ERCP) should not be missed.
Those diseases with genetic predisposition, such as Wilson disease, hereditary
hemochromatosis, and a1-antitrypsin deficiency, must not be missed because early
diagnosis allows for possible medical therapy and genetic screening and earlier inter-
vention for family members.
Major Points:
! It is especially important for the clinician to diagnose acute liver failure given the
high associated morbidity
Patients with acute liver failure should be referred emergently to determine candidacy
for liver transplant.
Aside from the more acute presentation, those jaundiced patients with known com-
plications of end-stage liver disease (including hepatic encephalopathy, ascites,
spontaneous bacterial peritionitis, and variceal bleeding) who are otherwise transplant
168 Kathpalia & Ahn
FUTURE DIRECTION
Currently, few studies have assessed the outcomes of patients with jaundice because
of the heterogeneity of causes and multiple confounding of variables that can lead to
jaundice. Further data on the outcomes of jaundice are needed and may be obtained
with multicenter registries and insurance and closed system data set analysis. Such
studies are eagerly awaited.
Major Points:
! Multicenter registries may provide outcome-based data on jaundice to guide
future diagnostic and therapeutic interventions
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Dr Anjana Pillai of Emory University and Dr Brintha Enestvedt and
Dr Sharlene D’Souza of OHSU for their helpful comments and review of the article.
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