Mboce - Enforcement of International Arbitral Awards - Public Policy Limitation in Kenya

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

SCHOOL OF LAW
~ ~/
ENFORCEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRAL AWARDS: PUBLIC POLICY
LIMIT ATION IN KENYA
BY
BOCE)lARRIET NJOKI
(G62/69879/2013)
SUPERVISOR: MR. LEONARD ALOO
UNIVERS!TY Of t~td IC 51
SOL LIBRARY
A RESEARCH PAPER SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

DEGREE OF MASTER OF LAWS, NOVEMBER, 2014
1
DECLARATION
I, Harriet Mboce hereby declare that:
I understand what Plagiarism is and I am aware of the University's policy in this regard.
This research paper is my original work and has not been submitted elsewhere for
examination, award of a degree or publication. Where other people's work or my own work
has been used, this has properly been acknowledged and referenced in accordance with the
University of Nairobi's requirements.
I have not sought or used the services of any professional agencies to produce this work
I have not allowed, and shall not allow anyone to copy my work with the intention of passing
it off as hislher own work
I understand that any false claim in respect of this work shall result in disciplinary action, in
accordance with University Plagiarism Policy .
Signed . ...... : .. ~.: this ~~~ day of ~~~~~~ 2014
HARRIET MBOCE
This project has been submitted for examination upon my approval as University Supervisor:
Signed .. ... . ..•.......... : this ~~~ clay of 1;?4.;;;8~'f?2: 2014
lVIR. LEONARD ALOO
2
T ABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ....•......•............•.•....•...•...•...•..•...•..•......................•....•...•.............................•...•...........•............. 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS .•...................•.•.•..........•......•...•..•...•..•...•..•.•.•.............•.•.•...•...•.•.•.•......•....................•..•..• 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......•.•.•.•......•.•.•.•.•..•...•...•..•...•..•.•.•................................................................................ 5
DEDICATION ......•...•...•......•................•.•........•...•..•...•..•.•.•..•...•......•......•...•..•...•.......•.•...•....•.•.•....•......•..•....•.•..• 6
ABBREVIATIONS .•..•...•......•.....•...•......•...•..••..•...•..•...•..•...•.•....•..........................•...•.•.................................•...... 7
A. LIST OF CONSTITUTIONS 8
B. LIST OF KENYAN STATUTES 8
C. LIST OF INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND INSTRUMENTS 8
D. LlSTOF KENYAN CASE LAW 8
E. LIST OF NON-KENYAN CASE LAW 8
ABSTRACT ..•......•...•...•..........•..........•.•.•....•......•...•......•......•...•..•...•......•...............•.•.•..........•......•..................... 9
COPYRIGHT WARNING .•...•...•....•.•.•.•.•......•.•....•......•...•......•.................•.................•.•.........................•........... 10
CHAPTER ONE .•.•......•.•.•..............•.....•..•.....•....•...•..•.•.•..••..•...•..•...•..•...•..•...•..........•.•....•.•....•....•.•..•......•..•...•. 11
1.1. INTRODUCTION ..••.....•....•.•.•.•..•...•...•..•.•.•..•.•....•..............•....•.•.....................................•...•...•..•........ 11
1.2. BACKGROUNDTOTHE PROBLEM 12

1.3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND ISSUES ARISING 17
1.4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 17
1.5. RESEARCH OBJECTiVES 17
1.6. HYPOTHESES 17
1.7. BROAD ARGUMENT LAYOUT 18
1.8. LITERATURE REVIEW AND DOCUMENT ANALySiS 18
1.9. JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDy 40
.. .
1.10. CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 41
1.11. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 43
1.12. CHAPTER OUTLINE 43
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 43
CHAPTER TWO: THE LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ON ENFORCEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ARBITRAL AWARDS IN KENYA:
JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION AND EFFECTOF THE PUBLIC POLICY CONSIDERATION ...............•.................................................. 44

CHAPTER THREE: RELEVANT INTERNATIONAL LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK: JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION AND EFFECTOF
THE PUBLIC POLICY CONSIDERATION 44

CHAPTER FOUR: COMPARATIVE ANALySiS ............................................................•..............................................•...... 44
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................•...•.•...•.•...•..................................................... 45
CHAPTER TWO •.•...•.................•......•...•....•.•....•.•.•..•.•......•......•.....•.................•.•.•..•...•...•..•.•.•......................... 46
I(ENYA'S LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 46
2.1. INTRODUCTION 46
2.2. LEGAL FRAMEWORK 46
2.3. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 52
2.4. CONCLUSION 54
CHAPTER THREE .................•...•...•....•.•......•.•....•...•..•......•...........................................................•...•..•...........• 56
INTERNATIONAL LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 56
3.1 INTRODUCTION 56
3.2. INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK 57
3.3. INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 59
3
3.4. CONCLUSION 63
CHAPTER FOUR 65
CASE STUDY AND COMPARATIVE ANAlySiS 65
4.2. CASE STUDY: KENYAN POSITION 65
4.3. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS: THE UK POSiTION 80
CHAPTER FIVE 93
5.2. CONCLUSIONS 93
5.3. RECOMMENDATIONS 94
BIBLIOGRAPHY 95
A. LIST OF TEXT BOOKS, JOURNALS AND OTHER TEXTS 95

B. LIST OF JOURNALS & ARTICLES 95
4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My most sincere gratitude to God for this work, and for all who have in one way or the other
made it possible for me to undertake and complete this study.
I thank each of you for having in one way or the other made it possible for me to undertake
and complete this study.
My late father, Paul Mboce Maina Karuri, thank you for being the pillar of my resilience and
my well of immense strength, I forever celebrate you.
My genuine gratitude to my family ( Mum, Wangari, Janet, Maina, Shiko and my nieces and
nephew), my cousin Jackie and friends (Nelson, Godana, Riteet and Kamau M.) for the
goodwill and unending support.
Special gratitude to my cousin, Kimani Kung'u, for constantly reminding me that there is
more to achieve, and challenging and supporting me to take up my LL.M.
My sincere gratitude to Mr. Justus Munyithya for his mentorship and friendship. For
believing in me, for gently, yet firmly expecting me to push forward and accommodating
nothing less thank you.
I sincerely thank Dr. T.K.Kaguta, for empowerment and reminders to be better and to give
back to society; I promise to do more.
Thank you all for constantly reminding me of my love for books, my potential, and the
significance of devotion to personal growth and achievements.
My Supervisor, Mr. Leonard Aloo. Thank you for your invaluable support and guidance, for
constantly remaining me that this is possible.
Last but not least, I thank the University of Nairobi, for this opportunity and facilitation.
5
DEDICATION
I dedicate this paper to a man who will never get to read it: my cherished late father, Paul
Mboce Maina Karuri, for setting high standards of courage and success for his children. I do
my best for you.
I also dedicate this paper to all those in the academic field, for the many nights of burning the
mid-night candle, to shape society through literary discourse. It takes great effort.
To those grappling with the Public Policy limitation on enforcement of international arbitral
awards, I hope this moves you closer to your answer.
6
ABBREVIA TIONS
ClArb Chartered Institute of Arbitrators

CEDR Centre for Dispute Resolution, established in London in 1990
East Africa Law Reports
Geneva Convention Geneva Convention on the Execution of Foreign Arbitral Awards,
September 26, 1927
ICC International Chamber of Commerce, located in Paris, established in
Paris in 1923
ICA Court International Court of Arbitration of the ICC
ICSID International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes also
Convention on Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and
Nationals of other States
KLR Kenya Law Reports
LCIA London Court of International Arbitration
LCIArb London Chartered Institute of Arbitrators
LCICA London Court of International Commercial Arbitration
Model Law Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration, adopted by
..UNCITRAL on June 21,1985
NYC Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral
Awards, 1958
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
UNCITRAL United Nations Commission on International Trade Law.
USA United States of America
WIPO World Intellectual Property Organisation
7
A. LIST OF CONSTITUTIONS
1. Constitution of Kenya, 2010.
B. LIST OF KENYAN STATUTES
1. Arbitration (Amendment) Act 2009.

2. Arbitration Act, Chapter 49 Laws of Kenya.
C. LIST OF INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND INSTRUMENTS
1. United Nations Convention on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL).

2. New York Convention on Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, 1958.
D. LIST OF KENYAN CASE LAW
1. Anne Mumbi Hinga-vs- Victoria Njoki Gathara, [2009]Eklr.

2. Christ for All Nations-vs-Apillo Insurance Co. Ltd EALR [2002] 2 EA 366 (CCK).
3. Giencore Grain Ltd-vs-TSS Grain Millers Ltd,[2002]1 KLR.
4. Kenya Shell Limited -vs- Kobil Petroleum Limited [2006] eKLR.
5. Misc. Civil Application No. 171 of2012, Tanzania Roads Agency-vs-Kundan Singh
Construction Limited (UR).
E. LIST OF NON-KENYAN CASE LAW
1. China Agribusiness Development Corporation -vs-Balli Trading [\998]2 Lloyd's Rep.

2. Productions Group Inc -vs- Aeroflot Russian Airlines [2004] WL234871.
3. Richardson -vs-Mellish (1824)2 Bing.
4. Rosseel NV -vs- Oriental Commercial & Shipping Co (UK) Ltd [1991] 2 Lloyd's Rep.
5. Soleimany v Soleimany [1999] 3 All ER.
8
ABSTRACT
The lack of a concise definition for public policy as a ground for setting aside an arbitral
award has complicated the inherent nature and perception of the arbitral process as an
expeditious and effective mode of resolution of disputes. It has raised significant questions
regarding the role of the state and the courts in the arbitral process which has hitherto been
widely viewed as a private process, mainly driven by the parties in a dispute.
This thesis explores five closely related questions: First issue: what is the Kenyan law
position on enforcement of international arbitral awards domestically? Second issue: what is
the international law position on enforcement of international arbitral awards in Kenya?
Third issue: what is the definition of public policy and what is its place in the enforcement of
international arbitral awards? Fourth issue: how does the public policy consideration affect
enforcement in Kenya? Fifth issue: how best can public policy be applied to the enforcement
of international arbitral awards?
The main aim of the research is to contribute to the development of a bench mark as to what
constitutes public policy as a ground for setting aside an international arbitral award. I
"suggest that a "concise definition of public policy as a" limitation on enforcement of"
international arbitral awards should be adapted to anticipate and promote the certainty and
finality of the arbitral process.
9
COPYRIGHT WARNING
This research paper or any part of it is protected under the Kenyan as well as international
law on copyright. Any use, reproduction or publication of the paper or any part of it without
the express authority ofthe author is prohibited and illegal.
10
CHAPTER ONE
1.1. INTRODUCTION
A successful party in an international arbitration reasonably expects the award to be

performed without delay.' If the losing party fails to carry out an award, the winning party is
entitled to take steps to enforce the performance of the award? Effectively, two steps may be
taken, one of which includes invoking the powers of the state, through its national courts in
order to obtain a hold on the losing party's assets or in some other way to compel the
performance of the award. 3 This process of compelling the performance of the award
through national courts is referred to as enforcement.
An arbitral award is international if it is made in the territory of a State other than the State
where the recognition and enforcement of such awards are sought, and arising out of
differences between persons, whether physical or legal. It also refers to arbitral awards not
considered as domestic awards in the State where their recognition and enforcement are
sought."
Enforcement of an award may 'be refused if it is contrary tothe public policy of-the
enforcement state.' The term public policy is not defined and seemingly depends on the
interpretation by the court faced with the application to set aside the international arbitral
award on this ground.
This paper is examines the problem of a lack of precise definition of public policy as a
ground for setting aside of international arbitral awards.
The chapter starts by laying out the parameters of the research. Further, the basis of the
research problem is explained and also briefly captured in subsequent statements of the
1 Redfern, A. and Hunter, M., Redfern and Hunter on International Arbitration, 5th ed., (New York:
Oxford University Press Inc., 2009), p. 621.
2lbid, Redfern, A. and Hunter, M. (2009), p. 623.
3 The other step would be to exert some form of pressure, commercial or otherwise, in order to show
the losing party that it is in their interests to perform the award. Redfern, p. 623.
4 Definition borrowed from the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral
Awards (New York, 1958) (the "New York Convention"), Article I_ See also UNCITRAL Model
Law, Article 1 (3) on the definition of an international arbitration.
S Ibid, Redfern, A. and Hunter, M., (2009), p.657.
11
problem. Additionally, the chapter sets out the objectives of the search and briefly narrates
the justification of this study. The chapter then briefly discusses the jurisprudential arguments
relevant to the research problem. Moreover, the chapter studies the legal provisions as well as
literary publications related to the problem. The chapter then states the hypothesis that this
paper sets out to test. Additionally, the chapter offers an outlay of the sequence of the
chapters as well as a brief summary of each of the chapters. Finally, the chapter explains how
the research informing this paper will be conducted.
1.2. BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM
The enforcement of international arbitral awards in Kenya is one of the greatest attractions in
international trade and investments in Kenya.Tr has led to a significant growth in the
adoption of international arbitration as the preferred mode of dispute resolution in Kenya in
the last 50 years as commercial parties seek to minimize the potential uncertainties and
dragged out litigation process of local litigation procedures.' Kenya's legal system recognises
the enforcement of both domestic and international arbitral awards in Kenya.
Enforcement of an award acts as a sword' It is a positive action taken to compel the losing
party to carry out an award that he is unwilling or unable' to carry out effectively." It is the
application of sanctions to ensure the award is carried out." Some of the sanctions that the
courts apply to facilitate enforcement include seizure of assets and forfeiture of bank
accounts. II Regeru and Redfern note that' An unenforceable judgment is at best valueless, at
worst; it is a source of additional loss' .12 Enforcement of arbitral awards is therefore of great
importance and significance in the arbitral process. 13
6 [2012] Int.A.L.R., Issue 5, 2012 Thomson Reuters (Professional) UK Limited and Contributors, p.
186.
7 [2012] Int.A.L.R., Issue 5,2012 Thomson Reuters (Professional) UK Limited and Contributors, p.
186.
8 Regeru, p.122. See also Redfern, A. Hunter, M. 1999, 'Law & Practice of International Arbitration'
3rd edn. (Sweet & Maxwell: London). P.449.Also see Campell, D. and Summerfield, P., (1989),
Effective Dispute Resolution for the International Commercial Lawyer: Kluwer Law and Taxation
Publishers, Boston, p. 169.
9 Ibid, Regeru, p.122. See also Redfern, A. Hunter, M. (1999), p. 169.
12 Societe Eram Shipping v Cie Internationale de Navigation [2004] I AC 260 at [10]

13 Regeru, p.123
12
While Kenya has adopted international instruments for the enforcement of international
arbitral awards and enacted domestic legislation giving effect to these instruments leading to
a celebration of Kenya as an upcoming hub for arbitration, effective enforcement of
international arbitral awards in Kenya faces challenges due to public policy consideration as a
ground for setting aside of arbitral awards. This is particularly because public policy in this
case is not expressly defined. The interpretation of public policy is therefore largely left to the
discretion of the judge(s) presiding over an application for setting aside of an award. This
lack of a clear cut definition of public policy in this case has led to a relative lull by
international investors on arbitration in Kenya because of the uncertainty."
This paper therefore seeks to critically examine the challenge of the definition of public
policy consideration in enforcement of international arbitral awards in Kenya. The paper
examines the effects of public policy consideration on enforcement of arbitral awards and
whether and to what extent public policy limitation should be applied in considering
enforcement of arbitral awards in Kenya.
The issue as to whether and to what extent public policy limitation should be applied in
considering enforcement of international arbitral awards has been widely debated. Two main
schools of thought have emerged from this debate: On the one hand is the private autonomy
school which strictly supports the contractual nature of arbitration and opposes any legislative
and judicial attempts to limit this. This school of thought suggests that parties to a contract
have the right to dictate the extent and effects of their contracts and the law has no business
impeding the recognition or enforcement of international arbitral awards. On the other hand is
the public policy school of thought. This school brings argues in favour of the out the social
obligation theory. This school of thought argues that the state is required to exercise restraint
and to protect the right of the individual to contract freely, albeit by incorporation of legal
limitations to the recognition or enforcement of international arbitral awards.
14 Dr. Kariuki Muigua, during his lectures at the University of Nairobi, LLM class of 2013 on
International Commercial Arbitration.
13
Brief examination of domestic and international instruments on enforcement of
international arbitral awards in Kenya.
The Constitution of Kenya, 2010 (the Constitution) requires the courts and tribunals in
exercising their judicial authority to be guided the principle of alternative forms of dispute
resolution (ADR).15 One such form of ADR is Arbitration.16 The Constitution also provides
that the general rules of international law shall form part of the law of Kenya.l ' The
Constitution further provides that any treaty or convention ratified by Kenya shall form part
of the law of Kenya, subject to the domestic laws of Kenya."
The Arbitration Act, 1995, provides that 'An international arbitration award shall be
recognised as binding and enforced in accordance to the provisions of the New York
Convention (New York Convention) or any other convention to which Kenya is a signatory
and relating to arbitral awards' .19 The New York Convention requires state parties to ensure
that arbitral awards are recognised and enforced in their territories.i'' These provisions are not
without limitation.
Challenge of public policy as a ground for setting aside an international arbitral award
Enforcement against an unscrupulous liable party can be achieved by an application, to the

courts by a successful party, for the recognition and enforcement of the award. Often times
however, it proves quite challenging to enforce an award against an unscrupulous liable
party. This is because the law gives a variety of instances where the courts may refuse to
recognize and enforce an arbitral award. Claim of public policy limitation is one such
instance.
Both the domestic law in Kenya as well as international law applicable in Kenya lend public
policy as a ground for the court's refusal to enforce international arbitral awards in Kenya.
Public policy is however not concisely defined. Public policy as a limitation has therefore
15Constitution of Kenya, 20 I0, (the Constitution) Article 159 (2).

16Ibid, the Constitution of Kenya, article 159 (2).
17Ibid, the Constitution of Kenya, article 2 (5).
18Ibid, the Constitution of Kenya, article 2(6).
19Arbitration Act, Act No.4 of 1995 , Laws of Kenya, (the Act) section 36 (2)
20 Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (New York, 1958)
(the "New York Convention"), article Ill.
14
often been invoked by parties desirous of evading enforcement of international arbitral
awards/" Some litigious parties almost always want to challenge all awards against them on
this ground, to tryout their luck.22 This position of uncertainty continues to weigh down on
arbitration as a form of dispute resolution."
Definition of public policy
Despite the limitation imposed by the public policy consideration, another challenge arises
from the fact that neither the domestic instruments, nor the international ones define the term
'public policy'. Further, neither of them sets the parameters within which the public policy
consideration is to apply." The gap in defining public policy has often been pointed out by
. 25
various quarters.
The courts have through judicial decisions attempted to give some guideline on definition of
the term. In the case of Christfor all Nations -vs-Apollo Insurance Company Limited Ringera
J. noted that:
"Public policy is a broad concept incapable of precise definition. An award can be set
aside under Section 35(2) (b) (ii) of the Arbitration Act as being inconsistent with the
public policy of Kenya if it is shown that it was either (a) inconsistent with the
Constitution of Kenya or any other law of Kenya whether written or unwritten, or (b)
inimical to the national interest of Kenya, or (c) contrary to justice and morality't."
From his decision above, Ringera J set out three main grounds upon which an application for
setting aside an arbitral award should be predicated upon as regards public policy. These are:
21 This positron is well discussed in Misc. Civil Application No. 171 of 2012, Tanzania Roads
Agency-vs-Kundan Singh Construction Limited (UR).
22Supra, Kariuki Muigua, p. 224
23Supra, Kariuki Muigua, p. 224
24Supra, the Act, Section 37(b) (ii) and article V (2)(b), respectively
25 See the holding by Ringera J. in the case of Christ for all Nations -vs-Apollo Insurance Company
Limited (2002) 2 EA 366 (Christ for all Nations).
26Per Ringera J. In the case of Christ for all Nations -vs-Apollo Insurance Company Limited (2002) 2
EA 366 (Christ for all Nations).
15
1. inconsistency with the Constitution or any other laws of Kenya, whether written
or unwritten;
11. inimical to the national interests of Kenya; and
111. contrary to justice and morality
While justice Ringera has attempted to define public policy in the above case, it is important
to note that he has noted that Public policy is a broad concept incapable of precise definition.
As will be elucidated in this paper, despite Justice Ringera's attempt at defining public
policy, different judges appear to have kept to their preferred definitions. This disparity in
defining public policy continues to give their own these instances provide unscrupulous liable
parties opportunities to avoid or defer enforcement. While the effect of each of the grounds
for refusal of recognition and enforcement of arbitral awards are considerably similar, as with
each of the grounds public policy limitation has its practical salient challenges.
An unenforceable judgment is at best valueless, at worst; it is a source of additional loss." As

will emerge from the discussion, certain specific challenges arise due to the legal
opportunities to avoid or defer enforcement. In particular, this leads to uncertainty over
whether or not an arbitral award is enforceable, which understandably undermines confidence
in arbitration.
As proponents of international trade and investments continue to present arbitration as an

attractive, effective and efficient mode of resolution of disputes in international trade, policy
makers, legislators, and the judiciary are yet to gain sufficient consensus on the best way to
address the challenges created by the lack of a clear definition of public policy as a ground
for setting aside international awards in Kenya. It is therefore against this background that I
am conducting this study. The study will focus mainly on the claim of public policy
limitation.
27 Societe Eram Shipping v Cie Internationale de Navigation [2004] 1 AC 260 at [10]
16
1.3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM AND ISSUES ARISING
This paper discusses the problem of a lack of a concise definition of public policy as a ground
for setting aside of an international arbitral award in Kenya. It first looks at Kenya's domestic
position on the issue. It examines the relationship between the domestic and international law
position before subsequently examining the international law position on the issue. The paper
examines whether and how public policy as a limitation to enforcement of international
arbitral awards has been defined, and whether such definition is sufficient. The study also
examines how Kenya has adopted, interpreted and applied the doctrine to limiting the
enforcement in Kenya, of international arbitral awards. The paper also considers whether
public policy as a limitation to domestic enforcement of international arbitral awards should
be abolished and if so, what the alternatives may be. The paper refers to various relevant
provisions in international legal instruments, the domestic laws of Kenya, decisions from
Kenyan courts as well as opinions of various writers.
1.4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What is the Kenyan law position and definition of public policy in relation to enforcement of
international arbitral awards domestically?
2. What is the international law position and definition of public policy in relation to domestic
enforcement of international arbitral awards?
3. What is the Kenyan and non-Kenyan judicial interpretation of public policy as a ground for
setting aside an international arbitral award?
4. How best can public policy be applied to the enforcement of international arbitral awards?
1.5. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
This paper sets out to critically examine the predicament of definition of public policy
limitation to the domestic enforcement of international arbitral awards in particular how the
public policy consideration affects enforcement of international arbitral awards in Kenya.
1.6. HYPOTHESES
This study is premised on the author's hypotheses that:
17
1. Neither the domestic law of Kenya, nor international instruments which Kenya
applies for purposes of enforcement of international arbitral awards define public
policy.
2. There is a glaring uncertainty and disconnect in the interpretation given by the courts
in Kenyan as well as non-Kenyan courts on public policy.
3. There is no concise definition of public policy as a ground or setting aside of

international arbitral awards in Keya.
4. There is a pressing need to have a clear definition of public policy as a ground for
setting aside an international arbitral award.
1.7. BROAD ARGUMENT LAYOUT
Existing system on enforcement of transnational arbitral awards are universally inconsistent.

