Lecture #1: CARBON (Tramp)

1. Organic Compounds - class of compounds that contain carbon.

2. Carbon
a) 6 protons + 6 neutrons = 12 atomic weight
b) Relatively small
c) Can form into rings, sheet, etc.
d) Core atom, foundation of biology
e) Electron shells
3. Covalent Bond - atoms that share electrons with each other
a) Methane - simplest compound ever C1H4
4. Octet Rule - needs eight electrons to be satisfied/happy.
5. Polar Covalent Bond - positive and negative charge pole
6. Non-Polar Covalent Bond - no charge
7. Ionic Bonds - do not share electrons, donate or accept electrons
8. Halogen - needs 1 electron to fulfil octet
9. Alkali - has one electron on its shell
10. Hydrogen Bond - hydrogen to oxygen side ex.water

Lecture #2: MOLECULAR STRUCTURE and HYDROGEN BONDS (Characteristics of Water)

1. Water - H20
a) Sharing electron with oxygen via covalent bond
2. Cohesion & Surface Tension
a) Water - high cohesion and high surface tension
b) Cohesion - attraction between two like things I.e. water molecule to water molecule
i. Water - highest cohesion of any non-metallic liquid e.g. beads up on wax paper
c) Adhesion - attraction between two different substances e.g. water and glass = water
molecules to glass molecules
i. Capillary Action - water on straw
3. Hydrophilic Substances - good solvent; polar
4. Hydrophobic Substances - fearful of water; non polar
5. Ice Density - water form crystalline structure; spacing of molecules (why ice float on water)
6. Heat Capacity - good at holding heat

Lecture #3: BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES (Bread, Peanut Butter, and Egg)

1. Biological Molecules - molecules necessary for every living thing on earth to survive.
a) Functions: energy storage, essential sources of energy, instruction
b) Saccharinous (carbohydrates); oleaginous (fat); albuminous (protein)
2. Carbohydrates - source of all energy; C6H1206
a) Monosaccharide - “mono” means “one”, “saccharide” means “sugar”
i. Simples form of sugar
ii. Glucose - comes from the sun; respiration and photosynthesis
iii. Fructose - sweeter than glucose
b) Disaccharide - two monosaccharides
i. Sucrose - glucose and fructose joined by covalent bond
c) Polysaccharide - thousands of simple sugars
i. Storage of energy; structural compounds
ii. Cellulose - most common structural compound
a) Bunch of glucose molecule bound together
b) Most common organic compound on the planet
c) Difficult to digest for humans; grass - cow
d) Bread - both has amylose (starch) and cellulose (grass)
iii. Plants - stores glucose in the form of starch
iv. Humans - glycogen store energy; made up of glucose leftover; stored in liver or
muscles
3. Fat- lipid; smaller and simple than C6H12O6
a) Group together because they share the inability to dissolve in water
b) Chemical bonds that are polar
c) 3 chemical ingredients:
 i. Glycerol
ii. Alcohol
iii. Fatty acids - long carbo-hydrogen chain - carboxyl group
d) Triglyceride - 3 fatty acids connected to glycerol e.g. butter, peanut butter
i. Saturated - saturated with hydrogen; bad fat
ii. Unsaturated - unsaturated hydrogen; good fat
iii. Transfat - don’t eat; unsaturated fat
e) Phospholipids - 2 faty acids and phospate group e.g. cell membrane
i. Polar and non polar end
ii. Cell wall
f) Steroid - backbone of four interconnected carbon rings
i. Cholesterol - binds with phospholipids to help form cell walls
ii. Activated to turn into different lipid hormones
iii. Estradiol - female sex hormones
iv. Testosterone - male sex hormone
4. Protein - most complicated compound of the body
a) Enzymes - regulating chemical processes; helping you digest food
b) Antibodies - connecting themselves to invaders i.e. bacterium and viruses
c) Protein Hormones - protein endorphins, brain and make you feel emotions
d) 20 different ingredients (humans)
i. Amino acids - carboxyl group - amino group
ii. Valine - protecting and building the muscle tissue
iii. Tryptophan - regulate mood and energy levels
e) Polypeptides - long chain of amino acids; proteins are formed connect and elaborate
i. Fold, coil, twist
f) Protein Synthesis - only possible if you have all the amino acids necessary
i. 9 necessary amino acids - we can’t make ourselves; eat
1. Histidine 6. Phenylalanine
2. Isoleucine 7. Threonine
3. Leucine 8. Tryptophan
4. Lysine 9. Valine
5. Methionine

Lecture #4: ANIMAL CELLS

1. Animal Cells - eukaryote

2. Eukaryotic Cells
a) Nuclear membrance
b) Organelles
c) Cell membranes
3. Plants - eukaryotic cells
a) Organelles - make up their own food
b) Cell membrane - cell wall made up of cellulose
c) Rigid - reason why plants can’t dance; flexible membrane
4. Protozoans - don’t have specialized muscle tissue
a) Cillia and glagella - for movement
5. Robert Hooke - discovered cells; monk cells, dead cells

Parts of the Cell (Cell City)