The New York Convention, being the governing international instrument, vide article V has
to a great extent subjected enforcement of awards to domestic. legislation: Given that the
various countries have relatively varying legislative positions on this, the system therefore
becomes highly unpredictable. Kenya is no exception to this quagmire and although the
judiciary has attempted to illuminate on this, the key elusive ailment has been to conclusively
define the term 'public policy'. This is yet to be done.
1.8. LITERATURE REVIEW AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
This part highlights and analyzes some key domestic and international legal instruments,
domestic and international judicial decisions as well as academic texts books and other
writings by scholars relevant to this research. The discussion subsequently identifies some
gaps emerging from the literature reviewed, that this research seeks to fill.
18
Domestic legal instruments
The Constitution of Kenya (2010), hereinafter referred to as 'the Constitution', requires the
courts and tribunals to be guided by, among other principles, alternative forms of dispute
resolution including arbitration in exercising their judicial authority." It also provides that the
general rules of international law shall form part of the law of Kenya and that any treaty or
convention ratified by Kenya shall form part of the law of Kenya, subject to the domestic
laws of Kenya.i" This sets the stage for application of various international instruments and
principles in line with domestic legislation in Kenya.
The Arbitration Act (1995), hereinafter referred to as 'the 1995 Act', as read together with its
Amending Act (2009), hereinafter referred to as 'the Amendment Act' is the current
substantive domestic legislations in Kenya on Arbitration, hereinafter jointly referred to as
"the Kenyan Statutes"?O The 1995 Act distinguishes 'international' arbitrations giving rise to
international arbitral awards, from 'domestic' arbitrations which result in domestic awards? I
Under the Act, arbitration is domestic if the arbitration agreement provides expressly or by
implication for arbitration in Kenya: and at the time when proceedings are commenced or the
arbitration is entered into:
a. where the arbitration is between individuals, the parties are nationals of Kenya or are
habitually resident in Kenya;
28Supra, the Constitution of Kenya, article 159 (2).

29 Supra, the Constitution of Kenya, article 2(5) and 2(6).
30 Arbitration Act, Act No.4 of 1995, Laws of Kenya. The 1995 Act was assented to on 10 August,
1995 and came into force 2 January, 1996. It repealed and replaced the 1968 Arbitration Act, Chapter
49 Laws of Kenya. The 1995 Act is substantially modelled along the provisions of the UNCITRAL
Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (the Model Law) of 1985 and amended in 2006.
Despite its important contribution to arbitration law and practice in Kenya, the 1995 also exhibited
various shortcomings. Key among this is that the 1995 Act did not provide for final ity of an arbitral
Award. There was therefore need to amend the 1995 Act. The amendment of the 1995 Act was done
through amended by the Arbitration (Amendment) Act 2009 ("the Amendment Act").
31 It is however argued that there is no real difference between 'domestic' and 'international'
arbitrations. See Muigai, G., op cit. p. 3 reference to Russell on Arbitration at Paragraph 2-022. No
such distinction s contained in the UNCITRAL Model Law. However, certain sections of the 1995
Act apply only to 'domestic' arbitrations. For instance, section 39 of the Act refers expressly to
'domestic' arbitrations. It is arguable therefore that there is indeed a difference between the two, be it
by express provisions or by implication.
b. where the arbitration is between bodies corporate, the parties are incorporated In
Kenya or their central management and control are exercised in Kenya;
c. where the arbitration is between an individual and a body corporate:
(i) the party who is an individual is a national of Kenya or is habitually resident in

Kenya; and
(ii) the party that IS a body corporate is incorporated In Kenya or its central
management and control are exercised in Kenya; or
d. the place where a substantial part of the obligations of the commercial relationship is
to be performed, or the place with which the subject matter of the dispute is most
closely connected, is Kenya.32
On the other hand, arbitration is international if:
a. the parties to an arbitration agreement have, at the time of the conclusion of that
agreement, their places of business in different states;
b. one of the following places is situated outside the state in which the parties have their
places of business:
(i) the juridical seat of arbitration IS determined by or pursuant to the

arbitration agreement; or
(ii) any place where a substantial part of the obligations of the commercial
relationship is to be performed or the place with which the subject-
matter of the dispute is most closely connected; or
c. the parties have expressly agreed that the subject matter of the arbitration
agreement relates to more than one state. 33
32 Supra, the Act, Section 3(2).

33 Supra, the Act, Section Section 3(3).
20
The 1995 Act provides that 'An international arbitration award shall be recognised as
binding and enforced in accordance to the provisions of the New York Convention or any
other convention to which Kenya is a signatory and relating to arbitral awards'r'" The Act
further provides that 'The recognition or enforcement of arbitral award, irrespective of the
state in which it was made, may be refused ... if the High Court finds that... the recognition
or enforcement ofthe arbitral award would be contrary to the public policy of Kenya' ?5
The 1995 Act, is not exhaustive, and for this reason, it empowers at Section 40 , the Chief
Justice to make court procedural rules for matters not prescribed in the 1995 Act, including
recognition and enforcement of arbitral awards, setting aside of arbitral awards, stay of
proceedings, and generally any proceedings under the Arbitration " Act. In exercise of the
powers under section 40, the Arbitration Rules, 1997, were made on 6 May 1997, which rules
also provide that the Civil Procedure Rules are applicable to applications under the 1995
Act.3?
By way of background, the 1968 Act was closely modelled on the English Act of 1950?8 As
a result of various challenges to this Act, and encouraged by the publication of the Model
Law on International Commercial Arbitration by the United Nations Commission on
International Trade Law (UNCITRA L), Kenya's parliament enacted the 1995 Arbitration
Act, which repealed the 1968 Act, discussed above.
International legal instruments
The UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (the Model Law)
(1985) was adopted by party states, Kenya being one of them, to provide a uniform model
law on arbitrationr" The Model Law covers all stages of arbitration and aims to provide a
sample law, which the different states can uniformly adopt or highly borrow from, to apply
with regards to the various stages of arbitration in their various jurisdictions, leading to a
34 Supra, the Act, Section 36 (2). This Act was assented to on 10 August, 1995 and came into force 2
January, 1996. It repealed and replaced the 968 Arbitration Act.
35Supra, the Act, section 37 (b)(ii)
36Supra, Githu, p.7.
37Supra, Githu, 6.
38 Githu, p. I.
39 The Model Law was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 40/72,
11 December, 1985.
21
unified legal framework for a fair, efficient and reliable system of settlement of international
commercial disputes arising from international commercial relations.
The New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards
(1958) provides that the Convention "applies to the recognition and enforcement of arbitral
Awards made in the territory of a State other than the State where the recognition and
enforcement of such awards are sought, and arising out of differences between persons,
whether physical or legal." The New York Convention further provides that it shall also
apply to arbitral awards not considered as domestic awards in the State where their
recognition and enforcement are sought"." The New York requires each of its contracting
states to recognize and enforce an arbitral as binding and enforce them in accordance with the
rules of procedure of the territory where the award is relied upon, under the conditions laid
down in its article III .42
Article V of the New York Convention contains sets the stage for denial of enforcement of
these awards. It lays out public policy grounds that may be invoked by the competent
authority of the country where the recognition and enforcement are sought to deny
enforcement of the award. This discretion has been applied by many states in refusal for
-enforcement of foreign awards.-
While it has attempted to set out an international system of regulation of arbitration, the New
York Convention appears to have glaring contradictory provisions that are of fundamental
importance to the effect of the entire convention. Article V seemingly waters down the aim of
the entire convention by creating an avenue for interference by external factors to arbitration
agreement. It can be said to be an obstacle to the creation of concrete certainty of
international awards.
40NYC, Article I (I)

4lSupra, NYC.
42 A contracting state means any state which has signed, ratified or acceded to the NYC, or notified
extension under article X of the NYC. This includes any State which has on the basis of reciprocity
declared that it will apply the Convention to the recognition and enforcement of awards made only in
the territory of another Contracting State. A contracting state will also include a state that has declared
that it will apply the Convention only to differences arising out of legal relationships, whether
contractual or not, which are considered as commercial under the national law of the State making
such declaration. See article I (3) of the NYC.
22
Domestic judicial decisions
On the definition of public policy as a limitation to enforcement of arbitral awards, the courts
have attempted to give a guideline In the case of Anne Mumbi Hinga -vs- Victoria Njoki
Gathara, the Appellant sought to set aside an arbitral award on the grounds that: she had not
been served with a notification of the delivery of the award, she had not been served with a
notice of filing the award and that she had not been served with a copy of the application
seeking to enforce the award.43 The High Court dismissed the application, whereupon the
Appellant appealed. In dismissing the appeal, the Court of Appeal held that the Appellant's
application to set aside the arbitral award offended the doctrine of public policy. The court
held that the underlying principle in the Arbitration Act is the recognition of an important
public policy in the enforcement of arbitral awards and the principal of finality of arbitral
awards.
The Court of Appeal in the recent case of Tanzania National Roads Agency-vs- Kundan
Singh Construction Limited was faced with two main issues: whether the Court of Appeal has
jurisdiction to hear an appeal against the Order of the High Court made in exercise of powers
under section 37 of the Act and what constitutes the public policy of Kenya. 44 On
jurisdiction, the Court of Appeal held that jurisdiction regarding the recognition and
enforcement of arbitral awards is vested in the High Court. Article 164(3)(a) of the
Constitution gives the Court of Appeal jurisdiction to hear appeals from the High Court and
any other court or tribunal as prescribed by an Act of Parliament. There is a clear distinction
between jurisdiction or power to hear and determine an appeal which is vested in the court
and a right to appeal which is vested on a litigant. In this case, the right of appeal from the
order of the High Court is not automatic but must be vested on the appellant by the
Arbitration Act and rules which regulate the procedure in arbitration matters. Although the
Arbitration Act provides a right of Appeal in the case of domestic arbitral awards, it does not
provide any right of appeal in the case of international awards.
The appellant can only find respite if there is a right of appeal under UNCITRAL Model Law
which governs International Commercial Arbitration and to which Kenya is a signatory. In
43Anne Mumbi Hinga-vs- Victoria Njoki Gathara, [2009]eKLR

44The decision was delivered on 14thNovember, 2014 by the court of appeal at Mombasa in civil
appeal no, 38 of20 13, Tanzania National Roads Agency-vs- Kundan Singh Construction Limited.
23
respect of recognition and enforcement of international arbitral awards, UNCITRAL Model
Law, like the Arbitration Act only provides a one-step intervention in a 'competent' court.
The court proceeded to note that in this case, the 'competent court' is the High Court which is
the one vested with powers under sections 36 and 37 of the Arbitration Act to determine
applications for recognition and enforcement of International arbitral awards. The court
concluded that no further right of appeal has been provided for thereby curtailing the
intervention of the court.
The court noted the argument for the appellant that because of the application of the
principles of International Law and Treaty on Conventions signed by Kenya, the invocation
of Article 2(5) and 2(6) of the Constitution raises Constitutional issues and that the appellant
therefore has an automatic right of appeal. The court rejected this argument. The court held
that the invocation of a Constitutional provision does not necessarily give· rise to a
constitutional issue, particularly where neither the application of the constitutional provision
nor the interpretation of the constitutional provision is in dispute, which the court held was
the case in this appeal.
On the issue of general public importance and public policy, the court found that the there is
not right of appeal to the Court of Appeal anchored on matters of 'general importance'. A
matter of public importance is one whose determination transcends the circumstances of the
particular case, and has a significant bearing on the public policy interest. Public policy has
been described as an intermediate principle which fluctuates with the circumstances of the
time. Public policy is a broad concept incapable of precise definition ... an award can be set
aside under Section 35(2) (b) (ii) of the Arbitration Act as being inconsistent with the public
policy of Kenya if it is shown that it was either: inconsistent with the Constitution of Kenya
or any other law of Kenya whether written or unwritten, or inimical to the national interest of
Kenya, or (c) contrary to justice and morality"."
This appeal does not raise an Issue of general public importance but raises an issue
concerning the recognition and enforcement of an agreement between two individuals.
45PerRingera J.In the case of Christ for all Nations -vs-Apollo Insurance Company Limited (2002) 2
EA 366 (Christ for all Nations' case).
24
In Christ for all Nations -vs-Apollo Insurance Company Limited (Christ for all Nations), the
Plaintiff, the Respondent in this matter had a comprehensive insurance cover with the
Defendant/Applicant in respect of the Respondent's motor vehicle.46 On 4 July 1997, an
endorsement was effected to the policy. The endorsement extended the geographical area of
the cover to include Tanzania and Zambia for the period up-to 3 October 1997. The
endorsement indicated that the total sum insured was K. Shs. 1,500,000.00 and TP047.
During the subsistence of this policy, the Respondent's insured motor vehicle was involved in
an accident while in Zambia. The vehicle was written off. The Applicant refused to
compensate the Respondent for the loss, on the ground that only third party policies were
covered outside Kenya. The Respondent then sued the Applicant claiming compensation. The
suit was stayed and referred to arbitration, pursuant to an arbitral clause in the insurance
policy. The arbitrator decided in favor of the Respondent.
The Applicant made an application to the High Court, seeking to set aside the arbitral award
in favor of the Respondent, on the ground that the award was in breach of public policy. The
Applicant alleged that public policy would be breached because insurers would shy away
from covering people going outside countries and this would mean loss of business for
travelers. In dismissing the application, the court held that:
"Public policy is a broad concept incapable of precise definition. An award can be set
aside under Section 35(2) (b) (ii) of the Arbitration Act Laws of Kenya, as being
inconsistent with the public policy of Kenya if it is shown that it was ... either (a)
inconsistent with the Constitution of Kenya or any other law of Kenya whether
written or unwritten, or (b) inimical to the national interest of Kenya, or (c) contrary
to justice and morality,,48
The court then held that there was no evidence that the insurance industry would react in
concert and negatively to the arbitral award. The Applicant had therefore not shown that the
arbitral award was contrary to public policy. The application was dismissed.
46 (2002) 2 EA 366
47TPO is not defined in the decision. As it has no specific effect on the issues addressed in this paper,
no further inquiry will be had on it.
48Per Ringera J. In the case of Christ for all Nations -vs-Apollo Insurance Company Limited (2002) 2
25
In Glencore Grain Ltd-vs-TSS Grain Millers Ltd, the court held that:
... an arbitral award will be against public policy, if it is immoral or illegal, or that it would
violate in clearly unacceptable manner basic and/or moral principles or values in the Kenyan
society. It has been held world over that the word "illegal" here would hold a wider meaning
than just "against the law". It would include contracts or acts that are void. 'Against public
policy" would also include contracts or contractual acts or awards which would offend the
conceptions of our justice in such a manner that enforcement thereof would stand to be
offensive.,,49
International judicial decisions

This area will mainly consider the decisions of the courts in the United Kingdom (UK). This
is mainly because Kenya heavily borrowed her Arbitration Act which includes the provisions
on enforcement of international arbitral awards from the UK Arbitration Act 1996 (the UK
Act). UK, just like Kenya is also a party to the New York Convention on the Recognition and
Enforcement of International Arbitral Awards. The UK Act provides that enforcement of the
award may be refused if it would be contrary to public policy to recognize or enforce the
award' .50
In the "case of Honeywell International Middle East Ltd -vs-Meydan Group LLC (formerly
known as Meydan LLC), the court considered when and how public policy would be applied
in setting aside an international arbitral award.5lThe court held that' ... the grounds on which
a New York Convention award may not be recognised are limited as set out in section 103 of
the Arbitration Act 199. Section 103(3) provides that ... enforcement of the award may be
refused if the award is in respect of a matter which is not capable of settlement by arbitration,
or if it would be contrary to public policy to recognize or enforce the award.'
The court in this case cited Dicey, Morris and Collins that English law recognises an
important public policy in the enforcement of arbitral awards and the courts will only refuse
52
to do so under s 103 in a clear case. Equally as stated in Redfern and Hunter, 'the intention
49 [2002] 1 KLR 606 .p. 626.

50 The UK Arbitration Act 1996 at Part ilIon the recognition and enforcement of Certain Foreign
Awards (ss 99-104) at Section 103 (3).
51 Construction Law Reports/Volume 154 IHoneywell International Middle East Ltd -v-Meydan
Group LLC (formerly known as Meydan LLC) - 154 ConLR 113 [2014] EWHC 1344 (TCC).
52 at para 16-150
26
of the New York Convention ... is that the grounds for refusing recognition and enforcement
of arbitral awards should be applied restrictively." They then cite Van den Berg The New
York Arbitration Convention of 1958 (1981) at pp 267 and 268 where he said: 'As far as the
grounds for refusal for enforcement of the Award as enumerated in art V are concerned it
means that they have to be construed narrowly.' As held in the case of Rosseel NV v Oriental
Commercial & Shipping Co (UK) enforcement may only be refused on the grounds set out in
s 103 of the Act and are therefore exhaustive. 54The burden of establishing the grounds under
s 103(2) is upon Meydan, although the court can raise matters under s 103(3) of its own
motion.
In the case of Soleimany -v-Soleimany (the Soleimany case), the court considered the issue of
whether an international award could be enforced in the event of an illegality as against the
backdrop of public policy consideration.f The court held that 'where considerations of public
policy were involved, the interposition of an arbitration award did not isolate the successful
party's claim from the illegality which gave rise to it'.
Parties in the Soleimany case were a father and son of Iranian Jewish origin. In contravention
of Iranian revenue laws and export controls, the son arranged for the export from Iran of
carpets which were subsequently sold by his father in England and other countries. A dispute
arose over the division of the proceeds of the scheme, and the parties referred the matter to
binding arbitration by the Beth Din, a body which applied Jewish law. The Beth Din's award
explicitly referred to the illegal nature of the enterprise, but nevertheless awarded a
substantial sum to the son; under Jewish law the illegality of the enterprise did not affect the
rights of the parties. The High Court granted the son leave to enforce the award, but the father
applied for leave to be set aside, contending that it would be contrary to public policy to
enforce an award founded on an illegal transaction. That application was dismissed by the
judge, and the father appealed. On the appeal the son contended that, at the enforcement
stage, the court should not examine the underlying transaction.
The court held that: It would not enforce an arbitration award, whether foreign or domestic, if
enforcement would be contrary to English public policy. Such policy would not allow the
53 Redfern and Hunter on International Arbitration at paragraph 11.60.