1. Cilia - tiny little arms that wiggle around
a) Can be found in lungs, throat = mucus out
2. Flagella - one long whip-like tail
a) Sperm Cells
3. Microtubules - long protein fibers that made up cillia and flagella (9+2)
4. Cell Membrane - kind of squishy; not rigid plant cell wall
a) Encloses the cell
b) Monitors what comes in/out
c) Selective Permeability - can choose what molecules comes in/out
5. Cytoplasm - solution of water and nutrients
6. Cytoskeleton - inside cytoplasm
a) Infrastructure necessary for all the organelles
b) Bunch of protein strands that reinforce the cell
7. Centrosomes - assemble long microtubules
8. Endoplasmic Reticulum - creates network of membranes that carry stuff around the cell
a) Phospholipid bilayers - same as in the cell membrane
b) Rough ER - bumpy; ribosomes attached
c) Smooth ER - no ribosomes attached
i. Factory - warehouse
ii. Contains enzymes that helps in creation of lipids
iii. Cell detoxifying
iv. Store ions
9. Ribosomes - can float freely throughout the cytoplasm or be attached to the nuclear envelope
a) Process: amino acid >> polypeptides
b) Chain is push to the ER
c) ER pinches it off and sends it to Golgi Apparatus
10. Golgi Apparatus - protein processing and packaging
a) Send proteins where they are needed
b) Finishing touches on the lysosomes
c) Golgi Bodies - cut up large proteins into smaller hormones
d) Protein + Carbohydrate = molecules
11. Vessicles - sacs; have phospholipids membrance
a) Ship golgi body products
12. Lysosomes - waste treatment plants and recycling centers of the cell
a) Cell digestion
b) Enzyme sacks
c) Process: cell waste>>building material
d) Cytoplasm
13. Nucleus - highly specialized organelle that lives in its own double-membraned, high-security
compound with nucleolus
a) In charge in major way
b) Stores the cells DNA
c) Uses DNA to make instructions to other organelles
14. Nucleolus - inside nucleus
a) Only organelles not enveloped by its membrane
b) Makes ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
c) rRNA combine with proteins to form basic untis of ribosomes
d) mRNA>>ribosomes
15. Chromatin - holds DNA;
a) Cell division>>chromosomes hold DNA molecules; rod-shaped
i. Humans = 46 chromosomes = 23 pairs
16. Mitochondria - power house of the cell
a) Smooth, oblong organelles
b) Respiration
c) Energy derives from C6H12O6>>ATP
d) ATP- drives the cell
e) Egg cells - have DNA
Dehydrogenase - enzyme that makes alcohol not alcohol anymore

Lecture #5: MEMBRANES and TRANSPORT

MEMBRANES
1. Selective Permeable - select what comes in/out
2. Cellular Membrane - pass easily without a lot of help e.g. water and oxygen
3. Passive Transport - require energy
a) how oxygen and water get into cell (diffusion)
4. Diffusion
a) Osmosis - how cells regulate water content
 b) Solutions - salt-water; sugar-water
c) Hypertonic - concentration inside of a solution is higher inside the cell that it is outside
of the cell
d) Hypotonic - concentration inside is lower than outside
e) Isotonic - concentration is equal inside/outside
f) Kidney - keeping the concentration of blood plasma
5. Channel Proteins - allows passage of water and ion without using any energy
a) Aquaporins - proteins that channeling water; hydrophilic

TRANSPORTS
1. Active Transport - move from high concentration to low concentration
a) Requires ATP
b) Sodium Potassium Pump
2. Vesicular Transport - requires energy
a) Under Active Transport
b) Done by vesicles - tiny sacs made by phospholipids
c) Citosis - cell action
i. Exocytosis Transport- transport outside the cell e.g. nerve cells, brain releases
neurotransmittes, dopamine and serotonin
ii. Endocytosis Transport - transport inside the cell
1. Phagocytosis - devouring cell action
iii. Pinocytosis - drinking action; similar to phagocytosis; surrounds things that have
already been dissolved
d) Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis - uses specialized recepter proteins

Lecture #6: PLANT CELLS

1. Plants
a) Lycophytes - reproduce through making a bunch og spores shredding them to the
ground
b) Scale Trees - extinct; huge swampy forest that covered the earth
c) Coal Forest - dense and covered the whole earth >> fossilized into giant seams of coal,
important in our life styles today
d) Carboniferous Period
i. Angiosperms - plants that use flowers to reproduce
2. Prokaryotic Cells - “before kernel”
a) Bacteria
b) Archaea
3. Eukaryotic Cells - good kernel; nuclear membrane, organelles, cytoplasm
PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC
Evolve: Green algae < primitive prokaryotes
Cell Wall Flexible membrane, can move around
1. Rigid
2. Surrounding plasma membrane
3. Made up of cellulose and lignin (2 tough
compounds; just a chain of glucose
compounds)
4. Structure and protection
Grow tall - cellulose and lignin
a. Extremely strong and resistant to
deterioration
Roughage - when we eat cellulose and lignin
cannot be digest
Burns, create fire
Photosynthesis - make their own food
Plastids - organelles that plants use to make Mitochondria - powerhouse of the cells, stores
and store compounds that they needed energy
-Plastids and mitochondria started as bacteria
>> absorb by evolution
A. Chloroplasts - convert light energy >> sugar
and oxygen, most important plastids
B. Central Vacoule - large, push water into
vacuoles, turgus pressure created, reinforces
the plant, rigid.
Cell Wall
Nuclues
Plastids
Central Vacoule

Lecture #7: ATP and RESPIRATION

1. Cellular Respiration - how we derive energy from food we eat; specifically glucose
2. ATP (Adenosine Triposhophate) - currency of biological energy
a) Adenine - made up of a nitrogenous base
b) Ribose - sugar
c) 3 Phosphate groups
3. ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) - energy release
a) 2 phosphate only
4. Hydrolysis - breakdown of a molecule; addition of hydrogen
5. Oxygen and Glucose - 38 molecules of ATP
a) Glycosis - breaking down of glucose; occurs in cytoplasm
i. Needs 2 ATP >> 4 ATPs
1. 2 Pyruvates
2. 2 NADH - NAD+ pairing + energized electrons + hydrogen (storehouse of
energy)
ii. Anaerobic Process - process that does’t need oxygen i.e. glycosis
iii. Pyruvates >> fermentation to acquire oxygen to continue the process of rpoducing
ATP in glycosis process
1. Fermentation - frees up some NAD+ e.g. yeast >> ethyl alcohol
2. Lactic Acid - feel sore after working out; physical activities
iv. Aerobic Process - requires oxygen to takes place
b) The Krebs Cycle - occurs in mitochondria; citric acid cycle - 6-cabon molecule
i. 2 Pyruvates >> 2 ATPs
ii. CO2 - exhaling product
iii. Enzyme - helps join acetyl COA and a 4-carbon molecule oxaloacetic acid
iv. Niacin and Riboflavin - electron process
c) Electron Transport Chain - produce 34 ATPS

PROCESS ATP
Glycosis 2
Kreb’s Cycle 2
ETC 34
Total: 38 ATPS

Lecture #8: Photosynthesis

1. Photosynthesis - developed 450 million years ago; respiration in reverse.
2. 2 Reactions
a) Light Indeependent
b) Light Dependent
3. Light Independent - aka “Calvin Cycle”
a) Water
i. Xylem - transport water to leaves
ii. Stomata - CO2 in; O out
iii. Chlorophyll - absorbs photons from the sun
iv. Plastids
1. Chloroplasts
a) Thylakoid - phospholipids bilayers
b) Stores chlorophyll
 c) Stracked into grana
d) Lumen inside
e) Stroma inside
b) Light Dependent
Stage I: Photoexcitation - photon
i. Photosystem II - 99 different chemicals including 30 individual chlorophyll
molecules
1. All of the protein complexes in the light-dependent reaction oxygen
ii. Electron Chain Transport - energized energized electrons; lose their energy in a
series of reactions that capture the energy necessary to keep life living
iii. Cytochrome Complex - intermediary between PSII and PSI (changed the ray)
iv. Photosystem I - electrons get energized
v. Oxygen - by product
Stage II:
A. Using energy from those ATPs and NADHs created in S1
B. Produce something useful for the plants
a) Carbon Fixation
i. Stroma - empty space for the chloroplasts
ii. Rubisco - CO2 fixed to RUBp with enzyme called ribulose
b) Reduction - glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate >> glucose (Carbohydrate)
i. Ultimate product of photosynthesis
c) Regeneration - Rubisco again

Lecture #9: HEREDITY

1. Heredity - passing on of the genetic traits from parents to offspring
2. Gregor Mendel - inheritance followed particular patterns; pea plants
a) Classical Genetics
3. Chromosomes - 23 pairs
4. Gene - section of DNA in a specific location in a chromosomes that contains information that
determines a trait
5. Polygenic Trait - confusing; many genes
6. Pleiotropic Gene - single gene affect multiple traits; humans
7. Mendelian Trait - wetness or dryness of earwax; C16
8. Allele - pair of chromosomes
9. Somatic Cells - non-sex cells; any cell in the body that is not a sperm or an egg
10. Gametes - sex cells
a) Diploid Cells - 2 set of chromosomes; one inherited from each parents
b) Haploid Cells - one set of chromosomes
c) Polyploid Cells - more than 2 set of chromosomes in each cell
11. Dominant/Dominance - relationship between alleles in which one allele masks or totally
suppresses the expression of another allele
12. Genotype - genetic makeup; punette square
a) Heterozygous - inherited 2 different versions of the same gene from each parents; 1D1r
b) Homozygote - 2 same gene inherited; 2D/2r
c) Phenotype - expressed physically; actual result
13. Sex-linked Chromosomes - 23 pairs
a) Autosomes - 22 pairs; non-sex chromosomes
b) Se Chromosomes - 1 pair; (M) XY (F) XX

Lecture #10: DNA STRUCTURE and REPLICATION

1. DNA - 600 times around the sun (length)
a) What stores our genetic instructions
b) The information that programs all our cells activities
c) 46 chromosomes
d) Double helix
2. Nucleic Acid
a) Nucleotides - polymers made up of many small repeating molecular units
b) Polynucleotides - linked nucleotides
3. DNA Structure
 a) 5 carbon sugar molecule
i. Deoxyribose
ii. Backbone - upside down
b) Phosphate Group
c) 1 of 4 nitrogen bases
i. DNA - Adenine = Thymine, Guanine = Cytosine
ii. RNA - Adenine = Uracil, Guanine = Cytosine
d) Pairing - 5’>>3’, 3’>>5’
4. RNA -for production of protein
a) Single strand
b) Ribose - one more oxygen
c) Uracil not Thymine
5. Replication of DNA - copying of DNA
a) Helicase - unwinding the double helix
i. Slicing open those loose hydrogen bonds between the base parts
b) Replication Fork
i. Top Strand - leading strand; easy to pair bases; 5’-3’
ii. Bottom Strand - lagging strand; complicate to pair bases; 3’-5’
c) DNA Polymerase
d) RNA Primase
e) DNA ligase

Lecture #11: DNA TRANSCRIPTION and TRANSLATION

1. Titin - longest protein in the world
2. Transcription - cell nucleus >> DNA instruction manual copied gene by gene onto kind of RNA
3. Translation - assemble amino acid strings into polypeptides or proteins >> titin>> keratin
***
1. Nucleus layer - transcription unit
2. RNA Splicing
a) Snurps - small nuclear ribo-proteins; start/end of the slice
b) Exons - will be expressed
3. Translation - happens in Endoplasmic Reticulum (tRNA)
4. Folding - primary structure of amino acids
a) Primary - sequene
b) Secondary - sheets and spiral
c) Tertiary - R groups
d) Quantenary - multiple bonds

Lecture #12: MITOSIS

1. Mitosis - cell division; responsible for a whole lot of body’s key function
a) Diploid Cells - 2 set each
b) Haploid Cells - half of many chromosomes (23 pairs) meiosis
Phases
1. Interphase - in between episodes of mitosis
a) Chromatine - long strings of DNA are loosely coiled and messy
b) Centrosome Duplication - centrosomes duplicate
c) Duplicates the chromatins
d) Get ready for the split
2. Prophase
a) Chromosomes form and the centrosomes starts to spread out
b) Chromatid middle centromere
c) Nuclear envelope disintegrates
d) Centromes peel away from the nucleus >> heading the opposite ends of the cell
3. Metaphase
a) “after phase” longest phase (2 mins.)
b) Chromosomes attached to the microtubules right in the middle
c) Chromosomes move around being done by molecules called motor proteins
d) Motor Proteins - 2 in each side of the centromere; associated protein E; spool up the
tubules stack
 e) Chromosomes aligh in the middle of the cell
4. Anaphase
a) “Ana” - back
b) Seperates the chromosomes from their copies
c) Motor proteins pull the microtubles that X-shaped chromosomes split back into their
individual single chromosome
d) Drag toward the end of the cell
5. Telophase
a) Each new cells are reconstructed
b) Nuclear membrane reforms and nucleoli form within them
c) Cleavage - division between 2 new cells
d) Cytokinesis - clear break; cell movement
6. Daughter Cells - 46 chromosomes
a) Clone from original
b) Identical
c) Genetic copy of each other