54 Rosseel NY v Oriental Commercial & Shipping Co (UK) Ltd [1991] 2 Lloyd's Rep 625 at 629
55 All England Law Reports/1999Nolume 3 ISoleimany v Soleimany - [1999] 3 All ER 847.
27
parties to conceal, through the procurement of an arbitration that one of them sought to
enforce an illegal contract, since a private agreement could not override the court's concern to
preserve the integrity of its process. Thus, where considerations of public policy were
involved, the interposition of an arbitration award did not isolate the successful party's claim
from the illegality which gave rise to it. In the instant case, although the arbitration clause
was valid, the award referred on its face to an enterprise with an illegal object which the
English court viewed as contrary to public policy. Accordingly, the award would not be
enforced, and the appeal would be allowed.
Not all challenges on the ground of public policy can be considered to be as clear cut as this.
An attempt to define public policy is seen in the case of Eco Swiss China Time Ltd v Benetton
International NV (the Eco casej." The court found that only if the terms of the award or its
enforcement conflicted with a mandatory rule so fundamental that no restrictions of a
procedural nature should prevent its application, but that a prohibition laid down in
competition law was not sufficiently fundamental.
B, a company established in the Netherlands, entered into a licensing agreement with E Ltd, a
Hong Kong based retailer, and another company, under which it granted E Ltd the right to
manufacture and sell watches and clocks bearing its name for a period of eight years. Article
26A of the agreement, which also involved a market sharing arrangement, provided that
disputes between the parties were to be settled by arbitration in accordance with Netherlands
law. In 1991 B terminated the agreement, whereupon arbitration proceedings were instituted
in the Netherlands resulting in interim and final awards being made against B. B contended
that the awards were contrary to public policy on the ground that the licensing agreement was
void under art 81 EC (ex art 85) of the EC Treaty and appl ied to the District Court for their
annulment under art 1065(1)(e) of the Code of Civil Procedure, and also a stay of
enforcement. The District Court dismissed the application, but on B's appeal the Regional
Court of Appeal granted a stay of the final award, holding that art 81 EC was a provision of
public policy within the meaning of art 1065(1)(e). E Ltd appealed by way of cassation
proceedings to the Supreme Court, which held that an arbitration award was contrary to
public policy within the meaning of art 1065(1) (e) only ifits terms or enforcement conflicted
56 All England Commercial Cases/1999IVolume 2 IEco Swiss China Time Ltd v Benetton
International NY - [1999] 2 All ER (Comm.) 44
28
with a mandatory rule so fundamental that no restrictions of a procedural nature should
prevent its application, but that a prohibition laid down in competition law was not
sufficiently fundamental. The court, however, was unclear whether the position was the same
where the provision in question was a rule of Community law and therefore stayed the
proceedings and referred to the Court of Justice of the European Communities for a
preliminary ruling the question, inter alia, whether, in such circumstances, a national court to
which application was made for annulment of an arbitration award had to grant it where, in
its view, that award was contrary to art 81 EC.
The court held that Article 81 was a fundamental provision which was essential for the
accomplishment of the tasks en-trusted to the Community and in particular for the
functioning of the internal market. Its provisions, therefore, might be regarded as a matter of
public policy within the meaning of the New York Convention on the Recognition and
Enforcement of Arbitral Awards 1958. Furthermore, Community law required that questions
concerning the interpretation of the prohibition laid down in art 81(1) EC (ex art 85(1»
should be open to examination by national courts when asked to determine the validity of an
arbitration award. It followed that a national court to which application was made for
annulment of an arbitration award had to grant that application if it considered that the award
. in question was contrary to art 81 EC, where its domestic rules of procedure required "it to
grant an application for annulment founded on failure to observe national rules of public
policy.
The court in the case of Yukos Capital Sarl v OJSC Rosnefl Oil Co examined the issue of
whose public policy should be considered in enforcement of international arbitral awards.V
The court held that an award will not be enforceable in the UK if it contravenes or effecting it
clearly established rules of international law, or are contrary to English principles of public
policy, as well as where there is a grave infringement of human rights. The court noted that
this limitation was discussed and applied in Kuwait Airways v Iraqi Airways Co, where Lord
Nicholls said that the acceptability of a provision of foreign law must be judged by
-8
contemporary standards."
57 All England Law Reports/2013IYolume I /Yukos Capital Sari v OJSC Rosneft Oil Co (No 2) -
[2013] I All ER 223
58 [2002] 3 All ER 209, [2002] 2 AC 883
29
The court also noted the decision in the case of Blathwayt v Lord Cawley where the court
held that conceptions of public policy should move with the times.59 The court noted the
decision in the case of Oppenheimer v Cattermole (Inspector of Taxes) that 'the courts of this
country should give effect to clearly established rules of international law'. The court in this
case noted held that this position is increasingly true today. As nations become ever more
interdependent, the need to recognize and adhere to standards of conduct set by international
law becomes ever more important.. ..international law, for its part, recognises that a national
court may properly decline to give effect to legislative and other acts of foreign states which
are in violation of international law.6o
The court in this case further cited the decision in the Oppenheimer's case and held that:
A judge should be slow to refuse to give effect to the legislation of a foreign state in any
sphere in which, according to accepted principles of international law, the state has
jurisdiction. Among these accepted principles is that which is founded on the comity of
nations.61 This principle normally requires our courts to recognize the jurisdiction of the
foreign state over all assets situated within its own territories.Y A judge should be slow to
depart from these principles. He may have an inadequate understanding of the circumstances
in which the legislation was passed. His refusal to recognize it may be embarrassing to the
executive, whose function is so far as possible to maintain friendly relations with foreign
states.
The court further held that:
'The essence of the publ ic pol icy exception is that it is not so constrained. The golden
rule is that care must be taken not to expand its application beyond the true limits of
the principle. These limits demand that, where there is any room for doubt, judicial
restraint must be exercised. But restraint is what is needed, not abstention, And there
59 [1975] 3 A II ER 625 at 636, [1976] AC 397 at 426 per Lord Wilberforce.

60 see the discussion in Oppenheim's International Law (9th edn, 1992) vol I, pp 371-376, para 113
61 Oppenheimer v Cattermole (Inspector of Taxes) [1975] 1 All ER 538 at 566-567, [1976] AC 249 at
277-278 per Lord Cross.
62 See Oppenheimer v Cattermole (Inspector of Taxes) [1975] I All ER 538 at 571, [1976] AC 249 at
282 per Lord Salmon.
30
is no need for restraint on grounds of public policy where it is plain beyond dispute
that a clearly established norm of international law has been violated.'63
The court in this case held that' ... there can be a still further distinction to be made between
the act of state which cannot be challenged for its effectiveness despite some alleged
unfairness, and the act of state which is sufficiently outrageous or penal or discriminatory to
set up the successful argument that it falls foul of clear international law standards or English
public policy and therefore can be challenged."
The issue of whose public policy should be considered in enforcement of international

arbitral awards was also examined by the court in the case of Tamil Nadu Electricity Board-
vs- Sf-CMS Electric Company Private Ltd (the Tamil Nadu case). The court in this case held
that "public policy" means international public policy and differs from public policy in a
domestic context.
The claimant was the state electricity board for the state of Tamil Nadu. Its principal
objective was the generation and distribution of electrical power. The defendant was an
Indian company incorporated by foreign investors from the United States, Switzerland and
the Netherlands "in 1993, for the purpose of the 'development and operation" of a 250 MW
lignite-fired power plant at Neyveli in Tamil Nadu. At the time of the defendant's
incorporation, foreign companies were not permitted to construct or own power plants; hence
an Indian company was formed. The parties concluded a long term supply agreement in
1993, which was subsequently restated and amended in November 1996 (the PPA). Under
the PPA disputes were to be settled by ICC arbitration in London, governed by English laws
and the New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral
Awards 1958; by contrast, the PPA itself was to be governed by Indian law. A dispute
subsequently arose as to charging under the PPA, which the defendant referred to arbitration.
It alleged that the claimant had used a computation methodology not provided for by the PPA
and disregarded certain key terms of the PPA. It stated that the claimant had, inter alia,
refused to give the complete benefit of the foreign exchange rate variation on the foreign
63See Oppenheimer v Catterrnole (Inspector of Taxes) [1975] 1 All ER 538 at 571, [1976] AC 249 at
282 per Lord Hope
64 See Oppenheimer v Cattermole (Inspector of Taxes) [1975] 1 All ER 538 at 571, [1976] AC 249 at
282 per Lord Hope
31
currency elements of the actual capital cost, for which specific provision was made in the
PPA. It sought an award declaring that the actual capital of cost was as it had calculated, and
a direction that the claimant pays the sum claimed.
The claimant applied to the court under s 72 of the Arbitration Act 1996 for declarations that
the matters submitted to arbitration were not within the scope of any arbitration agreement
between the parties. Two contractual exceptions existed to the application of the arbitration
clause: the first related to a dispute about an acceptance test, which was to be resolved by an
independent engineer, and secondly in the event of a 'buy-out', the price was to be determined
ultimately by an independent appraiser absent agreement. The claimant also submitted that
by virtue of the choice of Indian law as the governing law of the PPA, there was a further
exception to the jurisdiction of the arbitrator, namely the compulsorily applicable principles
of Indian law. It submitted that those principles, required determination of the tariff to be
charged by the statutory Indian body, which had to be recognised as a matter of English
conflicts principles. It further argued that the defendant was estopped from denying that the
pricing had to be determined by the Indian authorities and not by arbitration.
Whether or not there might be a defense to enforcement in India under Article V.2 (b) of the
New York Convention, as a matter of the public policy ofIndia, is neither here nor there for
these purposes, but in the context of an international treaty, "public policy" means
international public policy and differs from public policy in a domestic context. The courts of
many parties to the Convention have expressly recognised this - see The New York
Arbitration Convention of 1958 - towards a Uniform Judicial Interpretation by van den Berg
at pages 359-368, illustrated in the decision of Hobhouse J (as he then was) in the Marques
de Bolarques [1984] 1 WLR 642 at 658-659.
Furthermore, on the evidence of ST-CMS' expert on Indian law this distinction is clearly
recognised in the law of India. In his second affidavit, Mr. Jaitley referred to the decision of
the Supreme Court of India in Renusagar Power Company Lid v General Electric Co., AIR.65
There, when looking at Article V(2)(b) of the New York Convention and the section of the
Foreign Awards Act which enacted it in India, it was held that the expression "public policy"
in the Act must necessarily be construed in the sense that the doctrine of public policy is
65 Renusagar Power Company Ltd v General Electric Co., AIR 1994 SC 860.
32
applied in the field of private international law. Consequently, "it must be held that the
enforcement of a foreign award would be refused on the ground that it is contrary to public
policy if such enforcement would be contrary to (i) fundamental policy of Indian law or (ii)
the interests of India or (iii) justice or morality." In order to attract the bar of public policy,
the enforcement of the award must invoke something more than the violation of the law of
India. In an earlier decision, the Supreme Court, in MurlidharAggarval v State of Uttar
Pradesh (1974) 2 SCC 472, it was held at paragraph 28, by reference to English law
authorities, that the expression "public policy" had an entirely different meaning from "the
policy of the law" and depended upon "customary morality" and "social consequences" with
regard to the "current needs of the community".
The court ruled: On the true construction of the PPA, the Indian law clause and related
provisions did not equate to provisions requiring a dispute resolution other than arbitration, so
as to render the dispute out with the arbitration clause. There was no principle of English
private international law, nor any public policy basis, for not adopting the construction of the
arbitration clause under English law, on which basis the claimant's argument had to fail. In
any event, on the evidence as to Indian law, there was nothing which impinged on the right to
arbitrate. Nor had the claimant established any estoppel: it had not acted on any shared or
agreed assumption with the' defendant that the Indianauthoritieswould make a final and
binding decision on the relevant matters to the exclusion of any jurisdiction of the arbitrators.
The claimant's applications would be dismissed and the defendants would be entitled to
declarations as to the validity of the arbitration
The questions of definition of public policy as well as whose public policy should be
considered was also examined in the case of R -v- v.66 The court held that:
'Previous authority established that there were some rules of public policy which would when
infringed lead to non-enforcement whatever the proper law or wherever the contract was to
be performed, such as concerns regarding terrorism or drug trafficking. Contracts for the sale
of influence were not such an example. Contracts for the sale of influence if to be performed
in England would not be enforced but if to be performed abroad would not be enforced only
if performance would be contrary to the domestic public policy ofthat country as well.
66 [2008] EWHC 1531 (Comm), [2009] 1 Lloyd's Rep 97
33
The claim had been brought under the terms of a consultant agreement of March 2002. The
defendant was beneficially owned by F, whose personal services as a consultant were being
retained by the claimant. The recitals to the agreement recorded that the defendant had
expertise in Libya concerning the oil industry (F had been retained by the claimant and others
for some years as a consultant in that field).
The agreement provided for F to use his influence and information, concerning, inter alia,
negotiations with Government officials and state and private corporations, to assist the
claimant in connection with the promotion of its interests in Libya. Subsequently the claimant
took the view that the agreement was unenforceable on three grounds: (i) lack of
consideration; (ii) that F was in breach of his fiduciary duty and was precluded from
obtaining any personal benefit from the agreement; and (iii) the agreement was illegal under
Libyan law and contrary to English public policy in regard to influence peddling. The dispute
was referred to arbitration in London under the auspices of the ICe. By an award of
December 2007, the tribunal rejected the claimant's contentions and upheld the defendant's
claim for immediate payment of $US 3,000,000 and substantial further payments due on the
achievement of specified oil production figures. The claimant applied to challenge the award
under (i) s 68(2) (g) of the Arbitration Act 1996 on the ground that it was contrary to English
public policy; and (ii) s 8-J(J)(c) of the Act on the ground that it was contrary to public policy
at common law.
The court held that previous authority established that there were some rules of public policy
which would when infringed lead to non-enforcement whatever the proper law or wherever
the contract was to be performed, such as concerns regarding terrorism or drug trafficking.
Contracts for the sale of influence were not such an example. Contracts for the sale of
influence if to be performed in England would not be enforced but if to be performed abroad
would not be enforced only if performance would be contrary to the domestic public policy
of that country as well. There was no material distinction between that previous authority and
the instant case, which accordingly had to fail. There was ample material before the tribunal
that the contract was not illegal under Libyan law and the arbitrators had expressly so held.
No new evidence to the contrary had been adduced by the claimant. The tribunal was
composed of arbitrators who were highly commercially experienced and there was no
suggestion of bad faith. Moreover, the claimant's challenge would in any event have failed on
the merits. The applications were dismissed.
34
Academic texts books, journals and other writings
Kariuki Muigua in his book on Settling Disputes through Arbitration (2012) makes various
observations on the issue. He observes that 'the aim of all legal proceedings is to achieve
justice and efficiency. Arbitration is widely preferred for its advantage with regards to
efficacy."
Muigua notes that the practice of commercial arbitration in Kenya continues to be weighed
down by 'litigious parties who even after the arbitrator makes an Award, would still want to
challenge it in court on public policy grounds." He takes the view that this could hamper the
enforceability of arbitral Awards and also erode the gains made in fronting arbitration as an
expeditious dispute settlement mechanism in Kenya. Muigua however cautions that 'if the
final Award cannot be timeously recognised and enforced by a competent court, the
superiority of arbitration in terms of efficiency will be weakened or even thoroughly
frustrated.69
Githu Muigai and Jacqueline Kamau, in their chapter on the legal framework of Arbitration
in Kenya make various observations. 70 They note that an arbitral Award is binding and final
upon parties." With this regard, they point out that Award can only be appealed against if
parties reserve their right of appeal.f Even then, they note, such reservation and appeal can
be only on points of law." They further note that there has been rapid growth in international
commerce, effectively requiring that international commercial arbitration have an
international enforcement mechanism of enforcement of international arbitral
Awards.i'Muigai and Kamau note that this mechanism has taken the form of the New York
Convention."
67 Muigua, K., Settling Disputes through Arbitration in Kenya, 2nd ed.(Kenya: Gleenwood Publishers
Limited, 2012) p. 205
68 Kariuki Muigua op. cit. p.224
69 Kariuki Muigua op cit, p. 205

70 Muigai, G. and Kamau, J., Arbitration Law and Practice in Kenya: the legal framework of
arbitration in Kenya, 2nd ed. (Kenya: Law Africa Publishing (K) Limited, pp 1-10
71 Githu, p. 6.See also section 32 A through amendments by the Amendment Act.
72 Githu, p. 6. See also Section 39 of the Arbitration Act. As also read with section 32A vide the
Amendment Act.
73 Section 39 of the Arbitration Act. As also read with section 32A vide the Amendment Act.
74 Githu, p. 9.
75 Kenya acceded to the New Your Convention on 10 February, 1989, with a reservation on
reciprocity.
35
Njoroge Regeru in his chapter on Recognition and Enforcement of Arbitral Awards cautions
that an arbitral Award, though automatically binding upon the parties, does not immediately
entitle the successful party to levy execution against the unsuccessful party.i" Regeru notes
that the successful party must first lodge the Award with the court for recognition and
enforcement, where after it shall be treated as a judgment of the court, where execution of the
Award may ensue." Regeru thus observes that the recognition and enforcement of arbitral
Awards is of great importance and significance in the arbitral process." He says that the
Award is the culmination of the arbitral process and the recognition and enforcement of the
Award as the final vindication of the process."
As stated by Kariuki Muigua, Regeru notes that:
The purpose of enforcement is to act as a sword and it is a positive action taken to

compel the losing party to carry out an award that he is unwilling or unable to carry
out effectively. It therefore means applying sanctions to ensure the award is carried
out. Possible sanctions include seizure of assets and forfeiture of bank accounts."
Brenda Brainch, in her paper presented in the 'year 2003 on the Climate 'Of Arbitration in
Kenya brings discusses the advantages of arbitration including the expeditious disposal of
matters, as compared with the court process." Brenda points out an infamous adage that: 'It is
better to enter the mouth of a lion than a Kenyan court of law,.82Brenda refers to the words of
the Chief Justice of Tanzania, the Hon Justice Nyalali once said: 'The use of custom, special
76 Regeru, N., in Arbitration Law and Practice in Kenya: Recognition and Enforcement of Arbitral
Awards, 2nd ed. (Kenya: Law Africa Publishing (K) Limited, pp 121-156, p. 123.
77 Regeru, p. 123.
78 Regeru, p.123
79 Regeru, p.123.
80 Regeru, p.122. See also Redfern, A. Hunter, M. 1999, 'Law & Practice of International
Arbitration' 3rd edn. (Sweet & Maxwell: London). P.449. Also see Campell, D. and Summerfield, P.,
(1989), Effective Dispute Resolution for the International Commercial Lawyer: Kluwer Law and
Taxation Publishers, Boston, p. 169.
81 Branch, B.,The Climate of Arbitration and ADR in Kenya: Paper given to the Colloquium on
Arbitration and ADR in African States, King's College London, June 2003. The paper is presented at a
time soon after a new government had assumed power in Kenya.(This paper has since been published
in the Commonwealth Lawyer 2003, Indian ICFAI Journal of ADR, Corporate Africa, CEDR (Centre
for Effective Dispute Resolution) London Website).
82 Ibid, Branch, B.,
36
rules and communal practice to resolve disputes is not a strange idea. It is common in most
African communities and in commercial communities the world over'.
Brenda cautions that while enacting legislation is a positive step, the reality is that it does not
necessarily provide certainty. She points out that Kenya's legal fraternity is concerned at
judges recently overturning arbitral awards on seemingly weak grounds. She notes that at the
international level, arbitration is still very much in its infancy but Kenya can boast competent,
if insufficient numbers of, experienced arbitrators. She notes that donor contracts, citing
World Bank and construction-related contracts usually espouse and envisage arbitration as
the first stop in dispute resolution and there is no question that arbitration makes a significant
contribution to commercial justice in Kenya and that concerted efforts are needed to ensure
the development of ADR on a Pan-African scale. Brenda states that a Regional Arbitration
Centre has been discussed by our Attorney General over the past five years but nothing has
transpired. It is important to point out that Brenda's paper was presented in the year 2003. A
considerable number of issues have changed since 2003 in the field of international
arbitration in Kenya. For purposes of this paper, Brenda's paper has been used as one of the
reference points in terms of Kenya's journey in the arena of international arbitration.
Aakanksha Kumar in the journal 'Foreign Arbitral Awards Enforcement and the Public
Policy Exception - India's Move Towards Becoming and Arbitration-Friendly Jurisdiction,
examines Arbitration as the most popular method of dispute resolution.t' Kumar explains that
arbitration is currently the predominant method of the settlement of disputes arising in
international commercial relations. Kumar observes that for many lawyers, and clients too,
worldwide arbitration is one of the most successful and flexible forms of dispute resolution.
Mohamed AI-Nasair and llias Bantekas in the journal on the Effect of Public Policy on the
Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards in Bahrain and United Arab Emirates (UAE)
84
considers public policy violations in Islamic law in the UAE and Bahrain.
Nasair and Bantekas in attempting to shed some light on the notion of an Islamic public and
to define the concept of public policy or public order from the perspective of Islamic, and
83 Aakanksha Kumar 'Foreign Arbitral Awards Enforcement and the Public Policy Exception - India's
Move Towards Becoming and Arbitration-Friendly Jurisdiction [2014] Int. A.L.R. 76.
84 International Arbitration Law Review [2013] Int. A.L.R. 88-96
37
from that of the law of the UAE and Bahrain argue that while it might be expected that public
policy in the Muslim world would have encompassed all those religious elements that are
usually associated with Qua'ranic prohibition, such as usury and the charging of commercial
interest, this is not the case in general terms, and that the laws of the UAE and Bahrain are no
longer opposed to commercial practices that are routinely encountered in the industrialised
nations of the West.
Keith Rosenn in the journal article on the enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards in Brazil
the requirements for procedures before an arbitral award is enforced." Rosenn observes that
the requirements for confirmation and other procedures before an arbitral award is enforced
defeat the purpose of inexpensive and speedy resolution of disputes as aimed in international
commercial arbitrarion"
Leonardo de Campos Melo in his article on the Recognition of Foreign Arbitral Awards in
Brazil',87 observes that a key indicator that Brazil is becoming a key player in world trade is
the fact that its nationals and companies are increasingly involved in international contracts.
He notes that effectively, the contracts have led to subsequent disputes. Melo observes that if
an arbitral award is to become effective in Brazil, the winning party will have to file a request
for the recognition of the' foreign arbitral award before the Brazillan'Superior Tribunal de'
Justica ("STJ") and the STJ has final jurisdiction over disputes which raise issues of Brazilian
federal law and also has original and exclusive jurisdiction over the recognition of foreign
arbitral awards Therefore, Melo observes that it is only upon such recognition by the STJ that
a successful party in a foreign arbitration can be enforced or otherwise relied upon in Brazil.
While Brazil is not a Model state and therefore can be argued to have a different arbitral
system from Kenya, Rosenn's and Melo's articles, expose substantively similar challenges on
enforcement of international awards in Brazil to the Kenyan situation, hence forming part of
85 The American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 28, No.3 (Summer, 19S0), pp. 49S-506,
Published by American Society of Comparative Law, http://www.jstor.org/stable/S39597
accessed: 13/11/2013 OS:14
86Rosenn, p.49S.
87Leonardo de Campos Melo, Article: Recognition Of Foreign Arbitral Awards In Brazil, Hans Smit
and Juris Publishing, Inc.,2013:
https:lliitigation-
essentials .Iex isnex is.com/webcd/app ?action=DocumentDis play &craw Iid= 1&doctype=c ite&docid=24
+Am.+Rev.+lnt'I+Arb.+ 113&srctype=smi&srcid=3B 15&key=5eI12dSda78d 109S136ef2dfcl0aeSd2
38
this discussion. Through their study of the Brazilian position on this problem, they expose an
example of a system that subjects foreign awards to rigorous tests before enforcement.
Christopher Koch, in his article on the comparison between the French and u.s. experience
in the Enforcement of Awards Annulled in their Place of Origin also makes observations
relevant to this study." Koch compares the approach by France and the United States. He
examines the extent to which awards which have been annulled in their country of origin can
be enforced in the two countries. Citing the 1990's Hilmarton case in France and the United
States decision in Chromalloy Koch notes that in both cases, the courts enforced awards that
had been set aside in their place of origin, not pursuant to the New York Convention, but on
the basis of the more favorable provisions of domestic arbitration law. Koch takes a similar
position as Mehren that the French courts continue to ignore foreign annulment decisions,
and will enforce an international arbitration award despite what the domestic jurisdiction
finds as to its validity. The courts in the United States on the other hand have gradually
refused to enforce awards, which were set aside at the place of arbitration: they will disregard
a foreign annulment decision only if it fundamentally violates the United States public policy.
This comparative study illuminates the glaring inconsistency of enforcement of transnational
awards.
Taylor von Mehren, in his journal Article on the contribution of the French Jurisprudence to
international commercial arbitration discusses the principle of private autonomy as a guiding
principle in arbitration.Y He demonstrates how France has well incorporated this principle in
enforcement of foreign arbitral awards. He further supports his analysis of the "contractual
nature of arbitration" approach by France by stating the fact that a foreign decision annulling
or suspending an award-even an award rendered on the foreign court's territory-poses no legal
impediment to the award's recognition or enforcement in France. This principle of private
autonomy espouses that parties have a right to dictate the extent and effects of their contracts
without interference by external factors including national legislation systems. This principle
is relevant to the study because arbitral awards are borne out of arbitration agreements set out
by the parties to a contract.
88 Christopher Koch, 'The Enforcement of Awards Annulled in their Place of Origin: The French and
u.s. Experience' (Kluwer Law International, 2003), 26 Journal of International Arbitration -2.
89 Arthur Taylor von Mehren, International Commercial Arbitration: The Contribution of the French
Jurisprudence, 46 La. L. Rev. (1986) Available at:
http://digitalcommons.law.lsu.edu/lalrev/voI46/iss5/2, accessed 12111/2013.
39
1.9. JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY
The Constitution of Kenya requires the courts and tribunals to be guided by, among other
principles, alternative forms of dispute resolution including arbitration in exercising their
judicial authority.r" It also provides that the general rules of international law shall form part
of the law of Kenya and that any treaty or convention ratified by Kenya shall form part of the
law of Kenya, subject to the domestic laws of Kenya."
Kenya's legislation as well as international law provides that subject the domestic
enforcement of international arbitral awards to the consideration of the public policy of the
country. The Arbitration Act of Kenya (1995) provides that:
The recognition or enforcement of arbitral award, irrespective of the state in which it was
made, may be refused ... if the High Court finds that... the recognition or enforcement of the
arbitral award would be contrary to the public policy of Kenya,.92
A provision with a similar effect is contained in the New York Convention .
. The international law principle of privateautonomysuggests that parties 'havea right to