Lecture #13: MEIOSIS

1. Meiosis - 4 seperate cells; genetically distinct to each other
a) Homologous Pair - similar but not identical
i. Same genes or alleles in the same spot of any given trait
b) Haploid Cells - have half of a full set chromosomes (23)
c) Male - primary spermatocytes
d) Female - primary oocytes
Phases
1. Interphase
a) Long string of DNA in the nucleus duplicate
b) Centrosomes appears/protein
2. Prophase I
a) Centrosomes move to the corners; unspooling the microtubules
b) Chromatid - pair chromosome; centromere middle
c) Crossover - tangle up with other X
d) Recombination- trade of sections of DNA XX
e) 23 pair - doesn’t go crossover; recombination XY
3. Metaphase I - each homologous pair partner lineup
4. Anaphase I - pull apart and migrate on either end of the cell
5. Telophase I
a) Nuclear membrane reform; nucleoli
b) Chromosomes fray out back to chromatid
c) Cleavage
d) Cytokinesis
6. II Phases - again from Interphase II >> Telophase II
a) Single-strand chromosomes DNA
b) Sperm Cells - same size, different genetic code
c) Egg Cells - one only, all the organelles go to the one cell
i. Polar Bodies - 3 cells are useless
ii. Endosperm - plants

Lecture #14: NATURAL SELECTION

1. Natural Selection - most powerful and most important cause of evolutionary change
2. Charles Darwin - obsessed with nature
a) Origin of Species - 1859
3. Population Genetics
a) Mutation
b) Migration
c) Genetic Drift - same alleles shows up
4. Adaptation - species ideally shaped to enhance their survival and reproduction in specific
environment
5. Fitness - relative to survive and create offspring
4 Basic Principles of Natural Selection
1. Variation of Phenotypes - physical competition
2. Heritable - can be pass onto offspring
3. The Struggle of Existence - population vs. Resources
4. Survival and Reproductive Rate

Modes of Selection
1. Directional Selection - when a favored trait is at one extreme end of the range of traits e.g. from
short to tall, white to black
a) Leads to change in frequency of that expressed trait in a population when a single
phenotype is favored
b) Peppered Moth - white >>black Giraffe- short neck >> long neck
2. Disruptive Selection - favor extreme trait on both ends of the spectrum while selecting against
the common trait
a) Daphnea - tiny crustaceans
i. Smaller >> lesser; prey
ii. Bigger >> more but short life span
b) Susceptibility and fecundity
3. Sexual Selection - physical
a) Directional Sexual Selection
b) Fighting - for bigger and stronger
4. Artificial Selections - unnatural form of selection; encourage the selection of some traits and
discourage others

Lecture #15: SPECIATION: of LIGER and MEN

1. Homo Sapiens - our species; single remaining member of the genus homo
a) Homo erectus
b) Homo habilis
c) Homo neanderthals
2. Species - group of organisms that can interbred and produce fertile offspring
a) Hybrids - offspring resulting from the cross-breeding of two distinct species
b) Evolution - change in the heritable characteristics of a species across generations; new
species have formed in the past and they continue to develop all the time
3. Speciation Requirements
a) Reproductive Isolation - 2 populations of the same species can no longer mate together
successfully
b) Post-Zygotic - parents can produce a zygote and that’s final
c) Pre-Zygote - isolation happened between groups of the same species before an egg
even developed
i. Causes: behavioral and geographic
d) Allopatric Speciation - “different countries”; 2 population of a species end up evolving
differently because the condition are different on each side e.g. river
e) Sympatic Speciation - “same county”

Lecture #16: ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT: WE’RE JUST TUBES

1. Hierarchy
Species
Genus
Family
Order
Class
Phylum
Kingdom
Domain

2. Layer of Tissue
3. Zygote - diplote cell with 2 set of chromosomes that contain all of the instructions needed to
create a new living thing
a) Cleaving - dividing of the zygote
b) Morula - 32 cells; raspberry/mulberry
c) Blastula - fluid that forms a space in the center resulting to hollow sphere of cells
4. Gastrulation - tract; mouth >> anus; begins when an indentation starts to form at a single point
on the blastula
a) Blastopore - invaginate the blastula
b) Grastula
i. Protostome - animal whose mouth is the orifice that’s formed by the blastaphore
ii. Deuterostome - anus is the structure created by the blastaphore; humans
5. Chordates - all vertebrates and a couple of our relatives like starfish are deuterostomes

Germ Layers
1. Ectoderm - outer layer
2. Endoderm - inner layer

1. Diploblastic - organism with mouth-anus combo

2. Triplobastic - another layer; humans
a) Ectoderm - animal’s skin, nerves and spinal cord, most of its brains
b) Endoderm - digestive tract, esophagus, stomach and colon
c) Mesoderm - muscles, circulatory system, reproductive systems, bones

Lecture #17: EVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENT: CHICKEN TEETH

1. Evolutionary Development (Evo Devo) – science that looks deep into our gene to figure out
how exactly they give instructions to make different parts of our body.
2. 98.6% - humans and chimps are genetically similar
3. 85% - humans and mouse are genetically identical
4. Developmental Regulatory Genes – powerful genes; they activate the genes that put the body
parts together; starts working in the early embryonic development.
a. Gap Genes – responsible for telling the blastula for mouth/anus
b. Homeobox Genes – “hox genes” “head architects”; after the embryo is developed/ literally
control the identity of body parts/ setting up how the animal body is organized i.e. leg, tail
5. Regulatory Genes Hierarchy
a. Top Tier Genes (Master Plan) – same with all species and different animal groups
b. 2nd Tier Genes
c. 3rd Tier Genes
d. 4th Tier Genes
6. Junk DNA – are discovered as regulatory genes; 230 hox genes in out genome
7. Birds – evolved from theropod dinosaurs i.e. velociraptors

Lecture #18: POPULATION GENETICS (MATH)

1. Mendel – heredity, genes, alleles, D/r
2. Darwin – natural selection, evolution
3. Population Genetics – study of how populations of a species change genetically over time
leading to a species evolving; demonstrate how genetics and evolution influence each other
4. Population – group of individuals of species that can interbred
5. Allele frequency – how often certain allele turn up within a population
6. Factors that can Change Allele Frequency
a. Natural Selection – alleles for fitter organisms become more frequent/ survival of the
fittest
b. Sexual Selection – alleles for more sexual attractive organisms become more frequent.
i. Non-Random Mating – doesn’t matter if they survive
c. Mutation – new allele pop-up due to mistakes in DNA
i. Bad Error – death and deformation
ii. Good error – new allele for better offspring
d. Genetic Drift – changes in allele frequency due to random chance
 i. Not more fir just different
ii. Small populations
e. Genetic Flow – changes in allele frequency due to mixing with new genetically different
populations; immigration and emigration
7. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium – frequency of alleles in a population remains constant from
generation to generation; no 5 factors of frequency
8. Formula - p²+2pq+q² (see computation on lecture) p+q=1
p² = WW (homozygous dominant)
2pq = Ww (heterozygous recessive)
q² = ww (homozygous recessive)
B = brown eyes 9% has blue eyes (bb) p (30%) + q (70%) = 100%
b = blue eyes
q² = 9% p² = 70% 2pq = 2•0.70•0.03
q² = 0.09 p² = 0.70 2 pq = 0.42
q = sqrt (0.09) p² = (0.70)² = 0.49
q = 30%

0.49 + 0.42 + 0.09 = 1

BB = 0.49 Bb = 0.42 bb = 0.09

Lecture #19: TAXONOMY: LIFE’S FILING SYSTEM

1. Taxonomy – science of classifying organisms

2. Taxonomic System – Phylogenetic Tree/ Tree of Life – Dear King Philip Come Over For Good
Soup
Species
Genus
Family
Order
Class
Phylum
Kingdom
Domain
3. Carl von Linnaeus – linean tree; made up
a) 7,700 plants
b) 400 animals
c) Morphology – physical form and structure
d) God created, Linnaeus organized
4. Taxa – groups of organisms
5. Binomial Nomenclature – unique two part name for every species
a) Genus
b) Species Name – latin
i. Entire two-part name must be written in italics (or underlined when handwritten)
ii. Genus name is always written first
iii. Genus name must be capitalized
iv. Specific epithet is never capitalized

***
1. Domain – bacteria, archaea, eukarya
a. Monera – before; bacteria and archaea
b. Prokaryotes – bacteria
2. Kingdom – protista, fungi, plantae, animaleia
a. Protista – both autotrophs and heterotrophs; photosynthesis, eat living things; algae,
amoeba
b. Fungi – chemotrophs; only show up on bacteria and archaea; get energy from chemicals
c. Plantae – autotrophs of domain eukarya; can feed themselves through photosynthesis
d. Animalia – heterotrophs; get energy by eating other organisms; humans
3. Fungi – mushrooms, smuts, puffballs, truffles, molds, yeasts
a. have cell like plants; chitin not cellulose
 b. heterotrophs
4. Animalis – multicellular; heterotrophic; can move
“REVIEW THE CAT TAXA”

Lecture #20: EVOLUTION: IT’S A THING: EVIDENCE OF EVOLUTION

1. Evolution – responsible for the enormous diversity and complexity of life on Earth; allows
organisms to adapt to the environment as it changes
2. Theory of Evolution – idea that gene distribution changes over time, which is an indisputable
fact which we observe all the time
a. Huge mass of observation from different disciplines including embryology, paleontology,
botany, biochem, anatomy, and geophysics
3. Fossils – record shows that organisms that lived long ago were different from those that we see
today
a. Iguanadon
b. Whales – had walked
4. Homologous Structure – similarity in organisms
a. Marsupids – a lot in Australia
5. Direct Observation of Evolution – i.e. resistance to drugs/ chemicals, finches
a. Microevolution – small portion
b. Macroevolution – longer than micro; evolution of dinosaurs

Lecture #21: COMPARATIVE ANATOMY

1. Comparative Anatomy – similarities and differences in structure of animals
a. Locomotion – good sign that an organism is an animal
b. Multicellular
c. Heterotrophs
2. Convergent Evolution – specific for the job i.e. fins; same environment
***
4 Primary Tissues in Human Body

1. Epithelial Tissue – cells that bind every closely together; cover every organ and lines the
digestive tract to prevent acids bond
a. Produce slippery fluid to let organs slide over each other; i.e. membrane that lines the
inside of the ribs; inflating lungs to not build up friction as they expand
2. Connective Tissue – fibrous strand of collagen protein; add support and structure to body;
hold parts together i.e. inner skin layer, tendons, ligaments, cartilage and bons
3. Muscle Tissue
a. 2 Specialize Protein – for sliding
i. Actin
ii. Myosin
4. Nerve Tissue – generates and conducts electrical signals in the body; brain>>spinal
cord>>body
a. 2 Types of Cell
a. Neurons – do the electrical work
b. Glial Cells – insulate and support the neurons

Lecture #22: SIMPLE ANIMALS: JELLIES, SPONGES, AND OCTOPUSES

1. Animals ≠ Simple – depends on tissue complexity

Phylum Porifera: Sponges

1. Sponges
a. Protists
b. No layers just cells
c. Can’t move
d. Colonies or cells
 e. Multicellular
2. Cnidaria
a. Jellies, sea anemones, corals and hydras
b. Develop two germ layers (endoderm,exoderm)
c. First Dipoblast; true animals (our ancestors)
3. Platyhelminthes
a. Phylum of soft, unsegmented worms i.e. flat worms, planana, tapewors and flukes
b. Tripoblastic (mesoderm – true organs)
c. Acoelomates – don’t have a coelom
i. Coelom – fluid-filled cavity that stores and protect major organs
4. Nematoda
a. unsegmented roundworms
b. Pseudocoelomates – incomplete body cavity i.e. hookworms – live in instestines
5. Rotifera
a. Tiny filter-feeding animals; live in fresh, salwater
b. Psuedoceolomates
c. More complex
d. Only females, unfertilized egg

4 Basic Forms of Mollusca

1. Chitons – headless marine animals
2. Snails – gastropods, single-spiraled shell; have torsion and radula
3. Bivalves – shelves that divide into 2 hinged e.g. clams, scallops
4. Octopus and Squid – cephalopods, tentacles, poisonous saliva, smart

Similarities of Mollusca
1. Visceral Mass – true coelom, contains most of the internal organs
2. Big Muscular Foot – different form in each class of mollusk
3. Mantle – some mollusks makes a shell and in others just covers the visceral mass
4. Radula – rasping organ on their mouths to scrape food; except bivalves

Lecture #23: COMPLEX ANIMALS: ANNELIDS AND ARTHROPODS

1. Arthropods – 80% of known species

2 Traits that Indicate Animal’s Complexity

1. How many germ layers they develop when they’re embryo
2. Whether or not they have a coelom or body cavity that hold their organs