dictate the extent and effects of their contracts, and that, the law has no business impeding the
recognition or enforcement of international arbitral awards. Another international law
principle, public policy, on the other hand suggests that the state is required to exercise
restraint and to protect the right of the individual to contract freely, albeit by incorporation of
legal limitations to the recognition or enforcement of international arbitral awards.
There is need therefore to examine the meanmg of public policy as a limitation on

enforcement of international arbitral awards in Kenya and the setback of this limitation.
This study will therefore critically examine public policy limitation on enforcement of
international arbitral awards in Kenya under both domestic as well as international law. The
study will also analyze Kenyan law and practice on the meaning and application of public
policy limitation on enforcement of international arbitral awards. The study will further
90Constitution of Kenya, 2010, (the Constitution) Article 159 (2).

91Article 2(5) and 2(6).
92 Arbitration Act, section 37 (b)(ii) see also the NYC Article V
40
examine the interpretation and effect of public policy as a limitation on enforcement of
arbitral awards in Kenya, the effect of its lack of a concise definition. The study will also
compare Kenya's position on the issue to some other selected jurisdictions.
Further, the paper will highlight the challenges of public policy as a limitation of enforcement
of international arbitral awards in Kenya. The study will finally recommend possible
interventions to address the identified challenges concerning public policy as a limitation to
enforcement of international arbitral awards in Kenya. By highlighting the challenges and
suggesting possible interventions, the paper will be charting a way forward to improve the
application of public policy as a limitation to enforcement of international arbitral awards in
Kenya.
1.10. CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This study is mainly informed by three schools of jurisprudence: the Classical Contract
theory, social obligation theory and the conflict of laws theory. It also borrows from various
other schools of thought.
Classical contract theory advocates for the untestricted freedom of contract between- parties
who bear equal bargaining power, perfect knowledge of relevant market conditions and equal
skil1.93 Roscoe Pound, a classical positivist observed that "the social order rests upon stability
and predictability of conduct, of which keeping promises is a large item,,94. They argue that
the doctrines of promissory estoppel and unconscionability ought to apply with regards to
protection of the benefits that freedom of contract was believed to establish. They observe
that social order rests upon stability and predictability of conduct, of which keeping promises
is paramount. They thus propose that enforcement of bargains as made protects the
reasonable expectations of the parties that promises will be performed and contributes to
93 Freedom of contract is defined as the power to decide whether to contract and to establ ish the terms
of the bargain.
94Roscoe Pound, III Jurisprudence 162-63 (1959).
41
certainty and stability in the marketplace. Accordingly, they say, the government has a duty
to exercise restraint and to guard the right of the individual to contract freely."
The social obligation theory on the other hand advocates that it is the duty of government to
exercise restraint and to protect the right of the individual to contract freely. They therefore
encourage incorporation of community norms into the contract relationship. They also
suggest the role that courts should also play in matters of private bargaining. 96
Conflict of laws theory advances that party autonomy presents a problem in that if individuals
are allowed to choose which law will be applied to their dispute, it would appear that private
persons could determine the outcome of the battle between states. Under this, the principle of
Party autonomy which has become the one principle in conflict of laws that is followed by
almost all and which is said to be the most widely accepted private international law rule of
our time will be keenly examined."
In light of this, the study examines the existing system of enforcing trans-national awards
issued to be executed outside the geographical jurisdiction of the awarding tribunal. It looks
at the international instruments governing enforcement of these awards. It examines domestic
instruments in selected countries across the world: Brazil;' the United States of America'
(U.S.A) and France. It further inquires into the interaction between the international and
domestic instruments and points out the challenges. It examines to what extent the two
jurisprudential schools should be embraced. Finally the paper recommends interventions to
achieve a cohesive system of enforcing trans-national arbitral awards internationally.
95 See also Emmanuel Gaillard: Legal Theory of International Arbitration: http://www.brill.com/legal-

theory-international-arbitration, accessed 15/08/2014.
The author notes that fundamentally philosophical notions of party autonomy and freedom are at the
heart enforcement of international arbitral Awards: the questions of legitimacy raised by the parties'
freedom to favor a private form of dispute resolution over national courts, to choose their judges, to
tailor the procedure and to choose the applicable rules of law, and by the arbitrators' freedom to
determine their own jurisdiction, to shape the conduct of the proceedings and to choose the rules
applicable to the dispute.
The present work, based on a Course given at The Hague Academy of International Law in the
summer 2007, identifies the philosophical postulates that underlie this field of study and shows their
profound coherence and the practical consequences that follow from these postulates in the resolution
of international disputes.
96 See generally Symeon C. Symeonides, General Report, in Private International Law at the End of
the 20th Century: Progress or Regress? I, 38- 40 ( 1999) (demonstrating that party autonomy is
followed by virtually all major legal systems), and Russell J. Weintraub, Functional Developments in
Choice of Law for Contracts, 187 Recueil Des Cours 239, 271 (1984).
"tu« fn.95.
42
1.11. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The study mainly involves desktop research. Library research and internet research will be
conducted.
The primary sources of information shall include:

1. Constitution of Kenya, 2010;
2. Acts of Parliament of Kenya including:
I. Arbitration (Amendment) Act 2009;
11. Arbitration Act, Chapter 49 Laws of Kenya;
3. Case law from Kenya and other relevant jurisdictions; and
4. International legal instruments.
The secondary sources of information shall include:
1. Text books, journals and other texts by authoritative authors; and

2. The internet including online libraries and websites.
1.12. CHAPTER OUTLINE
Chapter one: Introduction
The chapter starts by laying out the parameters of the research. Further, the basis of the
research problem is explained and also briefly captured in subsequent statements of the
problem. Additionally, the chapter sets out the objectives of the search and briefly narrates
the justification of this study. The chapter then briefly discusses the jurisprudential arguments
relevant to the research problem. Moreover, the chapter studies the legal provisions as well as
literary publications related to the problem. The chapter then states the hypothesis that this
paper sets out to test. Additionally, the chapter offers an outlay of the sequence of the
chapters as well as a brief summary of each of the chapters. Finally, the chapter explains how
the research informing this paper is conducted.
43
Chapter two: The legal and institutional framework on enforcement of international
arbitral awards in Kenya: judicial interpretation and effect of the public policy
consideration.
This chapter examines the first research question: What is the Kenyan law position on
enforcement of international arbitral awards domestically? The chapter examines the legal
framework in Kenya on enforcement of international arbitral awards. The chapter then looks
at the institutions that Kenya has set up to effect international arbitral awards. The chapter
particularly examines the interpretation the courts in Kenya have applied to this legal and
institutional framework with regards to the public policy limitation on enforcement of
international arbitral awards in Kenya.
Chapter three: Relevant International legal and institutional framework: judicial

interpretation and effect of the public policy consideration.
This chapter examines the second research question: What is the relevant international law
position on enforcement of international arbitral awards in Kenya? This chapter defines
international legal instruments, in particular conventions and treaties which Kenya has
ratified. The chapter examines the two main modes of conducting it: institutional and ad hoc
arbitration. This chapter then looks at some of the international institutions set up by the
international instruments to handle arbitration. The chapter espouses on the differences and
relationship between the concepts of enforcement and recognition of award. The paper
discusses the various international instruments and institutions on these issues. The chapter
particularly examines the interpretation the courts in non-Kenyan jurisdictions have applied
to this legal and institutional framework with regards to the public policy limitation on
enforcement of international arbitral awards in Kenya.
Chapter four: Comparative analysis
Having looked at the legal and institutional framework in Kenya and under international law
on enforcement of international arbitral awards in chapter two and three respectively, this
chapter focuses on the position the courts have taken in interpreting theses legal instruments
provisions on public policy as a ground for setting aside an international arbitral award.
44
This chapter therefore focuses on answering question three: What is the Kenyan and non-
Kenyan judicial interpretation of public policy as a ground for setting aside an international
arbitral award? This chapter compares the examines how various courts both locally and
international as well as international arbitral institutions define and effect public policy as a
ground for setting aside an international arbitral award.
Chapter five: Conclusions and recommendations
This chapter sums up the discussions in the preceding chapters. The chapter makes a
conclusion on the research problem, in light of the discussions. The hypotheses laid out at the
beginning of the research, in chapter one, are then compared with the findings of the
research; this either proves or disproves the hypotheses. Finally, the chapter makes
recommendations on how to ensure a system that gives a harmonized system of enforcement
of transnational arbitral awards to give credence to such awards. In particular, the chapter
recommends what can be done to the Kenyan system to make Kenya friendly to enforcement
of arbitration, thereby promoting Kenya as the hub of arbitration.
The paper suggests that where parties have valid arbitral agreements, an award ought to be
enforced regardless of': domestic : provisions unless the defaulting party can offer
commensurate satisfaction of the award in another country without prejudicing the
beneficiary.
45
CHAPTER TWO
KENYA'S LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
2.1. INTRODUCTION
In chapter 1, the paper has laid out the challenge that has come about as a result of lacking a
concise definition of public policy as a ground for setting aside an arbitral award. The
discussion concludes that the lack of a concise definition of public policy has greatly
challenged the inherent nature and perception of the arbitral process as an expeditious and
effective mode of resolution of disputes. It has raised significant questions regarding the role
of the state and the courts in the arbitral process which has hitherto been widely viewed as a
private process, mainly driven by the parties in a dispute. The chapter suggests that that a
concise definition of public policy as a limitation on enforcement of international arbitral
awards should be adapted to anticipate and promote the certainty and finality of the arbitral
process.
In this Chapter, I draw from the findings in Chapter 1 to answer the research question one:
What 'is the Kenyan law position and definition of public policy in relation to enforcement of
international arbitral awards domestically? I explore the regulatory and institutional
framework in Kenya on enforcement of international arbitral awards. I also examine question
the interpretation of Kenyan courts on these legal positions on public policy as a ground for
setting aside international arbitral awards in Kenya.
The conclusions drawn from this chapter will together with the conclusions drawn in the rest
of the chapters assist in answering the question: How best can public policy be applied to the
enforcement of international arbitral awards?
2.2. LEGAL FRAMEWORK
"The necessary power to give effect to the legal consequences of arbitration, which is
the whole raison d'etre of the arbitral process, is invariably vested in national courts
by legislation. So far as known to this author, this is the position in all legal systems
throughout the world. In the ultimate analysis of the effectiveness of the private
46
process must therefore rest upon the binding, and even coercive powers which each
state entrusts to its courts. It is the exercise of these powers which each state entrusts
to its courts. It is the exercise of these powers which determines whether the acts of
the arbitral award are to be recognised and enforced or are rendered nugatory and
98
ineffective.
The domestic framework on enforcement of international arbitral awards in Kenya is mainly

found in the Constitution of Kenya, 2010, the Arbitration Act, 1995 (and the Arbitration
Amendment Act of 2009.99 These lay the basis for application of the relevant international
legal framework. The Arbitration Act, 1995 as read together with the Arbitration
Amendment Act of 2009 is the substantive law on arbitration. J 00
Arbitration Act, 1995
The Arbitration Act, 1995 at section 37 provides that:
The recognition or enforcement of arbitral award, irrespective of the state in which it was
made, may be refused only:
(a) at the request of the party against whom it is invoked, if that party furnishes to the
High Court proof that:
(i) a party to the arbitration agreement was under some incapacity; or
(ii) the arbitration agreement is not valid under the law to which the parties have
subjected it or, failing any indication of that law, under the law of the state where
the arbitral award was made;
(ii) the party against whom the arbitral award is invoked was not given proper
notice of the appointment of an arbitrator or of the arbitral proceedings or
was otherwise unable to present his case; or
98 Per the late Sir Kerr, M., LJ CA: Arbitration and the Courts: The UNCITRAL Model Law (1985)34
ICLQ. Cited by Regeru, N., p.154
99 The Constitution of Kenya
100 The Constitution of Kenya
47
(iii) the arbitral award deals with a dispute not contemplated by or not falling
within the terms of the reference to arbitration, or it contains decisions on
matters beyond the scope of the reference to arbitration, provided that if the
decisions on matters referred to arbitration can be separated from those not
so referred, that part of the arbitral award which contains decisions on
matters referred to arbitration may be recognised and enforced; or
(iv) the composition of the arbitral tribunal or the arbitral procedure was not in
accordance with the agreement of the parties or, failing any agreement by the
parties, was not in accordance with the law of the state where the arbitration
took place; or
(v) the arbitral award has not yet become binding on the parties or has been set
aside or suspended by a court of the state in which, or under the law of
which, that arbitral award was made; or
(vi) the making of the arbitral award was induced or affected by fraud, bribery,
corruption or undue influence.
(b) if the High Court finds that-
(i) the subject matter of the dispute is not capable of settlement by arbitration under
the law of Kenya; or
(ii) the recognition or enforcement of the arbitral award would be contrary to the
public policy of Kenya.
(2) If an application for the setting aside or suspension of an arbitral award has been made to
a court referred to in subsection (I) (a) (vi), the High Court may, if it considers it proper,
adjourn its decision and may also, on the application of the party claiming recognition or
enforcement of the arbitral award, order the other party to provide appropriate security.
There are therefore several grounds for setting an international arbitral award. The decisions
discussed in this paper touch on most of them. While the other grounds for setting aside of an
international arbitral award will be referred to from time to time in this paper, the paper is
mainly concerned with public policy, in particular, the lack of a definition of the term.
48
Nairobi Centre for International Arbitration ActlOI
This act provides for the establishment of regional center for international commercial
arbitration and the Arbitral Court and to provide for mechanisms for alternative dispute
resolution and for connected purposes.l'"
The key international legal framework currently applicable to enforcement of international

arbitral awards in Kenya is found in the United Nations Convention on the Recognition and
enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards, the United Nations Commission on International
Trade Law, hereinafter referred to as UNCITRAL, Arbitration Rules, 1978, the UNCITRAL
Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration 1985, hereinafter referred to as the
UNCITRAL Model Law, and the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law,
Principles of International Commercial Contracts, hereinafter referred to as UNIDROIT.103
The relevance of enforcement in arbitration cannot be emphasized enough. Njoroge Regeru

cautions that an arbitral award, though automatically binding upon the parties, does not
immediately entitle the successful party to levy execution against the unsuccessful party.l'"
Regeru notes that the successful party must first lodge the award with the court for
recognition" and enforcement, where after it shall be treated as' a judgment of the court, where
execution of the award may ensue.l'" He states that the arbitral award is the culmination of
the arbitral process and the recognition and enforcement of the award as the final vindication
of the process. 106
Regeru notes that the enforcement is a positive action taken to compel the losing party to
carry out an award that he is unwilling or unable to carry out effectively through various
sanctions. I 07
101 Act No. 26 of2013

102 Ibid, preamble.
103 The United Nations Convention on the Recognition and enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards is
commonly referred to as the "New You Convention", and herein referred to as the "NYC". The NYC
was adopted by party states in 1958 and became effective as of June 1959.
104 Njoroge Regeru, p. 123.
105 Regeru, p. 123.
106 Regeru, p.123.
107 Regeru, p.I22. See also Redfern, A. Hunter, M. 1999, 'Law & Practice of International
Arbitration' 3rd edn. (Sweet & Maxwell: London). P.449. Also see Campell, D. and Summerfield, P.,
49
The practice of commercial arbitration in Kenya continues to be weighed down by 'litigious
parties who even after the arbitrator makes an award, would still want to challenge it in court
on public policy grounds.l'" This could hamper the enforceability of arbitral awards and also
erode the gains made in fronting arbitration as an expeditious dispute settlement mechanism
in Kenya.
The practice of domestic and international arbitration in Kenya is conducted within the
framework of our 1995 Arbitration Act and is interpreted as: 'any arbitration whether or not
administered by a permanent arbitral institution'. The Act follows the UNCITRAL model
almost word for word but with several omissions on costs and interest, which omissions are
dealt with by the Rules of an active local branch of the Chartered Institute of Arbitrators-
Kenya. In addition to ratifying the UNClTRAL Model Law, Kenya has also ratified the New
York Convention, the WTO and WIPO Treaties relating to arbitration.
The national arbitration legislation remains relevant to the enforcement of international

arbitral awards even in the existence International legal and institutional framework
There are a number of importantareas in which the application of national arbitration law is
mandatory even where the parties have agreed upon an ad hoc procedural framework or to
subject their arbitration to institutional arbitration rules.109 One such area is the enforcement
of the award in a particular jurisdiction.
A substantial number of countries have in recent years reformed their national arbitration
legislation to a greater or lesser extent on the basis of or by reference to the UNC[TRAL
Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration, which was first published by
UNCITRAL in 1985 (Model Law (1985)) and in an amended version in 2006 (Model Law
(1989), Effective Dispute Resolution for the International Commercial Lawyer: Kluwer Law and
Taxation Publishers, Boston, p. 169.
108 Dr. Kariuki Muigua in his book on Settling Disputes through Arbitration, published in the year
2012 makes various observations on the issue, P.224
109 M Blessing, "Mandatory Rules of Law versus Party Autonomy in International Arbitration",
Journal of International Arbitration (1997) pp 23 - 40; G C Moss, International Commercial
Arbitration - Party Autonomy and Mandatory Rules (1999); and J Sicard-Mirabal, "Mandatory Rules:
What's a Lawyer to Do?", in A J van den Berg (edn), Arbitration Advocacy in Changing Times, ICCA
Congress Series (2010) pp 348 - 361.
50
(2006)).17 The Model Law (1985) (as amended by the Model Law (2006)) is increasingly
accepted internationally as the model to which countries look when it comes to updating their
arbitration legislation. As a result, the emerging similarity of approach makes arbitration laws
increasingly more uniform and arbitration more attractive as a means of resolving
international business disputes. I 10
A key feature of arbitration is that it provides the parties with a large degree of autonomy in
the conduct of their arbitral proceedings, II1 and the arbitral tribunal with wide-ranging
procedural powers, to ensure that the conduct of any arbitration is proportionate and
appropriate to the issues in dispute, subject only to such safeguards as are necessary in the
pu hliIC .Interest. 112
This Chapter examines the arbitration statutes in leading arbitral centres particularly the
United Kingdom. The treatise's focus is expressly international, focusing on how both
developed and other jurisdictions around the world give effect to the New York Convention
and to international arbitration agreements and arbitral awards.
The treatise also focuses on leading institutional arbitration rules, particularly those adopted
by the International Chamber of Cotnmerce, the London Court of International- Arbitration
and the American Arbitration Association's International Centre for Dispute Resolution, as
well as the UNCITRAL Rules 14.
The Chapter's international and comparative focus rests on the premise that the treatments of
international arbitral awards in states that are parties to the NYC is highly similar. From this
perspective, the treatment of a court in one NYC jurisdiction for instance in the UK which is
a signatory to the NYC regarding enforcement of international arbitration awards is based on
an application of highly similar considerations. I therefore limit my comparisons to NYC
countries.
110 F Weigand, Practitioner's Handbook on International Commercial Arbitration (2nd Edition, 2009)
ch. I, recital 1.99 et seq.See
hllp:/leguides.cmslegal.comlpdflarbitration volume IICMS%20GtA Vol%20I OVERVIEWpd(
111 Cf M Pryles, "Limits to Party Autonomy in Arbitral Procedure", Journal of International
Arbitration (2007) pp 327 - 339; J Lew, L Mistelis and S Kroll, Comparative International
Commercial Arbitration (2003) s 1.11; and N Blackaby, C Partasides, A Redfern and J M H Hunter,
Redfern and Hunter on International Arbitration (5th Edition, 2009) s 1.73.
112 Regeru, p. 123.
51
In practice, the principle of judicial non-interference in the arbitral processll3, the immunities
of arbitrators and the recognition and enforcement of arbitral awards, decisions in individual
national courts have drawn upon and developed a common body of international arbitration
law. Guided by the constitutional principles of the New York Convention, legislatures and
courts in Contracting States around the world have in practice looked to and relied upon one
another's decisions and have formulated and progressively refined legal frameworks of
national law to ensure the effective enforcement of international arbitration agreements and
awards.
2.3. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
In the year 2013, the Nairobi Centre for International Arbitration (NCIA) was established in
Kenya by passing the Nairobi Centre for International Arbitration Act No. 26 of 20l3. The
main objective of the NCIA is to facilitate the establishment of an independent and nonprofit
centre with a broad mandate necessary to administer domestic and international arbitration in
Kenya. 114
The centre is expected to create and maintain proactive cooperation with other regional and
international institutions in the field of alternative dispute resolution. 115
Arbitration in Kenya before the Centre
Historically, arbitration in Kenya was of a purely domestic nature, with principles

substantially drawn from the English Arbitration Act 1996. 116 In the absence of specific
provisions for regional and international arbitration, major multinational entities setting up in
Kenya generally opted to include clauses for the resolution of disputes through arbitration in
113 Refer to Arbitration & Civil Procedure Act.