2. Segmentation – repetition of anatomically identical units that can be added to and modified to
serve different purposes as animals evolve; unbelievably useful in human evolution
a) Annelida
b) Arthropoda
c) Chordata – vertebrates (humans)
3. Annelida – oldest to display segmentation e.g. leeches, ringworms, lugworms (ring bodies)
a) Annelida – greek “little rings”
b) Synapomorphy – shared derived traits of a phylum; traits that set one group of
animals apart from its ancestors and from other groups that came from the same
ancestors
c) Synapomorphy: chaetae – bristles on the bodies; segmented
d) Chaetae – provide traction and help them more through dirt
e) Plesiomorphy – very basic traits that are shared by animals with a common ancestry
f) Plesiomorphy: worm shape
g) 3 Different Classes of Annelida
i. Oligochaetes – earthworms; “oligo” = few; eat soil and crap; hermaphrodite
- Poop – has nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus
ii. Hirudinea – leeches; powerful suckers on both end of their body; carnivorous and
hermaphrodite
- Posterior – anchor itself
 - Anterior – surrounds its mouth; attaches to its host
iii. Polychaetes –lug worms; “poly” = many; synap: bristly worm; marine species,
diverse
4. Arthropoda – outnumber humans; scorpions, butterflies, lobsters
a) Synapomorphies
i. Segmented Bodies – mostly broken up into 3 segments: head, thorax, abdomen
ii. Exoskeleton – hard outer shell made up of chitin (cellulose found in plants)
iii. Paired/Jointed Appendages – arthropods “joined feet”; claws, antennae,
external mouth parts are also jointed
b) 4 Subphyla on how they Differ
i. Cheliceriformes – greek “arm lips“ spiders and scorpions, horseshoe crabs, ticks,
mites
ii. Arachnids – cephalothorax; cepha – head thorax; segment fuse together;
carnivorous/parasitic; very skitter
iii. Myriopoda – “many feet”; millipedes and centipedes
- all terrestrial and have antennae; scary jaw-like mandibles
- Millipedes – vegetatian; 94-394 legs
- Centipedes – carnivorous; 20-350 legs; poisoned claws to paralyzed
their prey
iv. Hexapoda – insects; beetles, ability to fly (extension of the cuticle of throrax)
- Metamorphosis – undergo
- Partial Metamorphosis – nymphs (young) look like adult of the species
e.g. maggots >> flies, mealworms >> beetles, caterpillars >> butterflies
- Crustacea – insects of the sea; clams, lobsters, shrimps, and barnacles
- Bioluminescence
Lecture #24: CHORDATES
1. Phylum Chordata – accounts all the 52,000 species of vertebrates

4 Synamorphology of Chordates: Lancelet

1. Notochord – digestive tube and its nerve cord
2. Dorsal Hollow – nerve cord tube made of nerve fibers
3. Pharyngeal Slits – filters for feeding; jaws, ears
4. Post-Anal/Tail – shrink during embryonic development; coccyx

2. Urochordata – invertebrates “tail cords”; e.g. sea squirts

3. Vertebrata – diverse/complex; hard backbone
a) Craniate – head that contains sensory organs a brain, 2 chambered heart; e.g. myxini
– hagfish
b) Agnathans – no jaw
c) Osteichthyes – bony fish; all vertebrates
i. Actinopterygii – ray-filled fishes; 27,000 species
ii. Sarcopterygii – lobe-finned; walking
iii. Tetrapods – “four feet” fins>>limbs>>necks
a) Frogs – first tetrapod; first 3 chambered hearts, first amphibians
iv. Amniotic Egg – amniotes tetrapods that have eggs adapted for life on land i.e.
reptiles, birds, mammals
v. Reptilia – earliest amniote; terrestrial; snake, lizards, dinosaurs
a) Ectothermic – cold-blooded; absorbed external heat as their main
source of body heat
vi. Archosaurs – disappeared
a) Modern Reptiles – crocodiles and alligators
b) Aves – birds; 4 chambered hearts
c) Endotherm – war-blooded
vii. Mammalia – hair, ear bones, brain, mammary glands

Lecture #25: ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

1. Behavior – action in response to stimulus; limited by physiology

a. Eating
 b. Sex
Factors of Behavior (Heritable)
1. Morphology – physical structure of an animal
2. Physiology – function of morphology

***
1. Some behaviors are learned and are not coded on their genes
a. Adaptive – selecting associative behavior; use of trait; genetic underprinting;
wings>>feathers>>fly>>escape predators
b. Stimulus
***
4 Questions on Animal Behavior
1. What stimulus cause? Proximate Cause
2. What does the animal’s body do in response to stimulus?
3. What about the behavior help this animal surprise and/or reproduce?
4. What is the evolutionary history of this behavior? Ultimate Cause

2 Types of Behavior
1. Foraging – behavior associated with finding and eating food
a. Optimal Foraging Model – exploit food using small amount of energy e.g. alligator in
pond/rivers
2. Reproduce/Sex
a. Sexual Selection – fight e.g. blue bowerbirds – construct houses

Altruism – look for other animals; benefit of behavior > cost on individual

Lecture #26: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Neurons – cells; transmit information to other cells; bundle together to form nerves
2. Nerves – pathways that transmit electrochemical signals from one another

The Nervous System: CNS and PNS

Central Nervous System (CNS)

1. Brain and spinal cord
2. Responsible for analyzing and interpreting all the data from peripheral nervous system;
all of the nerves outside of your brain and spine; collects and sends it away
3. Send a signal back to the PNS >> instructions