114 Kamau Karori, A momentous step: Kenya establishes international arbitration centre
International Arbitration Newsletter, 20 December 2013, accessed 18 August 2014.
52
other international seats, such as London or Mauritius, which have well-established
international arbitration mechanisms.
From around 2010, the Kenyan business community started to push for the creation of a legal
and institutional framework for international arbitration. 117This arose from the rapid growth
in foreign investment in the various sectors of the economy and the de Jacto establishment of
Nairobi as the regional commercial hub. To facilitate the penetration of arbitration and other
forms of alternative dispute resolution, the drafters of the 2010 Constitution of Kenya gave
the courts a wide latitude to utilize alternative dispute resolution mechanisms. In line with
that thinking, the NCIA was established under the Nairobi Centre for International
Arbitration Act No. 26 of2013.
TheNCIA
It is expected that the centre will draw heavily from the experiences of the more established
institutions such as the International Chamber of Commerce and the London Court of
International Arbitration. To ensure the centre is well funded, provision has been made for
the centre to receive funds from the government as well as monies donated or otherwise made
availableto the centre from other sources.
Under the statute establishing it, the centre will have an Arbitral Court comprised of a
president, two deputy presidents, the registrar and 15 other members, all of whom are to be
leading international arbitrators from countries in the region. The Arbitral Court will have
exclusive original and appellate jurisdiction to hear and determine all disputes referred to it in
accordance with the Act or any other written law. The board appointed under the governing
statute will have the power to make rules for the recognition and enforcement of arbitral
awards.
Expected impact of the NCIA
53
The establishment of the NCIA is a momentous step towards having a well institutionalised
and better co-ordinated arbitration centre for international arbitration in Kenya. The centre
has placed Nairobi on the path to being on a par with other major financial hubs that are
highly attractive to international investors due to their capacity for speedy commercial
dispute resolution. It is expected that Kenya's international arbitration centre will quickly
commence its dispute resolution functions and offer a new platform with the capacity and
goodwill to serve the region's ever-increasing international arbitration needs.
2.4. CONCLUSION
This chapter has explored the first research question: What is the Kenyan law position on
enforcement of international arbitral awards domestically? The hypothesis that has
undergirded this study is that there is no concise definition of public policy as a limitation to
enforcement of international arbitral awards in Kenya.
In this effort, the chapter has analyzed the provisions and process of enforcement of
international arbitral awards generally, and public policy as a ground for setting aside of
international arbitral awards in particular. It has described the legal framework of
enforcement of international arbitral awards in Kenya, and the resultant institutional
framework with the aim of appreciating the vagueness in defining public policy as set in the
various instruments and functions of various stakeholders in the international arbitral process.
The main aim of this discourse has been to examine whether Kenya's legislative framework
has given a definitive test as to what constitutes public policy as a ground for setting aside an
international arbitral award in Kenya.
As discussed in section 2.2 Kenya's legislative framework does not offer a clear definition of
public policy. Courts playa key role in the recognition and enforcement of arbitral awards.l"
The court's main role in the arbitration process is to recognize and enforce the arbitral
119
award. This role of the courts is more elaborately discussed at chapter four. This chapter
has also established that current legislation and practices in Kenya regarding domestic
recognition and enforcement of international arbitral awards are consistent with the New
118 Regeru, 155.

119 Regeru, 155.
54
York Convention (the NYC) and the UNCITRAL Model Law.120 It is therefore important to
examine whether these instruments define public policy. A concise definition in these
international instruments, in particular the NYC would cure the lack of a concise definition
under Kenyan legislation. This is because an international arbitration award in Kenya
enforced in accordance to the provisions of the New York Convention or any other
convention to which Kenya is signatory and relating to arbitral awards.l " This raises
important issues, with regard to the role of the international instruments on the enforcement
of international arbitral awards in Kenya.
Chapter three attempts to answer this question by exploring the second research question:
What is the relevant international law position on enforcement of international arbitral awards
in Kenya? This mainly includes: The UNCITRAL Model Law and the New York Convention
on the Recognition and enforcement of International Arbitral awards. Other international
instruments will also be examined together with the international institutional framework.
120 Regeru, p. 155

121 Arbitration Act, section 36(2).
55
CHAPTER THREE
INTERNATIONAL LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The Arbitration Act of Kenya provides that:
An international arbitration award shall be recognised as binding and enforced in accordance

to the provisions of the New York Convention or any other convention to which Kenya is
122
signatory and relating to arbitral awards.
Having examined in Chapter 2 Kenya's framework and judicial interpretation on public

policy consideration in setting aside of an international arbitral award, and having concluded
that Kenya's legislation and practices in relation to enforcement of international arbitral
awards is based on international treaties and conventions, in particular, the New York
Convention and the UNCITRAL Model Law, it is important to examine in detail the
international law position on the issue.
-- .
This chapter therefore examines the second research question: What is the international law
position and definition of public policy in relation to domestic enforcement of international
arbitral awards? This chapter defines international legal instruments, in particular
conventions and treaties which Kenya has ratified. The chapter examines the two main modes
of conducting it: institutional and ad hoc arbitration. This chapter then looks at some of the
international institutions set up by the international instruments to handle arbitration. The
chapter espouses on the differences and relationship between the concepts of enforcement
and recognition of Award. The paper discusses the various international instruments and
institutions on these issues concerning their position and effect on public policy as a
limitation to the enforcement of international arbitral awards.
122 The Arbitration Act (1995), Section 36(2).
56
3.2. INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK
International arbitration has become the principal method of resolving disputes between
states, individuals, and corporations in almost every aspect of international trade, commerce
and investment.. ..States have modernized their laws so as to be seen to be 'arbitration
friendly'; firms of lawyers and accountants have established dedicated groups of arbitration
specialists; conferences and seminars proliferate; and the distinctive law and practice of
international arbitration has become a subject for study in universities and law schools
123
alike ....
Effectively, international arbitration is a leading method for resolving disputes arising from
international commercial agreements and other international relationships. As with arbitration
generally, international arbitration is a creation of contract, where the parties' decision to
submit disputes to binding resolution by one or more arbitrators selected by or on behalf of
the parties and applying adjudicatory procedures, usually by including a provision for the
arbitration of future disputes in their contract. 124
The practice of international arbitration has developed to allow parties from different legal
. and cultural backgrounds to resolve their disputes, generally without the formalities oftheir
respective legal systems. The ability to resolve disputes in a neutral forum and the
enforceability of binding decisions are often cited as the main advantages of international
arbitration over the resolution of disputes in domestic courts.125
The principal instrument governing the enforcement of commercial international arbitration

agreements and awards is the United Nations Convention on Recognition and Enforcement of
Foreign Arbitral Awards (1958).126 The New York Convention was drafted under the
auspices of the United Nations and has been ratified by about 146 states including most of the
leading trading nations and other multilateral conventions or bilateral treaties providing for
123 Redfern, A. and Hunter, M., Redfern and Hunter on international Arbitration, 5th ed., (New York:
Oxford University Press Inc., 2009), p.1
Oxford University Press Inc., 2009), p.2.
126 Hereinafter referred to as 'the New York Convention.
57
the recognition and enforcement of awards between signatory states.l " It is, therefore,
generally possible to enforce an award in another jurisdiction more easily than a foreign court
judgment.
The New York Convention requires the states that have ratified it to recognize and enforce
international arbitration agreements and foreign arbitral awards issued in other contracting
states, subject to certain limited exceptions.l'" These provisions of the New York
Convention, together with the large number of contracting states, has created an international
legal regime that
significantly facilitate the enforcement of international arbitration
agreements and awards.129
As a practical matter, what that means is that an international award originating in a country
that is a party to the New York Convention may be enforced in any other country that is also
a signatory, as if that award were actually rendered by the domestic courts of that second
country.
There is no equivalent treaty for the international recognition of court decisions, although a
draft treaty, the Hague Convention of 30 June 2005 on Choice of Court Agreements, was
concluded in2005, but had asof20B not entered into force).130
Parties to international contracts can therefore decide to site their disputes in a third, neutral
country, knowing that the eventual award can be easily enforced in any country that is a
signatory to the New York Convention, which has been ratified by a significant majority of
commercial nations. An international award therefore has substantially greater executory
(legal) force than a domestic court decision.
127 See [http://www.uncitral.org/uncitral/en/uncitral_texts/arbitrationINYConvention_status.html]

(accessed 23 January 2012).
128 Article IV provides various items that
the party applying for recognition and enforcement shall, at the time of the application. These are the
duly authenticated original award or a duly certified copy thereof and the original agreement to
arbitrate or a duly certified copy thereof. Further, Article VI provides grounds upon which a court
may refuse to enforce an arbitral award. This includes at 2 (b) if the competent authority of the
country where enforcement is sought finds that the recognition or enforcement of the award would be
contrary to the public policy of that country.
130 See if this is now in force. If not, change the date to be 'as of now'
58
International arbitration can be conducted as either an institutional arbitration or ad hoc
arbitration.
An "institutional" arbitration is an arbitration conducted under the auspices and pursuant to

the rules of an established arbitral institution.131 In institutional arbitrations, certain
procedural steps, for example the appointment of the arbitral tribunal or service of
documents, may involve or be administered by the president or secretariat of the arbitral
institution.
3.3. INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
The resolution of disputes under international commercial contracts is widely conducted

under the auspices of several major international institutions and rule making bodies such as
the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), 132 the London Court of International
Arbitration (LCIA),133 the Swiss Chambers of Commerce and Industryv'", the International
Centre for Dispute Resolution (ICDR), the international branch of the American Arbitration
Association) and the Singapore International Arbitration Centre (SIAC). Most of these
institutions have adopted the UNCITRAL Rules for use in international cases.
An important additional aspect of international arbitration is international investment

arbitration.l " International investment arbitrations are proceedings brought by foreign
investors against the state in which they invested (the host state) to settle claims arising
directly out of their investment pursuant to an international investment treaty.i " There are
now over 2,500 international investment treaties and the growth in this form of dispute
resolution in the last two decades has been exponential. The most important arbitral
institution for the settlement of investment arbitration is the International Centre for the
Settlement of Investment Disputes.l " based on the Washington Convention (ICSID), 138and
131 See Muigua, K. training material

132 See: [httpc//iccwbo.org/] (accessed 13 August 2014).
133 See: [http://www.lcia.orgl] (accessed 13 August 2014).
134 See: [http://www.cci.chl] (accessed 13 August 2014).
135 Cf for details R 0 Bishop, J Crawford et al, Foreign Investment Disputes (2005); and R Dolzer and
C Schreuer, Principles of International Investment Law (2008).
136 For details regarding international investment treaties see A Newcombe and L Paradell, Law and
Practice of Investment Treaties: Standards of Treatment (2009).
137 On ICSID arbitration see L Reed, J Paulsson and N Blackaby, Guide to ICSID Arbitration (20 I0).
59
which provides comprehensive rules for the initiation and conduct of investment arbitral
proceedings.I'" Because of the involvement of state parties, investment arbitration differs
from arbitration between private entities, which is often referred to as commercial arbitration.
The focus of the present Guide is on commercial arbitration between private entities.
There are also a number of trade associations, which administer their own specialist
arbitration schemes. These include World Intellectual Property Organisation (WI PO), which
has an arbitration and mediation center and a panel of international neutrals specializing in
intellectual property and technology related disputes. 140Leading examples of such specialist
arbitration schemes are those set up by the Grain and Feed Trade Association (GAFTA),141
the Waren-Verein der Hamburger Borse e.V.,142 the London Metal Exchange (LME),143 the
German Maritime Arbitration Association (GMAA)144 and the London Maritime Arbitrators
Association (LMAA)145.11 Many countries also have arbitral institutions which deal
primarily with disputes in the construction industry.l'" Include WIPO
Most arbitral institutions have promulgated model clauses for parties to use to authorize the
institution to oversee the arbitration. They also have published their own arbitration rules,
which parties may incorporate into their arbitration agreements by reference, using standard
form arbitration clauses suggested by these arbitral institutions. If institutional arbitration
rules are adopted by the parties in their arbitration agreement, these rules replace (to the
extent permitted by the substantive law governing the arbitration agreement and the
procedural law governing the arbitral proceedings, and to the extent that the parties have not
agreed otherwise) the non-mandatory statutory arbitration procedure provided for by the
national arbitration laws of the country where the arbitration has its "seat". Most arbitral
institutions also have a secretariat which, in return for payment of a fee, will assist the parties
138 See CMS Guide to Arbitration, vol II, appendix 1.2.

139 See ibid, 3.9.
140 See http://www.wipo.intiamc/en/.
141 [http://www.gafta.coml] (accessed 23 January 2012).

142 [http://www.waren-verein.de/] (accessed 23 January 2012).
14'
o http://www.lme.com/] (accessed 23 January 2012).
144 See: [http://www.gmaa.de/] (accessed 23 January 2012).
145 See: [http://www.lmaa.org.uk/] (accessed 23 January 2012).
146 J Jenkins and J Stebbings, International Construction Arbitration Law (2006); and E H W Chan
and C K L Chan, et ai., "Construction Industry Adjudication: A Comparative Study of International
Practice", Journal of International Arbitration (2005) pp 363 - 374.
60
with the administration of their arbitral proceedings and with constituting an arbitral tribunal
by appointing arbitrators where this cannot be achieved by agreement between the parties.i "
Agreeing to the rules of an international arbitral institution, presents vanous advantages

including that: the arbitration will take place within an internationally recognised and
established procedural framework; the arbitration will take place pursuant to comprehensive,
clear and tested arbitration rules; the arbitration will take place with the administrative
assistance of an experienced secretariat, which will be able to help the parties and the arbitral
tribunal on a large variety of procedural issues; the arbitral institution can assist the parties
with respect to the appointment of arbitrators and is well-suited to make a default
appointment if a party fails to appoint an arbitrator or if it is not possible to agree on an
arbitrator; some arbitral institutions (in particular the ICC) carry out quality control over the
work of the arbitral tribunals appointed under their auspices (e.g. by reviewing draft awards
prior to their publication) and monitor the progress of the proceedings; disputes between the
parties about the application of statutory arbitration procedures of the country where the
arbitration has its seat can be avoided so long as the provisions are not mandatory; and in
international commercial arbitration, institutional arbitration is often regarded as a "neutral
choice".
On the other hand, some disadvantages of institutional arbitration include that; additional
costs are incurred by the parties in the form of fees for the administrative services provided
by the arbitral institution; taking into account the overall costs of arbitral proceedings,
however, these fees are modest in most cases (a very low percentage of a party's overall legal
expenditure when conducting arbitral proceedings); and the involvement of a secretariat may
delay the arbitral proceedings.
An "ad hoc" arbitration is arbitration conducted pursuant to an arbitration agreement between

the parties that does not specify an arbitral institution to provide administrative services and /
or the procedural rules pursuant to which arbitration shall be conducted. When agreeing to an
ad hoc arbitration, the parties can either design their own arbitral procedure to suit their
particular requirements, refer to "non-institutional" arbitration rules such as the UNCITRAL
147 J Lew, L Miste1is and S Kroll, Comparative International Commercial Arbitration (2003) s 10.51
et seq.
61
Arbitration Rules (2010),148 or simply rely on the arbitration law of the country where the
arbitration has its seat to provide the procedural framework for their arbitral proceedings.
In some circumstances, there may be advantages to opting for an ad hoc arbitration. Ad hoc
arbitration offers increased flexibility by permitting the parties to agree the dispute resolution
procedures themselves (although this process is likely to be easier if the procedure is agreed
before a dispute arises). This added flexibility may be used, for example, to allow the parties
to impose or control the speed with which the arbitration progresses to an award and the costs
of the arbitration. In contrast, in an institutional arbitration, the parties may be subject to rules
that impose longer deadlines or require lengthy, time-consuming procedures (e.g. English-
style disclosure). Similarly, the arbitral institution will set the costs of the arbitration and
apply its own administration costs for its work, whereas in an ad hoc arbitration, for example,
the arbitrators and the parties may negotiate directly the arbitrators' fees and avoid the
arbitral institution's administration fees (although it is noted that these costs savings may be
diminished from having to incur the costs to agree the terms of the ad hoc arbitration rules
between the parties).
There are advantages and disadvantages connected with both institutional and ad hoc
arbitration. However, despite the advantages of ad hoc arbitration .discussed above, as a
general rule, parties are well advised to agree on arbitration administered by one of the
leading arbitral institutions. The main international arbitral institutions regularly revise and
update their rules and they are generally keen to ensure that the parties, having chosen their
arbitral institution, benefit from the advantages outlined above. For example, unlike in ad hoc
arbitral proceedings, the arbitral institution may exercise
some informal control over the
speed at which the arbitrators deal with the matter and the fixing of the arbitrators' fees.149
Most countries also have their own commercial arbitral institutions that deal both with
domestic and international arbitrations. Kenya currently has the Chartered Institute of
Arbitrators'P" and the Nairobi Centre for Arbitration.
148 See CMS Guide to Arbitration, volll, appendix 3.2.

149 See Report from the ICC Commission on Arbitration (ICC Publication 843), Techniques for
Controlling Time and Costs in Arbitration, 2007; and see CMS Guide to Arbitration, vol ll, appendix
4.3.
150 Redfern, A. and Hunter, M., Redfern and Hunter on International Arbitration, s" ed., (New York:
Oxford University Press Inc., 2009), pp.6-7.
62
The legal rules and institutions relevant to international commercial arbitration have evolved
over time, in multiple and diverse countries and settings. In recent decades, the resulting legal
framework for international commercial arbitration has achieved progressively greater
practical success and acceptance in all regions of the world and most political quarters. This
Chapter rests on the premise that these instruments, particularly the New York Convention,
impose important international limits on the ability of Contracting States to deny effect to
international arbitration agreements and arbitral awards. The Contracting States therefore
retain some autonomy to give effect to the basic principles of the Convention, a key aspect of
this is the Public Policy limitation.
The Chapter devotes substantial attention to leading international arbitration instruments

mainly including the United Nations Convention on the Recognition and enforcement of
Foreign Arbitral Awards (the New York Convention) and UNCITRAL Model Law on
International Commercial Arbitration (the Model Law) of 1985 and amended in 2006 (the
UNCITRAL Model Law).
Taken together, international arbitration conventions (particularly the New York

Convention), national arbitration legislation and institutional rules provide a legal framework
for the international arbitral process. That framework requires Contracting States to effectuate
the broad constitutional mandate of the New York Convention - to recognize and enforce
arbitration agreements and arbitral awards - while affording individual states considerable
latitude in implementing these obligations. In turn, most Contracting States have used that
latitude to adopt vigorously pro-arbitration legislative frameworks, which grant arbitral
institutions, arbitrators and parties broad autonomy to devise mechanisms for the arbitral
process and which give effect to international arbitration agreements and arbitral Awards.
The resulting legal framework provides a highly effective means for resolving difficult
international commercial disputes in a fair, efficient and durable manner.
3.4. CONCLUSION
In Chapter two, the paper explored whether Kenya's legislative framework offers a definition
of public policy as a ground for setting aside an arbitral award. None has been found. Chapter
two however concluded that if a definition is to be found under the NYC or UNCITRAL
63
Model Law, then it would cure the problem of the missing definition in Kenyan Law. It is
therefore on this basis of seeking a definition under these international instruments so as to
cure the gap in the domestic legal framework that chapter three is set.
The discussion in this chapter was therefore aimed at answering the second research
question: What is the relevant international law position on enforcement of international
arbitral awards in Kenya? Despite the fact that the enforcement of international arbitral
awards in Kenya is done in accordance to the provisions of the New York Convention or any
other convention to which Kenya is signatory and relating to arbitral awards neither of these
international instruments lends a definition of public policy despite setting it out as a ground
for domestic courts to refuse enforcement of international arbitral awards.
This discussion has demonstrated a fundamental gap in the sphere of international arbitration
in that stakeholders in arbitration are dealing with a ground of public policy which has no
clear definition and which therefore leaves stakeholders with great uncertainty.
Despite the existence of a number of comprehensive domestic and international instruments

on the enforcement of international arbitration, there is a fundamental gap that must be
addressed: the definition of public policy. There is therefore a need for a clear definition of
public policy, if arbitration is to maintain its lustre as an attractive mode of resolution of
international disputes.
In Chapter four, I use the findings of chapters two and three to explore how the courts have
interpreted public policy as a ground for setting aside an international arbitral award
domestically.
64
CHAPTER FOUR
CASE STUDY AND COMP ARA TIVE ANALYSIS
4.1. INTRODUCTION
Having considered the laws and institutions governing the enforcement of arbitral awards in
Kenya and in the international sphere in chapter three and four respectively this chapter
focuses on the position the courts have taken in interpreting these legal instruments
provisions on public policy as a ground for setting aside an international arbitral award.
This chapter therefore focuses on answering question three: What is the Kenyan and non-
Kenyan judicial interpretation of public policy as a ground for setting aside an international
arbitral award? This chapter compares the examines how various courts both locally and
international as well as international arbitral institutions define and effect public policy as a
ground for setting aside an international arbitral award.
In this regard, I will interrogate and seek to apply the recent decisions of the Court of Appeal
delivered on 14th November, 2014. 151 1 will also examine some judicial interpretations from
. -. -.. - -
the United Kingdom (UK). This is mainly because the Kenyan Arbitration Act, including its
provisions on domestic enforcement of international arbitral awards is heavily informed by
the UK Arbitration Act. Further, the UK is a party to the New York convention and
therefore applies the provisions of this Convention, as is the case with Kenya,
4.2. CASE STUDY : KENYAN POSITION
Interpretation by Kenyan courts

This is a recent decision by the Court of Appeal presided over by Justices Okwengu, Asikhe-
Makhandia and F. Sichale (the Court). The Court in the case was faced with the
determination of the following two main issues:
151 Civil Appeal No. 38 of2013, Tanzania National Roads Agency-vs- Kundan Singh Construction
Limited.
65
I. whether the Court of Appeal has jurisdiction to hear an appeal against an order
of the High Court made in exercise of powers under section 37 of the Act;
and
2. what constitutes the public policy of Kenya?152
The two issues are at the core of this paper. The submissions by the parties as well as the
decision of the Court breathe life into the instruments relevant to the enforcement and
recognition of arbitral awards in Kenya discussed in the various chapters in this paper. These
instruments include:
I. article 2(5) and 2(6) of the Constitution of Kenya 20 10 (the Constitution);

2. sections 36 and 37 of the Arbitration Act (the Act);
3. Articles 2 and 36 of the UNCITRAL Model Law (the Model Law)
It is these reasons that have necessitated an in-depth examination of this case including the
submissions by counsel on both sides and the decision of the court in each issue.
Summary of the Court's decision
Below is a summary of the court's decision on the various issues raised. A comprehensive
summary of the issues, submissions and court's decision is supplied later in this chapter.
On jurisdiction
The High Court of Kenya is the only court in Kenya which has authority in relation to
enforcement of arbitral awards. Article 164(3)(a) of the Constitution gives the Court of
Appeal jurisdiction to hear appeals from the High Court and any other court or tribunal as
prescribed by an Act of Parliament. There is a clear distinction between jurisdiction or power
to hear and determine an appeal that is vested in the court and a right to appeal which is
vested on a litigant. In this case, the right of appeal from the order of the High Court is not
152 The decision was delivered on 14th November, 2014 by the Court of Appeal sitting in Mombasa in
civil appeal no. 38 of 2013, Tanzania National Roads Agency-vs- Kundan Singh Construction
Limited.
66
automatic but must be vested on the appellant by the Arbitration Act and rules which regulate
the procedure in arbitration matters. Although the Arbitration Act provides a right of Appeal
in the case of domestic arbitral awards, it does not provide any right of appeal in the case of
international awards.
The appellant can only find respite if there is a right of appeal under the Model Law which
governs International Commercial Arbitration and to which Kenya is a signatory. In respect
of recognition and enforcement of international arbitral awards, the Model Law, like the
Arbitration Act only provides a one-step intervention in a 'competent' court. The court
proceeded to note that in this case, the 'competent court' is the High Court which is the one
vested with powers under sections 36 and 37 of the Arbitration Act to determine applications
for recognition and enforcement of International Arbitral awards. The court concluded that no
further right of appeal has been provided for thereby curtailing the intervention ofthe court.
The court noted the argument by the appellant that because of the application of the
that the invocation of a Constitutional provision does not necessarily give rise to a
nor the interpretation of the constitutional provision is in dispute, which the courtheld was
General public importance and Public Policy
There is no right of appeal to the Court of Appeal anchored on matters of 'general

importance'. A matter of public importance is one whose determination transcends the
circumstances of the particular case, and has a significant bearing on the public policy
interest. Public policy has been described as an intermediate principle which fluctuates with
the circumstances of the time. Public policy is a broad concept incapable of precise
definition ... an award can be set aside under Section 35(2) (b) (ii) of the Arbitration Act as
being inconsistent with the public policy of Kenya if it is shown that it was either:
inconsistent with the Constitution of Kenya or any other law of Kenya whether written or
67
unwritten, or inimical to the national interest of Kenya, or (c) contrary to justice and
morality".153
This appeal does not raise an Issue of general public importance but raises an issue
concerning the recognition and enforcement of an agreement between two individuals.
SUMMARY OF THE CASE 154
This is an Appeal from the whole of the Ruling of the High Court of Kenya at Mombasa by
Justice Muya dated is" August, 2013, to an application dated 15th January, 2013 by Tanzania
Roads Agency (the Appellant). The Appellant was seeking orders from the High Court at
Mombasa that the international Arbitral Award from Stockholm Chamber of Commerce No.
V:0912009 between Kundan Singh Construction Limited (then as the Claimant) (the
Respondent) and Tanzania Roads Agency (then as the Respondent) dated zs" January, 2012
together with interpretation and clarification of the same dated s" March, 2012 be recognised
and enforced as a decree of this court.
The dispute giving rise to this appeal is traced back to a contract entered into between the
.Appellant 'and the Respondent on 1st. August, 2007. The Respondent agreed to undertake'
upgrading works on a particular road section known as the 'Mbeyachunya-Makongolosi
Road Section: Lwanjilo' in Tanzania at a consideration ofT.Shs. 27,463,878,0001-.According
to the contract, any dispute arising between the parties would be resolved initially through a
reference to the Disputes Resolution Board under the contract. Thereafter, if either party was
not satisfied with the decision of the Board, they would refer the matter for arbitration to the
Stockholm Chamber of Commerce.
A dispute arose between the parties. The matter was then referred to the Dispute Resolution
Board under the contract. The Respondent, being dissatisfied with the decision of the Dispute
Resolution Board, referred the matter to arbitration at the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce.
The Arbitration proceedings were carried out by a panel of three arbitrators, who determined
153PerRingera J. in the case of Christ for all Nations -vs-Apollo Insurance Company Limited (2002) 2
EA 366 (Christ for all Nations' case).
'54The summary of this case has been wholly extracted from the decision of the bench constituting the
following Judges of the Court of Appeal: JJA H.M. Okwengu, Asikhe-Makhandia and F. Sichale.
68
the dispute through a majority award dated 25th January, 2012. The Award was signed by two
of the three arbitrators, one arbitrator dissenting. It is this award that the Appellant moved to
the High Court at Mombasa to enforce.
Meanwhile, the Respondent, being dissatisfied with the award, challenged the award through
an appeal before the Stockholm Court of Appeal. The issue of this Appeal was not canvassed
before the court in this matter. The court therefore did not deliberate on it.
The Respondent had also filed an application dated 24th April, 2012 before the High Court in
Nairobi. The Respondent in its application was seeking orders that a part of the majority
award which allowed the counterclaim of the Appellant in the arbitration proceedings be set
aside or alternatively, that part of the majority award be remitted to the majority arbitrators to
decide the same, applying the Tanzanian Law which the parties to the arbitration specifically
agreed would govern the arbitral proceedings. The Appellant made a preliminary objection in
regard to this application on the grounds that the Kenyan Courts had no jurisdiction to set
aside an arbitral award. The objection was upheld by Havelock J in his ruling on is"
December, 2012, that Sweden is the country of the primary jurisdiction in relation to the
arbitration and that Kenya only had a secondary jurisdiction in terms of the recognition and
enforcement of the arbitral award."
The application dated 15th January, 2013 was concluded by the ruling of Muya J dated rs"
August, 2013. Muya J dismissed the application. In his ruling, Muya J. Held inter alia that
under sections 36 and 37 of the Arbitration Act, Chapter 49 Laws of Kenya (the Arbitration
Act ), the Court has jurisdiction to recognise and enforce any arbitral award irrespective of
the country in which it was made, save that the recognition or the enforcement of the award
could be refused where the court finds that the recognition would be contrary to the public
policy of Kenya; that the arbitration award was arrived at in breach of the express terms of
the agreement between the parties which provided that the arbitration shall be governed by
the law of Tanzania; and that enforcing such contract would be contrary to the public policy
of Kenya.
At the appellate stage:
69
The Appellant filed a Memorandum of Appeal challenging the ruling of Muya J dated is"
August, 2013. The appeal was based on the grounds that the learned judge erred in:
1. failing to find that the issues concerning the arbitral award being in conflict with public
policy of Kenya, and the interpretation of section 37 (1 )(b) of the Arbitration Act, were issues
which were res judicata having been raised and addressed in the ruling delivered by
Havelock J on 18th December, 2012;
2. failing to find that following the ruling of rs" December, 2012, the enforcement of the
arbitral award became automatic as the jurisdiction of the court to decline enforcement and
recognition ofthe arbitral award under section 37 ofthe Arbitration Act was lost;
3. relying on an expert opinion which was irregularly introduced in the proceedings; and
4. defining what amounts to public policy in Kenya with regards to the recognition and
enforcement of international arbitral awards.
The Respondent filed two notices of preliminary objection to the appeal on the grounds of
justification and" the competence of the trial. Directions were issued that the preliminary
objection be argued within the substantive appeal and that the court would first address the
objection in the ruling.
Appellant's Case
The Appellant's counsel argued that:
1. where an application in regard to arbitration proceedings is filed in the High Court under
section 37 (J)(b)(ii) of the Arbitration Act, a successful ruling leads to a decree or order
which ushers in execution. Therefore, the unsuccessful party, in this case the appellant, is
entitled to a right of appeal as of right and no leave is required;
2. although the Act defines what amount to an international arbitral award under section 3(3) of
the Act, , the Act is silent on the question of an appeal to the Court of Appeal in relation to an
order failing to recognize and enforce an international award under section 37 of the Act;
70
3. though section 39 of the Arbitration Act provides for the process to be followed in lodging an
appeal against a domestic arbitral award, neither the Arbitration Act nor the Arbitration Rules
provide for the procedure to be followed in lodging an appeal against an international award;
4. Article 2 of the Model Law to which Kenya became a signatory on 2nd January, 1996,
requires that any questions concerning matters governed by the Model Law not expressly
provided for in the Model Law be settled in conformity with the general principles on which
the law is based.
The Appellant's counsel further submitted that:
5. In light of article 36 of the Model Law, and amendments to section 37 of the Act,155 to
conform to Article 36 of the Model Law by adopting international practise, sections 36 & 37
are substantive and not procedural provisions;
6. the procedure for recognition and enforcement of the international arbitration ought to have
been in the rules;
7. since the rules have not been amended to reflect the international best practice, Kenya had
not fully complied with the Model Law and therefore there is a vacuum;
8. the issue of enforcement and recognition of international arbitral award is a Constitutional

issue under article 2(5) and 2(6) of the Constitution which provides that the general rules of
international law and any treaty or convention ratified by Kenya shall form part of the laws of
Kenya;
9. an appeal emanating from a finding of the High Court under section 37 (l)(b)(ii) of the Act
being one involving the application of international treaty should lie as of right to the Court
of Appeal and therefore the Court of Appeal had jurisdiction to deal with the matter under
Article 163 (3) (a) of the Constitution;
155Section 37 of the Act has been amended through Legal Notice No. II of2009.
71
10. aside from the appeal raising a Constitutional issue it also raises matters of general public
importance.
The cases of Anne Mumbi Hinga -vs- Victoria Njoki Gathara and Attorney General of Kenya
-vs-Anyang ' Nyong '0 and 10 Others were relied on in an effort to define public
policy.l'" Appellant's counsel submitted that public policy:
1. involves some element of illegality or something that is injurious to the public good; or
2. an act which is reprehensible, unconscionable or injurious to the public by being contrary to
the Constitution of Kenya 2010 or Kenyan laws; or
3. being contrary to the interest of Kenya; or
4. being contrary to justice and morality.
The Court's attention was drawn to the following decision as adopted in the case of Kenya
Shell Lirnited-vs-Kobil Petroleum Limitedl57:
although public policy is a most broad concept incapable of precise definition, ... an award
could be set aside under section 35(2) (b) (2) of the Arbitration Act as being inconsistent with
the public policyof Kenya if it was:
a) inconsistent with the Constitution or other laws of Kenya whether written or unwritten; or
b) inimical to the national interest of Kenya; or
c) contrary to justice and morality'j"
Counsel for the Appellant also faulted the learned judge for failing to give effect to Article
259(1) of the Constitution.
156[2009] eKLR and [2010] eKLR respectively.These cases have been comprehensively discussed in
the other chapters of this paper.
157 [2006] eKLR
158The test of justice and morality is yet another that has been argued to be wide and lacking of a
precise definition. This would therefore also pose a challenge in the definition of public policy
because it is also largely considered an undefined term.
72
The Respondent's case
In regard to the preliminary objection, counsel for the Respondent submitted that the appeal
was misconceiveable, incurably defective and incompetent for the following reasons:
a) the court lacks jurisdiction to entertain, hear and determine the appeal by dint of section
37(1)(b) of the Act and Article 5(2)(b) of the New York Convention on Recognition and
Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (the NYC);
b) no leave was obtained by the Respondent to appeal against the ruling delivered on is"
August, 2013; and
c) the court lacks jurisdiction to entertain the appeal by virtue of Article 36 (I)(b) of the Model
Law.
On the issue of leave, counsel for the Respondent submitted that;
1. appeals lie only as a matter of right under section 75(1 )(h) of the Civil Procedure Act and
Order 43 rule (1) of the Civil Procedure Rules .and
2. the order subject to appeal not being one listed under Order 43 rule 1 (1) of the Civil
Procedure Rules 2010 or section 75(1)(h) of the Civil Procedure Act, the order could only be
appealable with the leave of court;
3. no leave having been sought or obtained, the appeal was incompetent. Counsel relied on the
case of RamjiDevji Shah -vs-Joseph Oyula where it was submitted that the failure to obtain
leave was an incurable defect as it goes to the root of the appeal. 159
On the issue as to whether the Court of Appeal has jurisdiction to entertain an appeal arising
from a determination made by the High Court under section 37 of the Act, counsel for the
Respondent submitted that:
159[2011 ]eKLR.
73
1. the award subject of the determination was an international arbitral award governed by
international law;
2. specifically the recognition and enforcement of such award is governed under Article
V(ii)(b) of the Model Law; and section 37 (l)(b) of the Arbitration Act;
3. the competent authority with power to recognise and enforce an international arbitral award is
defined under section 37(l)(b) ofthe Act as the High Court; and
4. in accordance with the New York Convention, there is only one such competent authority.
Counsel for the Respondent argued that although the Court of Appeal has general jurisdiction
to hear appeals in all matters emanating from the High Court:
1. the jurisdiction must be prescribed by an Act of Parliament;
2. in the case of international arbitral awards, the Act does not make any provisions for an
appeal to the Court of Appeal on recognition and enforcement of international arbitral
awards;
3. sections 36 and 37 of the Act only gives the High Court the power to recognise and enforce
international arbitral awards and no jurisdiction has been given to the Court of Appeal to deal
with the decisions emanating from the High Court under section 37 of the Act; and
4. the court of Appeal therefore lacks jurisdiction to entertain the appeal.
With regards to the issue of public policy, Counsel for the Respondent submitted that the
Respondent's major and formidable opposition to the appellants' application in the High
Court for recognition and enforcement of the international arbitral award was that the award
could not be recognised or enforced as it was contrary to public policy of Kenya.
Among other issues, counsel for the Respondent contended that the contract stated clearly
that the law in interpretation of the contract is Tanzanian law. That in arriving at the decision,
the two majority arbitrators blatantly ignored the clear intention of the parties and unfairly
exposed the Respondent to financial loss contrary to justice and morality, that the award was
74
inconsistent with the Constitution or other written law as section 29(1) of the Act requires
the arbitral tribunal to determine a dispute in accordance with the rules of law chosen by the
parties; and that the intervention of the Court of Appeal was not warranted as the High Court
exercised its discretion judiciously in determining whether or not the subject award was
contrary to public policy.
The Court of Appeal's decision
On the issue of jurisdiction under section 37 of the Act, the Court of Appeal restated the
provisions of section 37 of the Act that Section 37 (1) the recognition or enforcement of
arbitral award, irrespective of the state in which it was made, may be refused only at the
request of the party against whom it is invoked, if that party furnishes to the High Court proof
that:
1. a party to the arbitration agreement was under some incapacity; or
11. the arbitration agreement is not valid under the law to which the parties have
subjected it or, failing any indication of that law, under the law of the state where the
arbitral award was made;
111. the party against whom the arbitral award is invoked was not given proper notice of
the appointment of an arbitrator or of the arbitral proceedings or was otherwise unable
to present his case; or
IV. the arbitral award deals with a dispute not contemplated by or not falling within the
terms of the reference to arbitration, or it contains decisions on matters beyond the
scope of the reference to arbitration, provided that if the decisions on matters referred
to arbitration can be separated from those not so referred, that part of the arbitral
award which contains decisions on matters referred to arbitration may be recognised
and enforced; or
v. the composition of the arbitral tribunal or the arbitral procedure was not in accordance
with the agreement of the parties or, failing any agreement by the parties, was not in
accordance with the law of the state where the arbitration took place; or
75
VI. the arbitral award has not yet become binding on the parties or has been set aside or
suspended by a court of the state in which, or under the law of which, that arbitral
award was made; or
VII. the making of the arbitral award was induced or affected by fraud, bribery, corruption
or undue influence.
a. if the High Court finds that-

the subject matter of the dispute is not capable of settlement by arbitration under the law of
Kenya; or the recognition or enforcement of the arbitral award would be contrary to the
public policy of Kenya.
(2) If an application for the setting aside or suspension of an arbitral award has been made to
a court referred to in subsection (1) (a)(vi), the High Court may, if it considers it proper,
adjourn its decision and may also, on the application of the party claiming recognition or
enforcement of the arbitral award, order the other party to provide appropriate security.l'"
The Court therefore held that the jurisdiction- regarding the recognition and enforcement of "
arbitral awards is vested in the High Court. The Court of Appeal went ahead to note that
Article 164(3) (a) of the Constitution gives the Court of Appeal jurisdiction to hear appeals
from the High Court as follows:
(3) The Court of Appeal has jurisdiction to hear appeals from:
b. the High Court; and
c. any other court or tribunal as prescribed by an Act of Pari iament.
The court held that this provision does not confer an automatic right to appeal to litigants
such that any judgment, order or decree made by the High Court is appealable to the Court of
Appeal.
16°Section 37 of the Act makes provisions in relation to the grounds for refusal of recognition or
enforcement.
76
The court further stated that there is a clear distinction between jurisdiction or power to hear
and determine an appeal which is vested in the court and a right to appeal which is vested on
a litigant. The court goes on to illustrate that a right of appeal in regard to a civil proceedings
from the High Court will be governed by the Civil Procedure Act and Rules as read with the
Appellate Jurisdiction Act. Similarly, a right of Appeal in regard to criminal matters will be
governed by the Criminal Procedure Code as read with the Appellate Jurisdiction Act.
With this regard, the Court therefore found that in this case, the right of appeal from the order
of the High Court is not automatic but must be vested on the appellant by the Arbitration Act
and rules which regulate the procedure in arbitration matters. In the case of international
arbitrations, the general rules of international law, treaty or convention ratified by Kenya
which form part of the laws of Kenya under Article 2(5) and (6) of the Constitution. The
court further held that it is not disputed that although the Arbitration Act provides a right of
Appeal in the case of domestic arbitral awards, it does not provide any right of appeal in the
case of international awards. The court held therefore that the appellant can only find respite
if there is a right of appeal under UNCITRAL Model Law which governs International
Commercial Arbitration and to which Kenya is a signatory.
The court noted its examination of the UNCITRAL Model Law and stated that it shows that"
there was a clear and deliberate intention to limit court intervention in arbitration matters for
the reason that:
Protecting the arbitral process from unpredictable or disruptive court interferences is essential
to parties who choose arbitration, in particular foreign parties.
The court of Appeal noted Article 5 of the UNCITRAL Model Law which provides that:
In matters governed by this law, no court shall intervene except where so provide in this law.
The court noted that In respect to recognition and enforcement of international arbitral
awards, UNCITRAL Model Law, like the Arbitration Act only provides a one-step
intervention in a 'competent' court. The court proceeded to note that in this case, the
'competent court' is the High Court which is the one vested with powers under sections 36
and 37 of the Arbitration Act to determine applications for recognition and enforcement of
77
international arbitral awards. The court concluded that no further right of appeal has been
provided for thereby curtailing the intervention of the court.
The court noted the argument for the appellant that because of the application of the
that the invocation of a Constitutional provision does not necessarily give rise to a
nor the interpretation of the constitutional provision is in dispute, which the court held was
General public importance
The court noted the attempt by counsel for the appellant to draw a right of appeal from the
subject of the appeal where it raises a matter 'of general public importance'. The court held
that there is not right of appeal to the Court of Appeal anchored on matters of 'general
importance'. The court further held that such a ground only arises under Article 163( 4) (b) of
the Constitution in this regard to appeals from the court of Appeal to the Supreme Court.
The court further held that a matter of public importance is one whose determination
transcends the circumstances of the particular case, and has a significant bearing on the
public policy interest. The court relied on the case of Hermanus Ruscone the court
distinguished a matter of general public importance from public policy.'?' The Court held that
public policy has been described as an intermediate principle which fluctuates with the
circumstances of the time. The court relied on the case of Kenya Shell Limited -vs- Kobil
Petroleum Limited.162 The court cited the decision in the case of Christ for all Nations -vs-
Apollo Insurance Company Limited'63 as instructive as follows with regards to arbitral
awards:
161 [2012] eKLR.