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

1. Containing all the nerves that lie outside of the central nervous system

2 Neuron System
1. Afferent System – carry things to a central point (CNS)
a. Sensory Neurons – activated by external stimulus
2. Efferent System – carry things away from a central point (CNS)
a. Motor Neurons – carry information from the brain or spinal cord to make muscles
move; go to every organ in the body
1. Somatic Nervous System – think about doing; all the information coming
from senses, movement of the body
a) Reflex Loop – spinal cord make the decision before neurons get to the
brain
2. Autonomic Nervous System – drive all of the things the body does without
thinking about them e.g. heartbeat, digestion, breathing, and organ functions
a) Sympathetic Nervous System – stress; fight-or-flight situation;
prepares body for action by increasing hear rate and blood pressure,
enhancing our senses, dilating pupils; adrenaline
b) Parasympathetic Nervous System – calm the organs
i. Homeostasis balance of SNS and PSNS
Parts of Neuron and How Neurons Work
1. Neuron – branches like tree
2. Dendrites – receive information from other neurons
3. Axon- trunk of tree; transmits signal to other neurons
4. Myelin Sheath – cover the axon; not continuous
5. Nodes of Ranvier – space between myelin sheath that allows signals to hop from node-to-
node which lets the signal travel down faster
6. Saltatory Conduction – hopping or leaping action
7. Synapse – neurons connect with other neurons; neurotransmitters; pass information from one
neuron to the next
8. Membrane Potential – all neurons have different membrane potential; difference in voltage
or electrical charge between the inside and outside of the membrane
9. Action Potential – sodium potassium pump; positive (inside) negative (outside)

Lecture #27: RESPIRATORYS AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Respiratory System
1. Simple Diffusion – no lungs needed; allows gasses to move into and pass through wet
membranes e.g. arthropods, amphibians

a. The bigger the animal, the more oxygen is needed (lungs)

b. Mammals are bigger; warm-blooded – regulate body temperatures
c. Wet skin to intake oxygen
Parts of the Respiratory System and how it Works
1. Lungs – chock full of oxygen; dissolving membranes that are kept moist with mucus; 75 sqm.
of oxygen dissolving membrane
a. Mouth
b. Pharynx
c. Larynx – pipe
d. Esophagus – splits off
e. Trachea
f. Bronchus
a. Bronchioles
i. Alveoli – little bags of thin, moist membranes covered with tiny narrow
blood carrying capillaries; oxygen dissolve
b. Capillaries – switched up CO2
c. Alveoli = oxygen Capillaries = CO2
d. Alveoli – squeezes out the CO2 >> bronchi >> trachea >> esophagus >> larynx
>> exhale
g. Thoracic Diaphragm
a. Relaxed – end of exhalation
b. Contracts – breathe in; inhalation

Circulatory System

1. Circulatory System – moves oxygenated blood out of the lungs to the places in the body that
need it; deoxygenated blood goes to the lungs “figure 8”
2. Lungs – home base of the red blood cells

Hearts Chambers (Deoxy= RA >> RV; Oxy = LA>>LV)

1. Left Ventricle – high pressure; oxygenated blood will get out
2. Aorta – tube
3. Arteries – blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart >> rest of the body; muscular /
thick walled to maintain high pressure as blood travels along
a. Arterioles
b. Capillaries – facilitates the delivery of oxygen
c. Veins – C02; deoxygenated blood back to the heart; thinner walls and valves that keep
the blood from flowing backwards
4. Right Atrium – lowest pressure in the circulatory system
5. Right Ventricle – deoxygenated blood
a. Pulmonary Artery – “of the lungs” >> alveoli to pick up oxygen
b. Pulmonary Vein
a. Endothermal – warm-blooded
b. Ectothermal – cold-blooded

2 Major Veins
1. Inferior Vena Cava – down the center of the body; handles blood coming from the lower part
of the body
2. Superior Vena Cava – top of the heart; collects blood from the upper body

Lecture #28: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. Digestive System – first to develop in embryonic development; blastula (tube)

2. Digestive Tract – are specially adapted to animal’s feeding behavior and diet; autonomic
nervous system
a. Dogs – short digestive ∵ rotten meat; 6 hours into their stomach
b. Cows – 80 hours digestion; cellulose from plants; 4 chambered-stomach
3. Humans – omnivores
a. Successful digestion – maximizing surface area
b. Saliva – contains amylase – an enzyme for digestion
c. Chew – teeth; allows enzymes and acids to break it down

Digestive System Parts

1. Small Intestines – absorption of nutrients occurs; 7 meters
2. Mouth – excreting salivary amylase
a. Amylase – enzyme designed to breakdown starch to glucose; the more you chew bread
the ore it gets sweeter; do not work on meat/cheese
3. Pharynx/Throat – esophagus/ stomach
4. Epiglottis – blocks the trachea so food don’t go down the respiratory
5. Bolus – swallowed food; rides a kind of wave of muscle down the esophagus
6. Peristalsis – wave-like contraction of the smooth muscles around the tube of the esophagus
7. Rugae – in stomach; mixing up bolus with enzymes
8. Gastric Juice – HCL acid, pepsin, mucus and water
a. Hydrochloric Acid – PH1; kills bacteria
b. Pepsin – protein >> amino acid
c. Mucus – protects stomach so it doesn’t digest itself; prevent stomach lining comes
indirect contact with the stomach; peptic ulcer
d. Water – make food soupy; chime
9. Chyme – pulpy acidic fluid which passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of
gastric juices and partly digested food.
10. Sphincter – valve between the small intestine and large intestine
11. Duodenum – beginning of the small intestine; absorbs secretion
12. Villi – absorbs nutrients; microvilli – fiber
13. Bile – stored in liver and secreted by gall bladder; emulsifier; fatty acid >> monoglycerides
14. Cecum – beginning of the large intestine
15. Large Intestine – removes water and bile salts from the chyme; wider than small intestine
16. Appendix – acts as safe room of all the good bacteria you need to digest your food; 3 days
15. Anal Sphincter – pooping

Lecture #29: THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

1. Homeostasis – regulation of a stable internal environment

2. Excretory System/Urinary System – kidney, ureters, bladder, urethra (homeostasis team);
3. Osmoregulation - responsible for maintaining the right levels of water and (salt) dissolved
substances in the body
4. Ammonia – byproduct of metabolizing food; breaking down proteins and it’s toxic; convert to
urea or uric acid
5. Urea – compound made from combining ammonia and CO2 into their livers; very low toxicity