162 Kenya Shell Limited -vs- Kobil Petroleum Limited [2006] eKLR
163 Christ for all Nations -vs-Apollo Insurance Company Limited (2002) 2 EA 366 (Christ for all)
78
although public policy is a broad concept incapable of precise definition ... an ward can be set
aside under Section 35(2) (b) (ii) of the Arbitration Act as being inconsistent with the public
policy of Kenya if it is shown that it was either:
(a) inconsistent with the Constitution of Kenya or any other law of Kenya whether written or
unwritten, or
(b) inimical to the national interest of Kenya, or (c) contrary to justice and morality't.l'"
The court found that this appeal does not raise an issue of general public importance but
raises an issue concerning the recognition and enforcement of an agreement between two
individuals. The Court therefore upheld the objection raised that the appeal is incompetent
and that the court lacks jurisdiction to entertain the appeal.
At this point the court cited the case of Owners of Motor Vessel "Lillian S" v. Caltex Oil
Kenya Ltd at page 14, where the court stated:
"Jurisdiction is everything. Without it, a court has no power to make one step, where a
court has no jurisdiction there would be no basis for a continuation of proceedings
pending other evidence and a court of law downs its tools in respect of the matter
before it, the moment it holds the opinion that it is without jurisdiction .165
and abandoned the substantive issues which were raised in the appeal.
Conclusion
There are certain benchmarks that come up each time a definition of public policy is required.
These have been mentioned in most of the cases where this issue has come up, including the
cases discussed in this paper.
I have had the opportunity to discuss the two main issues as set out above and the decision of
the court in this matter with Mr. Joseph Munyithya advocate, counsel for the Appellant and
his views. Mr. Munyithya takes the view that in its decision, the court failed to consider
164per Ringera J. in the case of Christ for all Nations -vs-Apollo Insurance Company Limited (2002) 2
165Indicate full citation of this case and insert the relevant paragraph. Also include it in the literature
review.
79
substantive issues on public policy. Due to the constraints of time, I have not been able to
contact counsel for the Respondent for comments regarding this matter and decision.
Recommendation
In light of the discussion above, I suggest that a concise definition of what constitutes public
policy under sections 36 and 37 of the Act be supplied. I recommend that this definition
capture the essential issues emerging in these judicial decisions. I recommend that the
definition should not be so wide as to dilute the possibility of enforcement.
The following is my proposed definition of public policy:
4.3. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS: THE UK POSITION
In the case of Honeywell International Middle East Ltd -vs- Meydan Group LLC (formerly
known as Meydan LLC), the court considered when and how public policy will be applied in
setting aside an international arbitral award.166The court held that' ... the grounds on which a
New York Convention award maynot be recognised are-limited as set out in s LO} of the
Arbitration Act 199. Section 103(3) provides that ... enforcement of the award may be
refused if the award is in respect of a matter which is not capable of settlement by arbitration,
or if it would be contrary to public policy to recognise or enforce the award.'
The court in this case cited Dicey, Morris and Collins that English law recogrnses an
important public policy in the enforcement of arbitral awards and the courts will only refuse
to do so under s 103 in a clear case.167 Equally as stated in Redfern and Hunter 'the intention
of the New York Convention ... is that the grounds for refusing recognition and enforcement
of arbitral awards should be applied restrictively.l'" They then cite Van den Berg The New
York Arbitration Convention of 1958 (1981) at pp 267 and 268 where he said: 'As far as the
grounds for refusal for enforcement of the award as enumerated in art V are concerned it
166 Construction Law Reports/Volume 154 /Honeywell International Middle East Ltd -v-Meydan
Group LLC (formerly known as Meydan LLC) - 154 ConLR 113 [2014] EWHC 1344 (TCC).
167 at para 16-150
168 Redfern and Hunter on International Arbitration at paragraph I 1.60.
80
means that they have to be construed narrowly.' As made clear in Rosseel NV ~vs- Oriental
Commercial & Shipping Co (UK) Ltd enforcement may only be refused on the grounds set
out in s 103 of the Act and are therefore exhaustive.V" The burden of establishing the
grounds under s 103(2) is upon Meydan, although the court can raise matters under s 103(3)
of its own motion.
In the case of Soleimany -v-Soleimany (the Soleimany case), the court considered the issue of
whether an international award could be enforced in the event of an illegality as against the
backdrop of public policy consideration.V" The court held that 'where considerations of
public policy were involved, the interposition of an arbitration award did not isolate the
successful party's claim from the illegality which gave rise to it'.
Parties in the Soleimany case were a father and son of Iranian Jewish origin. In contravention
of Iranian revenue laws and export controls, the son arranged for the export from Iran of
carpets which were subsequently sold by his father in England and other countries. A dispute
arose over the division of the proceeds of the scheme, and the parties referred the matter to
binding arbitration by the Beth Din, a body which applied Jewish law. The Beth Din's award
explicitly referred to the illegal nature of the enterprise, but nevertheless awarded a
substantial sum to the son; under Jewish law the illegality of the enterprise did notaffect the
rights of the parties. The High Court granted the son leave to enforce the award, but the father
applied for leave to be set aside, contending that it would be contrary to public policy to
enforce an award founded on an illegal transaction. That application was dismissed by the
judge, and the father appealed. On the appeal the son contended that, at the enforcement
stage, the court should not examine the underlying transaction.
The court held that: It would not enforce an arbitration award, whether foreign or domestic, if
enforcement would be contrary to English public policy. Such policy would not allow the
parties to conceal, through the procurement of an arbitration that one of them sought to
enforce an illegal contract, since a private agreement could not override the court's concern to
preserve the integrity of its process. Thus, where considerations of public policy were
involved, the interposition of an arbitration award did not isolate the successful party's claim
169 Rosseel NY -ys- Oriental Commercial & Shipping Co (UK) Ltd [1991] 2 Lloyd's Rep 625 at 629.
170 All England Law Reports/l999/Volume 3 ISoleimany y Soleimany - [1999] 3 All ER 847.
81
from the illegality which gave rise to it. In the instant case, although the arbitration clause
was valid, the award referred on its face to an enterprise with an illegal object which the
English court viewed as contrary to public policy. Accordingly, the award would not be
enforced, and the appeal would be allowed.
Not all challenges on the ground of public policy can be considered to be as clear cut as this.
An attempt to define public policy is seen in the case of Eco Swiss China Time LId v Benetton
International NV (the Eco case).!?! The court found that only if the terms of the award or its
enforcement conflicted with a mandatory rule so fundamental that no restrictions of a
procedural nature should prevent its application, but that a prohibition laid down in
competition law was not sufficiently fundamental.
B, a company established in the Netherlands, entered into a licensing agreement with E Ltd, a
Hong Kong based retailer, and another company, under which it granted E Ltd the right to
manufacture and sell watches and clocks bearing its name for a period of eight years. Article
26A of the agreement, which also involved a market sharing arrangement, provided that
disputes between the parties were to be settled by arbitration in accordance with Netherlands
law. In 1991 B terminated the agreement, whereupon arbitration proceedings were instituted
in the Netherlands resulting in interim and finalawards being made against" B. Bcontended
that the awards were contrary to public policy on the ground that the licensing agreement was
void under art 81 EC (ex art 85) of the EC Treaty and applied to the District Court for their
annulment under art 1065(1)( e) of the Code of Civil Procedure, and also a stay of
enforcement. The District Court dismissed the application, but on B's appeal the Regional
Court of Appeal granted a stay of the final award, holding that art 81 EC was a provision of
public policy within the meaning of art 1065(l)(e). E Ltd appealed by way of cassation
proceedings to the Supreme Court, which held that an arbitration award was contrary to
public policy within the meaning of art 1065(\)(e) only if its terms or enforcement conflicted
with a mandatory rule so fundamental that no restrictions of a procedural nature should
prevent its application, but that a prohibition laid down in competition law was not
sufficiently fundamental. The court, however, was unclear whether the position was the same
where the provision in question was a rule of Community law and therefore stayed the
171 All England Commercial Cases/l999/Volume 2 IEco Swiss China Time Ltd v Benetton
International NV - [1999] 2 All ER (Comm) 44
82
proceedings and referred to the Court of Justice of the European Communities for a
preliminary ruling the question, inter alia, whether, in such circumstances, a national court to
which application was made for annulment of an arbitration award had to grant it where, in
its view, that award was contrary to art 81 EC.
The court held that Article 81 was a fundamental provision which was essential for the
accomplishment of the tasks en-trusted to the Community and in particular for the
functioning of the internal market. Its provisions, therefore, might be regarded as a matter of
public policy within the meaning of the New York Convention on the Recognition and
Enforcement of Arbitral Awards 1958. Furthermore, Community law required that questions
concerning the interpretation of the prohibition laid down in art 81(1) EC (ex art 85(1))
should be open to examination by national courts when asked to determine the validity of an
arbitration award. It followed that a national court to which application was made for
annulment of an arbitration award had to grant that application if it considered that the award
in question was contrary to art 81 EC, where its domestic rules of procedure required it to
grant an application for annulment founded on failure to observe national rules of public
policy.
The courtin the case-of Yukos Capital Sarl V OJSC Rosneft Oil Co (No 2) examined the issue
of whose public policy should be considered in enforcement of international arbitral
awards. 172 The court held that an award will not be enforceable in the UK if it contravenes or
effecting it clearly established rules of international law, or are contrary to English principles
of public policy, as well as where there is a grave infringement of human rights. The court
noted that this limitation was discussed and applied in Kuwait Airways v Iraqi Airways Co,
where Lord Nicholls said that the acceptability of a provision of foreign law must be judged
by contemporary standards.!"
The court also noted the decision in the case of Blathwayt v Lord Cawley where the court
held that conceptions of public policy should move with the times.174 The court noted the
decision in the case of Oppenheimer v Cattermole (Inspector of Taxes) that 'the courts of this
172 All England Law Reports/2013Nolume I /Yukos Capital SarI v OJSC Rosneft Oil Co (No 2)-
[2013] I All ER 223
173 [2002] 3 All ER 209, [2002] 2 AC 883

174 [1975] 3 All ER 625 at 636, [1976] AC 397 at 426 per Lord Wilberforce.
83
country should give effect to clearly established rules of international law'. The court in this
case noted held that this position is increasingly true today. As nations become ever more
interdependent, the need to recognise and adhere to standards of conduct set by international
law becomes ever more important.. ..International law, for its part, recognises that a national
court may properly decline to give effect to legislative and other acts of foreign states which
are in violation of international law.175
The court in this case further cited the decision in the Oppenheimer's case and held that:
A judge should be slow to refuse to give effect to the legislation of a foreign state in any
sphere in which, according to accepted principles of international law, the state has
jurisdiction. Among these accepted principles is that which is founded on the comity of
nations.176 This principle normally requires our courts to recognise the jurisdiction of the
foreign state over all assets situated within its own territories.177 A judge should be slow to
depart from these principles. He may have an inadequate understanding of the circumstances
in which the legislation was passed. His refusal to recognise it may be embarrassing to the
executive, whose function is so far as possible to maintain friendly relations with foreign
states.
The court further held that:
'The essence of the public policy exception is that it is not so constrained. The golden rule is
that care must be taken not to expand its application beyond the true limits of the principle.
These limits demand that, where there is any room for doubt, judicial restraint must be
exercised. But restraint is what is needed, not abstention, And there is no need for restraint on
grounds of public policy where it is plain beyond dispute that a clearly established norm of
international law has been violated.' 178
175see the discussion in Oppenheim's International Law (9th edn, 1992) vol I, pp 371-376, para 113
176Oppenheimer v Cattermole (Inspector of Taxes) [1975] 1 All ER 538 at 566-567, [1976] AC 249 at
277-278 per Lord Cross.
177See Oppenheimer v Cattermole (Inspector of Taxes) [1975] 1 All ER 538 at 571, [1976] AC 249 at
282 per Lord Salmon.
178See Oppenheimer v Cattermole (Inspector of Taxes) [1975] 1 All ER 538 at 571, [1976] AC 249 at
282 per Lord Hope
84
The court in this case held that' ... there can be a still further distinction to be made between
the act of state which cannot be challenged for its effectiveness despite some alleged
unfairness, and the act of state which is sufficiently outrageous or penal or discriminatory to
set up the successful argument that it falls foul of clear international law standards or English
public policy and therefore can be challenged.l "
The issue of whose public policy should be considered in enforcement of international

arbitral awards was also examined by the court in the case of Tamil Nadu Electricity Board v
St-CMS Electric Company Private Ltd (the Tamil Nadu case). The court in this case held that
"public policy" means international public policy and differs from public policy in a domestic
context.
The claimant was the state electricity board for the state of Tamil Nadu. Its principal
objective was the generation and distribution of electrical power. The defendant was an
Indian company incorporated by foreign investors from the United States, Switzerland and
the Netherlands in 1993, for the purpose of the development and operation of a 250 MW
lignite-fired power plant at Neyveli in Tamil Nadu. At the time of the defendant's
incorporation, foreign companies were not permitted to construct or own power plants; hence
. an Indian -company was formed. The parties concluded a long-term supply agreement in
1993, which was subsequently restated and amended in November 1996 (the PPA). Under
the PPA disputes were to be settled by ICC arbitration in London, governed by English laws
and the New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral
Awards 1958; by contrast, the PPA itself was to be governed by Indian law. A dispute
subsequently arose as to charging under the PPA, which the defendant referred to arbitration.
It alleged that the claimant had used a computation methodology not provided for by the PPA
and disregarded certain key terms of the PPA. It stated that the claimant had, inter alia,
refused to give the complete benefit of the foreign exchange rate variation on the foreign
currency elements of the actual capital cost, for which specific provision was made in the
PPA. It sought an award declaring that the actual capital of cost was as it had calculated, and
a direction that the claimant pays the sum claimed.
179 See Oppenheimer v Cattermole (Inspector of Taxes) [1975] 1 All ER 538 at 571, [1976] AC 249 at
282 per Lord Hope
85
The claimant applied to the court under s 72 of the Arbitration Act 1996 for declarations that
the matters submitted to arbitration were not within the scope of any arbitration agreement
between the parties. Two contractual exceptions existed to the application of the arbitration
clause: the first related to a dispute about an acceptance test, which was to be resolved by an
independent engineer, and secondly in the event of a 'buy-out', the price was to be determined
ultimately by an independent appraiser absent agreement. The claimant also submitted that
by virtue of the choice of Indian law as the governing law of the PPA, there was a further
exception to the jurisdiction of the arbitrator, namely the compulsorily applicable principles
of Indian law. Those principles, it submitted, required determination of the tariff to be
charged by the statutory Indian body, which had to be recognised as a matter of English
conflicts principles. It further argued that the defendant was estopped from denying that the
pricing had to be determined by the Indian authorities and not by arbitration.
Whether or not there might be a defence to enforcement in India under Article V.2 (b) of the
New York Convention, as a matter of the public policy of India, is neither here nor there for
these purposes, but in the context of an international treaty, "public policy" means
international public policy and differs from public policy in a domestic context. The courts of
many parties to the Convention have expressly recognised this - see The New York
Arbitration Convention of 1958 - towards a Uniform Judicial Interpretation by van den Berg
at pages 359-368, illustrated in the decision of Hobhouse 1 (as he then was) in the Marques
de Bolarques [1984] 1 WLR 642 at 658-659.
Furthermore, on the evidence of ST-CMS' expert on Indian law this distinction is clearly
recognised in the law of India. In his second affidavit, Mr laitley referred to the decision of
the Supreme Court of India in Renusagar Power Company Ltd v General Electric Co., AIR
1994 SC 860. There, when looking at Article V(2)(b) of the New York Convention and the
section of the Foreign Awards Act which enacted it in India, it was held that the expression
"public policy" in the Act must necessarily be construed in the sense that the doctrine of
public policy is applied in the field of private international law. Consequently, "it must be
held that the enforcement of a foreign award would be refused on the ground that it is
contrary to public policy if such enforcement would be contrary to (i) fundamental policy of
Indian law or (ii) the interests of India or (iii) justice or morality." In order to attract the bar
of public policy, the enforcement of the award must invoke something more than the
violation of the law ofIndia. In an earlier decision, the Supreme Court, in MurlidharAggarval
86
v State of Uttar Pradesh (1974) 2 SCC 472, it was held at paragraph 28, by reference to
English law authorities, that the expression "public policy" had an entirely different meaning
from "the policy of the law" and depended upon "customary morality" and "social
consequences" with regard to the "current needs ofthe community".
The court ruled: On the true construction of the PPA, the Indian law clause and related
provisions did not equate to provisions requiring a dispute resolution other than arbitration, so
as to render the dispute out with the arbitration clause. There was no principle of English
private international law, nor any public policy basis, for not adopting the construction of the
arbitration clause under English law, on which basis the claimant's argument had to fail. In
any =vent, on the evidence as to Indian law, there was nothing which impinged on the right to
arbitrate. Nor had the claimant established any estoppel: it had not acted on any shared or
agreed assumption with the defendant that the Indian authorities would make a final and
binding decision on the relevant matters to the exclusion of any jurisdiction of the arbitrators.
The claimant's applications would be dismissed and the defendants would be entitled to
declarations as to the validity of the arbitration
The questions of definition of public policy as well as whose public policy should be
considered was also examined in the case of R -v- V.180 The court held that:
'Previous authority established that there were some rules of public policy which would when
infringed lead to non-enforcement whatever the proper law or wherever the contract was to
be performed, such as concerns regarding terrorism or drug trafficking. Contracts for the sale
of influence were not such an example. Contracts for the sale of influence if to be performed
in England would not be enforced but if to be performed abroad would not be enforced only
if performance would be contrary to the domestic public policy of that country as well.
The claim had been brought under the terms of a consultant agreement of March 2002. The
defendant was beneficially owned by F, whose personal services as a consultant were being
retained by the claimant. The recitals to the agreement recorded that the defendant had
expertise in Libya concerning the oil industry (F had been retained by the claimant and others
for some years as a consultant in that field).
180 [2008] EWHC 1531 (Comm), [2009] 1 Lloyd's Rep 97
87
The agreement provided for F to use his influence and information, concerning, inter alia,
negotiations with Government officials and state and private corporations, to assist the
claimant in connection with the promotion of its interests in Libya. Subsequently the claimant
took the view that the agreement was unenforceable on three grounds: (i) lack of
consideration; (ii) that F was in breach of his fiduciary duty and was precluded from
obtaining any personal benefit from the agreement; and (iii) the agreement was illegal under
Libyan law and contrary to English public policy in regard to influence peddling. The dispute
was referred to arbitration in London under the auspices of the ICe. By an award of
December 2007, the tribunal rejected the claimant's contentions and upheld the defendant's
claim for immediate payment of $US3m and substantial further payments due on the
achievement of specified oil production figures. The claimant applied to challenge the award
under (i) s 68(2)(g) of the Arbitration Act 1996 on the ground that it was contrary to English
public policy; and (ii) s 81(1)(c) of the Act on the ground that it was contrary to public policy
at common law.
The court held that previous authority established that there were some rules of public policy
which would when infringed lead to non-enforcement whatever the proper law or wherever
the contract was to be performed, such as concerns regarding terrorism or drug trafficking.
Contracts for the sale of influence were not ·such an example, Contracts for the sale of
influence if to be performed in England would not be enforced but if to be performed abroad
would not be enforced only if performance would be contrary to the domestic public policy
of that country as well. There was no material distinction between that previous authority and
the instant case, which accordingly had to fail. There was ample material before the tribunal
that the contract was not illegal under Libyan law and the arbitrators had expressly so held.
No new evidence to the contrary had been adduced by the claimant. The tribunal was
composed of arbitrators who were highly commercially experienced and there was no
suggestion of bad faith. Moreover, the claimant's challenge would in any event have failed on
the merits. The applications were dismissed.
Another issue is that of people moving from one country to another because public policy has
in most cases held to be relative to the specific country where enforcement is being sought.
88
The court in the case of Yukos Capital Sarl v OJSC Rosnefi Oil Co (No 2) examined this.181
In particular the court examined a situation where there might be a conflict between rules of
public policy; and, where issues of public policy were involved, whether the English court
should decide any issue of public policy for itself, or be content to abide by the foreign courts'
decisions, and, if so, which one.
International arbitration has become the most established method of determining international
commercial disputes.l'" In some jurisdictions, an enforcing court is required to examine the
possibility the possibility of a public policy violation ex officio. 183 Under the New York
Convention and the Model Law, contrary to the position in the Geneva Convention of 1927,
the burden of proof is upon the party challenging the enforcement. Even if the grounds for
refusal of recognition are proved to exist, the courts are not under any requirement to refuse
enforcement. I 84
In the English case of MGM Productions Group Inc -vs- Aeroflot Russian Airlines, Aeroflot
sought to challenge a Stockholm award because it compensated the claimant for Aeroflot's
non-performance of an agreement whose provisions allegedly violated the US Iranian
Transactions Regulations adopted pursuant to the executive Order by the President of the
United States under the International Emergency Economic Powers ACt.185 The second
Circuit rejected the challenge, holding that 'the Courts construe the public Policy limitation in
the Convention very narrowly and apply it only when the enforcement would violate the
forum state's "most basic notions of morality and justice"." The court found that in this case,
even if the agreement in operation did violate the Iranian Transactions Regu lation, which the
arbitral tribunal itself had found was not the case, the award would not violate the Public
181 All England Law Reports/2013Nolume I /Yukos Capital Sari v OJSC Rosneft Oil Co (No 2)-
[2013] I All ER 223
182 Alan Redfern & Martin Hunter with Nigel BlackBaby & Constatine Partasides: Law & Practice of
International Commercial Arbitration, Sweet & Maxwell (4edn), p. I.
183 See the decision of the Cour De justice of Geneva dated December II, 1997 reported in
VoI.XXIII( I998)Yearbook Commercial Arbitration 764.
184 Article V of the NYC, paragraphs (I) and (2). See this interpretation seemingly accepted by several
commentators including: Dicey & Morris, The Contlict of Laws (12 ED.,1993),P.624; Delaume,
"Enforcement against a foreign state of an arbitral Award annulled in the foreign state"(1997) Revue
du droit international des affairs, at 254 and the English Court's decision in China Agribusiness
Development Corporation -vs-Balli Trading [1998]2 Lloyd's Rep. 76.
185 Productions Group Inc -vs- Aerotlot Russian Airlines [2004] WL234871 (2nd Circ. (New York
Con vention))
89
Policy because "a violation of United States Foreign Policy does not contravene Public
Policy as contemplated in Article V of the New York Convention".
When reference is made to "Public Policy" in England, the words of the English Judge who
said almost two centuries ago: "It is never argued at all but where other points fall.,,186 The
national courts in England are reluctant to excuse an award from enforcement on grounds of
public policy.187 It has been suggested that the first time the Public Policy exception was
allowed in the English Courts is in the case of Soleimany-vs Soleimany.188 The Court refused
to enforce an award giving effect to a contract between a man and his son. The contract
involved smuggling of carpets out of Iran in breach of Iranian Revenue Laws and export
controls. The man and son had, upon the voluntary mutual agreement submitted their dispute
to Arbitration by the Beth Din, the Court of the Chief Rabi in London. The Chief Rabbi's
court applied Jewish Law which, provided that the illegal purpose of the contract had no
effect on the rights of the parties. The Beth Din proceeded to make an award enforcing the
contract. The English Court in declining to enforce the award however held that:
The Court is in our view concerned to preserve the integrity of its process, and to see that it is
not abused. The parties cannot override that concern by private agreement. They cannot by
procuring arbitration conceal that they, or rather one of them, is' seeking to "enforce an illegal
contract. Public Policy will not allow it.189
Such exception on enforcement of award public policy has been sparingly applied, with the
pro-enforcement bias being considered a matter of public policy.19o
This position was held in the English case of Westacre Investments Inc. -vs-Jugoimport ~
SPDR Holding Holding Co. Ltd (Westacrei+" The dispute arose from a consultancy
agreement for the procurement of contracts for the sale of military equipment in Kuwait.
Westacre commenced arbitration claiming payment of its consultancy fee. Jugoimport
186 Per Burrough J.in Richardson -vs-Mellish (1824)2 Bing.229 at 252

187Alan Redfern & Martin Hunter with Nigel BlackBaby & Constatine Partasides: Law & Practice of
International Commercial Arbitration, Sweet & Maxwell (4edn), p. 456-457.
188 [1999] Q.B.785.
189 [1999] Q.B.785.p. 800

International Commercial Arbitration, Sweet & Maxwell (4edn), p. 457.
191
90
defended the claim on the ground that, in violation of the laws of Kuwait and public policy,
the contract involved Westacre bribing various Kuwaitis to exert their influence in favour of
entering sales contracts with Jugoimport. The agreement between Westacre and Jugoimport
was governed by Swiss law. The award was first challenged in the Swiss Federal Court. The
Swiss court rejected the challenge on the basis that the allegations of corruption had already
been dealt with and rejected by the arbitral tribunal. Attempts to enforce the award were
subsequently challenged in the English Courts, where Jugoimport filed new Affidavit
evidence in support of its allegation of corruption. The English Court rejected the challenge
to 'enforcement both at the first instance as well as in the Court of Appeal on the basis that the
arbitral tribunal had already considered the allegations of bribery and found that they had not
been substantiated. The court observed that, "lobbying" was not, as such, an illegal activity
under the governing law chosen by the parties, and the Court was faced with international
arbitration awards that had been upheld by the Swiss tribunal and therefore had to balance the
public policy of discouraging international commercial corruption with the public policy of
sustaining international arbitral wards.
4.3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The discussion in this chapter was aimed at answering the third research question: what is the
Kenyan and non-Kenyan judicial interpretation of public policy as a ground for setting aside
an international arbitral award? The hypothesis was that neither the Kenyan courts, nor the
non-Kenyan courts have set out a specific definition of public policy. There is a glaring
uncertainty and discord in judicial interpretation of public policy. The chapter has explored
this question by analyzing recent as well as previous court decisions within and outside
Kenya. In particular, on the decisions in non-Kenyan jurisdictions, the chapter has analyzed
cases in four countries: the United Kingdom (UK), because just like Kenya it is a member of
the New York Convention as well as the fact that many Kenyan cases and texts have
examined and refer to the UK position. The UK is however not a Model Law country.
Decisions from Brazil, United States of America and Spain have also been examined for
purposes of analysis. This is because the three are neither Model law countries nor party to
the NYC. They are however key players in international trade with Kenya and there is a
substantial amount of literature on the definition of public policy with regards to these
jurisdictions.
91
Evidently, the lack of definition of public policy has led to uncertainty and a great disconnect
in the international arbitration process. The definition varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction
and even within a jurisdiction, from a matter to another, as well as judicial officer to the
other.
Chapters two and three have demonstrated that neither Kenyan nor domestic law define
public policy. Both however expressly provide that public policy is one of the grounds upon
which courts may refuse to enforce an international arbitral award. Chapter four has
demonstrated that the courts have furthered the uncertainty by failing to define public policy
and by further issuing non-uniform decisions on the definition and extent to which public
policy will affect enforcement of international arbitral awards in Kenya. This presents a
challenge to the various stakeholders in the process of international arbitration.
It is therefore necessary for the state and international law actors to explore and prescribe a
concise definition of public policy as a ground for setting aside of international arbitral
awards, in particular, Kenya's executive should look into this, in consultation with the
various stakeholders such as lawyers and the international business community.
therefore 'recommend that a definition of public policy should be included ill the NYC which
can be adopted by the signatory countries.
The preceding chapters have demonstrated a murky climax to the international arbitral
process where a party may be have an award in their favour, but the court fails to enforce it
on the ground of public policy. Because public policy is not specifically defined, the
stakeholders in an arbitral process will not have the option of knowledgeably weighing the
odds of the success of recovery because of this uncertainty.
In chapter 5, the findings in the preceding chapters will be summarized. The chapter will also
propose a strategy towards addressing the problem of failure to have a definition on public
policy in the enforcement of international arbitral awards.
92
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter sums up the discussions in the preceding chapters. The chapter makes a
conclusion on the research problem, in light of the discussions. The hypotheses laid out at the
beginning of the research, in chapter one, are then compared with the findings of the
research; this either proves or disproves the hypotheses.
This chapter then examines question three: How best can public policy be applied to the
enforcement of international arbitral awards? It makes recommendations on how to ensure a
system that gives a harmonized system of enforcement of transnational arbitral awards to
give credence to such awards. In particular, the chapter recommends what can be done to the
Kenyan system to make Kenya friendly to enforcement of arbitration, thereby promoting
Kenya as the hub of arbitration.
The paper suggests that where parties have valid arbitral agreements, an award ought to be
enforced regardless of domestic provisions unless the defaulting party can offer
commensurate satisfaction of the award "in another' country without prejudicing the
beneficiary. The preceding chapters confirm that there is indeed a pressing need to have a
clear definition of public policy as a ground for setting aside an international arbitral award
5.2. CONCLUSIONS
Public policy is a wide concept. While domestic and international law have set it out as a
ground for setting aside an international arbitral award, the definition of public policy has
remained' elusive. In the words of a popular text on the topic of the law and practice of
international arbitration:
Public Policy is a very unruly horse, and once you get astride it, you never know
where it will carry you. It may lead you from sound law. It is never argued at all, but
when other points fail. The definition of the Public Policy exception is yet to be
93
clearly set OUt.I92Jfthis is done, it will look to the broader public interest of honesty
and fair dealing and create a high level of certainty in international commercial
transactions.193
Kenya has made great strides generally in providing a legislative and institutional framework
in practice of international arbitration. However, the failure to define public policy which is a
fundamental terms in the arbitration process poses a key challenge to the practice of
international arbitration. Judicial decisions which would otherwise fill in the gap of a lack of
definition in the legislation instead introduces yet another challenge; inconsistency. This has
created a murky situation where the enforcement of an arbitral award is uncertain and
unpredictable.
5.3. RECOMMENDATIONS
As many a claimant has learned to his cost, it is one thing to recover a favourable judgment;
it may prove quite another to enforce it against an unscrupulous
defendant. But an
unenforceable judgment is at best valueless, at worst a source of additionalloss.194
My recommendation is that to ensure that international arbitration" becomes more attractive as-
a mode of resolution of international disputes, it is necessary to define public policy. J
propose that public policy be defined by setting out a threshold. This is because as
demonstrated in this paper, public policy is a wide concept. A brief definition of public policy
may therefore prejudice the process further rather than remedying it. My proposal is to use
the criminal law of the enforcement state as the threshold. J therefore suggest that both
Kenyan as well as international legal instruments define public policy as follows:
an issue will be considered to be against public policy and the court shall refuse to
enforce an international arbitral award if the issue is one that the court would find to
contravene the criminal law of the enforcement state.
International Commercial Arbitration, Sweet & Maxwell (4edn), p. 420
International Commercial Arbitration, Sweet & Maxwell (4edn), p. 420
194 Societe Eram Shipping v Cie Internationale de Navigation [2004] I AC 260 at [10]
94
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. LIST OF TEXT BOOKS, JOURNALS AND OTHER TEXTS
l. Blackaby, N. & Partasides, C. with Redfern, A., Hunter, M., Redfern & Hunter on
International Arbitration, (5th ed. London: Oxford University Press, 2009).
2. Cheshire, North & Fawcett, Private International Law, (l4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2009).
3. Craig, L., Park, W. & Paulsson J., International Chamber of Commerce Arbitration, (3rd ed.
Oceana: International Chamber of Commerce).
4. Muigua, K., Settling Disputes Through Arbitration in Kenya, (2nd ed. Kenya: Glenwood
Publishers, 2008).
5. Muigai, G. and Kamau, J., Arbitration Law and Practice in Kenya: the legal framework of
nd
arbitration in Kenya, (2 ed. Kenya: Law Africa Publishing (K) Limited, pp 1-10.
6. Mustill J. & Boyd c., Commercial Arbitration, (2nd ed. London & Edinburgh:
Butterworths, 1989).
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Commercial Arbitration, (4th ed. London: Sweet & Maxwell, 2004).
B. LIST OF JOURNALS & ARTICLES
l. Leonardo de Campos Melo: 'Recognition of Foreign Arbitral Awards in Brazil, Hans Smit
and Juris Publishing, Inc.,2013.
2. Marc, B., 'The New York Convention: The Major Problem Areas ", In: The New York
Convention of 1958, As a Special Series No.9 (1996).
3. KOCH c., The Enforcement of Awards Annulled in Their Place of Origin: The French and
us. Experience' (Kluwer Law International, 2003), 26 Journal of International Arbitration -
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4. Von Mehren A. c., International Commercial Arbitration: The Contribution of the French
Jurisprudence, 46 LA. L. REV. (1986).
5. American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 28, NO.3 (summer, 1980), PP. 498-506, (U.S.:
American Society of Comparative Law).
95
NICHOLAS MINING INDUSTRIES
DOCUMENT TYPE PARTICULARS REVIEWED BY A & K
license Documents 1. Special Licence 3054/4/2011 YES
YES
2. Renewal of Special Licence No 35
,22/4/2013
3. Prospecting right no. 10958 (form 2) YES
Letters/Correspondences 1. Letter from the County Council of Kipsigis, YES

1/9/2010
2. Letter to the Commissioner of Mines and YES
Geology, 7/6/2013
3. Letter from Nicholas Mining Industries to YES
the Ministry of Mining 16/7/2010
4. Original Letter from Ministry of Mining to YES
Nicholas Mining Industries, 5/5/11
YES
5. Letter from the Ministry of Mining to
Nicholas Mining Industries, dated '29th
YES
March 28, 2011'
6. Letter from Nicholas Mining Industries to
YES
the Ministry of Mining, 6/1/11 Received
7/1/2011
-- -, Ministry of Mining, 11/11/10 YES ..
Nicholas Mining Industries, 8/9/10 YES
Kipsigis County Council, 30/10/10 YES
the Ministry of Mining, 16/8/10 YES
the Ministry of Mining, 28/11/2011 YES
YES
Kipsigis County Council, Undated
YES
the Ministry of Mining, 6/9/2010
YES
Ministry of Mining, 25/10/10,
Ministry of Mining 7/4/2011,
Ministry of Mining 6/4/2011
17. Letter from the Ministry of Mining to YES
Nicholas Mining Industries, 15/2/2011,
Nicholas Mining Industries 27/8/14, YES

Nicholas Mining Industries 21/7/2014, YES
20.
Ministry of Mining, 1/3/2013,
Ministry of Mining 7/6/2013,
YES
Ministry of Mining 5/5/11
YES
24. Original Letter from Ministry of Mining to
Nicholas Mining Industries, 28/7/2014
YES
25. Letter From Nicholas Mining Industries
Letter To Ministry Of Mining 15 April 2013 YES
26. Cr 12 Dated 12 Sept 2014
Ministry of Mining Dated 1/9/2014
Reports 1. Allan Hochreiter Report, Homa Bay Rare YES

Earth Deposit May 2011
YES
"
2. Terra Search Pty l.td, Horna Bay Data

Evaluation Report May 2011
4. Geological Survey, Homa Bay And Buru YES
Areas, 27/3/2013
5. Terra Search, Homa Bay Evaluation Report, YES
May 2011, 15 Pages
YES
6. Venmyn, Mineral Expert's Report of
Standard Atlantic (PTY) Buru Hill Rare Earth
YES
Element Deposit in Kenya 29/2/2012
7. Japan International Cooperation Agency
YES
Metal Mining Agency of Japan+ Report on
the Mineral Exploration in the Homa Bay YES
Area Republic of Kenya - Phase I - March
1988 YES
Metal Mining Agency of Japan - Report on YES
the Mineral Exploration in the Homa Bay
Area Republic of Kenya - Phase II - March YES
19889
Metal Mining Agency of Japan - Report on
the Mineral Exploration in the Homa Bay
Area Republic of Kenya - Phase III - March

1990
10. Buru Hills Rare Earth Mining Project
(September 2014, 11 Pages)
11. Special License No. 305 Buru Hills,
Quarterly Progress Report from January-
March 2014
12. Special License No. 305 Buru Hills,
Quarterly Progress Report for April - June
2014
13.
14. Special License No. 305 Report from t"
January 2013 - so" June 2013
15. Quarterly Report August to October 2012
16. Quarterly Report April, May and June 2011
17. Rare Earths Elements (REEs) Prospects in
the Homa Bay - Kericho Area Report by
RVR and NMI
18. Venmyn, Reconciliation of Re-sampling
Exercise Conducted on the Historical Core
of Standard Atlantic (PTY) Buru Hill Rare
Earth Element Deposit in Kenya 26/6/2012
.. .. 1. ..
Gazette Notices Kenya Gazette Copy Page 547 YES
2. Original Kenya Gazette Pages 505 to 576,
25/2/2011
Company Information 1. Assay Certificate Dated 11/10/10 YES

Documents 2. Letter from Nicholas Mining Industries to
Registrar of Companies Dated 28/7/14 YES
3. Company Registration Details Printout,
28/7 /14. (Cpr/2010/33964) YES
4. Original KRA Pin Certificate
5. Extract of Financial Statements for 2012, YES
2013 and 2014
YES
6. Extract of Management Accounts for the
Year 2011,2012,2013 and 2014 (1 page) .
YES
7.
8. KRA Returns for the Accounting Period
YES
31/12/2012
9. KRA Returns for the Accounting Period YES
31/12/2013
10. Statement of Work Program And
Expenditure Accounts (undated)
11. Certificate of Incorporation (Copy)
12. Annual return dated 31st March 2014 with

receipt attached evidencing filing of 2012,
2013 and 2014 annual returns
Business Permits, Receipts 1. Mineral Export Permit Ref No. YES

And Invoices M/2273/2011/lx/55
2. Copy of Renewal Receipt No. 12174, YES
26/9/2011
3. Original Receipt No. 9954837 from the YES
Commissioner of Mines And Geology
7/4/11 YES
4. Original Receipt No. 9954853 from the
YES
8/4/11
YES
5. Business Permit Bill No. Bp14-000175,
27/3/2011 County Government of Kericho
YES
6. Form 2, Renewal of Prospecting Right No.
11751 Dated 23/9/2010 YES
7. Original Receipt No. 5085894, 8/8/2014
8. Barclays Bankers Cheque, 25/7/2014 YES
9. Original Receipt No. 1273979, 18/2/11
10. Original Proforma, 18/2/2011 YES
11. Copy of Business Permit Dated 9/8/11
12. Original Business Permit No. 2014/55 YES
County Council of Kericho
..
B. Kipsigis County Council, Bill No. Rf1201- YES
00034, 11/1/12
14. Kipsigis County Council Business Permit No. YES
Bp12-000048
YES
15. Business Permit No. 2012/55 With Bill No.
1016 County Council of Kipsigis
YES
16. Business Permit No. 2010/55 With Bill No.
0008 County Council of Kipsigis
YES
17. official Receipt No. 1583890 Mines and
Geology 22/4/2013 YES
18. County Council of Kipsigis Bill No. Rf1101-
00001, 3/1/2011 YES
19. County Council of Kipsigis Single Business
YES
Permit Bill No. Rf1101-00001, 3/1/2011
20. Original Single Business Permit No. YES
2010/55, 9/8/10 County Council of Kipsigis
21. County Council of Kipsigis Single Business YES
Permit Bill No. Bp10to000051, 9/8/11
22. Original Business Permit Bill (Kipsigis YES
County Council), 14/1/13
23. Business Permit No. 2012/55 No. 1016 YES
County Council of Kipsigis
24. YES
25. Single Business Permit No. 2013/55 County
Council of Kipsigis YES
26. Single Business Permit Bill No. Bp13-
000066
27. Original Receipt No. D0575345 Dated
12/9/14
28. Registrar General Original Receipt - CR12 -
A0571057 Dated 28/7/14
29. KRA Paying in Slip for year 2013 received
14 October 2014
30. Paying in Slip for year 2012 received 14
October 2014
31. Paying in Slip for year 2013 received 14
October 2011
32. Receipt No. 9954795 from the
30/3/11

Mboce - Enforcement of International Arbitral Awards - Public Policy Limitation in Kenya

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Mboce - Enforcement of International Arbitral Awards - Public Policy Limitation in Kenya

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UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

SUPERVISOR: MR. LEONARD ALOO

A RESEARCH PAPER SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

I, Harriet Mboce hereby declare that:

Signed . ...... : .. ~.: this ~~~ day of ~~~~~~ 2014

Signed .. ... . ..•.......... : this ~~~ clay of 1;?4.;;;8~'f?2: 2014

lVIR. LEONARD ALOO

TABLE OF CONTENTS .•...................•.•.•..........•......•...•..•...•..•...•..•.•.•.............•.•.•...•...•.•.•.•......•....................•..•..• 3

COPYRIGHT WARNING .•...•...•....•.•.•.•.•......•.•....•......•...•......•.................•.................•.•.........................•........... 10

CHAPTER ONE .•.•......•.•.•..............•.....•..•.....•....•...•..•.•.•..••..•...•..•...•..•...•..•...•..........•.•....•.•....•....•.•..•......•..•...•. 11

1.1. INTRODUCTION ..••.....•....•.•.•.•..•...•...•..•.•.•..•.•....•..............•....•.•.....................................•...•...•..•........ 11

1.2. BACKGROUNDTOTHE PROBLEM 12

JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION AND EFFECTOF THE PUBLIC POLICY CONSIDERATION ...............•.................................................. 44

THE PUBLIC POLICY CONSIDERATION 44

CHAPTER TWO •.•...•.................•......•...•....•.•....•.•.•..•.•......•......•.....•.................•.•.•..•...•...•..•.•.•......................... 46

I(ENYA'S LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 46

CHAPTER THREE .................•...•...•....•.•......•.•....•...•..•......•...........................................................•...•..•...........• 56

INTERNATIONAL LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 56

CASE STUDY AND COMPARATIVE ANAlySiS 65

A. LIST OF TEXT BOOKS, JOURNALS AND OTHER TEXTS 95

ClArb Chartered Institute of Arbitrators

1. Constitution of Kenya, 2010.

B. LIST OF KENYAN STATUTES

1. Arbitration (Amendment) Act 2009.

C. LIST OF INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND INSTRUMENTS

1. United Nations Convention on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL).

D. LIST OF KENYAN CASE LAW

1. Anne Mumbi Hinga-vs- Victoria Njoki Gathara, [2009]Eklr.

E. LIST OF NON-KENYAN CASE LAW

1. China Agribusiness Development Corporation -vs-Balli Trading [\998]2 Lloyd's Rep.

A successful party in an international arbitration reasonably expects the award to be

1.2. BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM

11 Ibid, Regeru, p.122. See also Redfern, A. Hunter, M. (1999), p. 169.

12 Societe Eram Shipping v Cie Internationale de Navigation [2004] I AC 260 at [10]

Enforcement against an unscrupulous liable party can be achieved by an application, to the

15Constitution of Kenya, 20 I0, (the Constitution) Article 159 (2).

Definition of public policy

An unenforceable judgment is at best valueless, at worst; it is a source of additional loss." As

As proponents of international trade and investments continue to present arbitration as an

27 Societe Eram Shipping v Cie Internationale de Navigation [2004] 1 AC 260 at [10]

1.4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1.5. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

This study is premised on the author's hypotheses that:

3. There is no concise definition of public policy as a ground or setting aside of

1.7. BROAD ARGUMENT LAYOUT

Existing system on enforcement of transnational arbitral awards are universally inconsistent.

1.8. LITERATURE REVIEW AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS

28Supra, the Constitution of Kenya, article 159 (2).

c. where the arbitration is between an individual and a body corporate:

(i) the party who is an individual is a national of Kenya or is habitually resident in

On the other hand, arbitration is international if:

(i) the juridical seat of arbitration IS determined by or pursuant to the

32 Supra, the Act, Section 3(2).

International legal instruments

40NYC, Article I (I)

43Anne Mumbi Hinga-vs- Victoria Njoki Gathara, [2009]eKLR

International judicial decisions

49 [2002] 1 KLR 606 .p. 626.

Signed . ...... : .. ~.: this ~ day of ~~~~ 2014