How it Works:
1. Kidney – maintaining the levels of water and dissolved materials in the body
a. Control blood pressure
b. Filter bunch of fluid out of the blood
c. Reabsorb 99% of it back – 1% on its way in the form of urine
d. 180L fluid in blood – 1.5L peed out
2. Nephrons – tiny filtering structure
3. Blood from the heart
4. Enter kidney through renal artery
5. Enters capillaries >> glomerulus
6. Bowman’s capsule – filtrate
7. Proximal Convoluted Tube – organic solutes in the filtrate get reabsorbed i.e. glucose, amino
acids, sodium, and potassium
8. Loop of Henle – for reabsorption; long, hairpin-shaped tubule that passes through the 2 main
layers of the kidney:
a. Renal Cortex – latin cortex “tree bark”; glomerulus and bowman’s capsule, both
convoluted tubules
b. Renal Medulla – latin medulla “narrow or pith” center of the kidney
9. Loop of Henle
a. Extracts most of the water that needed from the filtrate as it travels down the medulla
b. Pumps out the salts that the body keep on the way back up to the cortex
c. Makes medulla hypertonic – super salty relative to the filtrate creating concentration
gradient that will allow the medulla to draw out even more water one last time from the
filtrate before urinating
10. Distant Convoluted Tube – regulating levels of potassium, sodium, calcium

Lecture #30: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Functions of Skeletal System

1. Protects the vital organs
2. Makes locomotion possible
3. Manufactures blood
4. Repair and maintain itself

***
1. Hydrostatic Skeleton – like jellies, worms; no need to be a
vertebrate or chordate to have a skeleton
a. Insects – exoskeleton made of chitin
b. Most Mollusks – exoskeleton made of calcium carbonate shells
2. Endoskeleton – makes growing larger possible; humans
a. 206 bones
i. 3 tiny bones in each ear
ii. 1 horseshoe shape in throat
iii. 27 in hands
iv. 26 each foot
v. 32 teeth made of dentin and enamel (hardest material in the body)
vi. 8 plates that covers the brain
vii. 14 in face
3. Osteology – study of bones

Bones Tissue

1. Cartilage – found in nose and ears; specialized cells called chondrocytes –

secrete collagen >> cartilage model/framework
2. Osteoblast – “oste” – bone “blast” – germ or bud
3. Ossification – bone building
4. Calcium Phosphate – crystallizes to make the bone matrix; collagen calcium
phosphate

2 Layers
1. Compact or Cortical Bone – outer; 80% of bone mass; hard and dense
2. Spongy or Trabecular Bone – softer or more porous; contains the marrow and the fatty
tissue in larger bones
a. Bone Marrow – new red blood cells and all different blood cells are made by
hematopoiesis
***
1. Femur – biggest bone in the body
a. Diaphysis – main shaft ̑͜͡
b. Epiphysis – rounded end
c. Epiphyseal Plate – bone grows; new tissue form at the border between the two
epiphysis
2. Pituitary Gland – growth hormone
3. Bone Remodeling – breakdown and rebuilt from scratch
a. Osteoblasts
b. Osteoclasts – bone breakers
4. Resorption – process in bone remodeling
5. Parathyroid – bone breaking; regulate bone breaking and calcium levels
a. Vitamin D – good for the bones
6. Bone Stress – causes bone remodeling; exercising

Lecture #31: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

1. Cellular Respiration – process our cells use to get and store energy from the food we eat

3 Types of Muscles
1. Cardiac Muscle – heart muscle
2. Smooth Muscle – responsible for carrying out most of the involuntary process e.g. pushing
blood to arteries, pushing food to the digestive tract
3. Skeletal Muscle – 460 skeletal muscles
a. Gluteus Maximus – thigh
b. Masseter – cheeks
c. Abductor Pollicis Brevis – base of the thumb

Functions of Muscles
1. Contracting to become shorter
2. Relaxing back out to their resting length

Muscles Parts
1. Muscle Belly – the muscle nutrients
2. Tendon – muscles tapers off at the end of the tendon; made of fibrous protein, mostly collagen
that connect muscle to the bones
4. Ligament – similar to tendons but they connect bones to the other bones

How:
1. Muscle Fascicles – made up of lots of smaller strands
2. Muscle Fibers – actual muscle cells; multiple cells
3. Myo – muscle
4. Sacro – flesh
5. Mere - parts
6. Myofibril – protein strands that make up a muscle; divided lengthwise segments
a. Sacromeres – contracting and relaxing to create the muscle movement
b. Myofilaments
i. Actin – skinny strands attached to either one of the 2 ends of the sarcomere
 ii. Myosin – thicker and studded with little golf club shaped knobs along it called
heads
7. Sliding Filament Model – how muscles contraction-chemical
8. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum – wrapped around the sarcomere and studded with calcium
9. Pumps – burning ATP constantly
10. Muscles – activated by motor neurons and each sarcomere has a motor neuron

Lecture #32: IMMUNE SYSTEM

Type of Immune System

1. Innate Immune System – non-specific immunity that responds to all kinds of pathogens the
same way and very quickly whether the body has seen the pathogens before or not.
2. Acquired Immune System – adaptive immunity; develops slowly and requires body to learn
ways of the pathogens before it treats it; only in vertebrates

Body Defense
1. Skin – keeping organs in; keeping this out of the body; oily and kind of acidic; not easy to
penetrate; digestive tract – technically outside
2. Mucous Membrane – provides another barrier to microbes trying to sneak in; line all the
internal surfaces that are exposed to the outside e.g. lungs, inside of the nose
a. Mucus – viscous fluid that traps microbes and helps sweep them away
3. Inflammatory Response – specializes cells in your connective tissue
a. Mast Cells – constantly searching for suspicious objects; usually unknown proteins >
>release signaling molecules like histamine when they find them
b. Histamine – makes blood vessels more permeable; allows bunch of fluid to flow to the
affected area; cause inflammation; brings a lot of white-blood cells
c. Allergic Reaction – not dangerous stuff like pollen, dust and nuts
d. Antihistamines – suppresses the histamine trigger
e. Leukocytes – WBC; access anywhere in the body except nervous system
f. Diapedesis – “oozing through” WBC >> capillaries

Types of Leukocytes
1. Innate Immune System
a. Phagocyte - cell eating
b. Neutophils – move around the bloodstream; kills invading microbe>>rollover and
die>>pus
c. Macrophages – “big eaters” body guard in various organs; rogue cell or cancer cells;
don’t die when they eat bacteria
d. Natural Killer Cells – only phagocyte in the innate immune system that destroy other
human cells
i. Healthy Cells – have special protein on their surface MHC1
ii. Major Histocompability Complex – healhy cells
iii. Unhealthy Cells – stop producing MHC1
e. Dendritic Cells – surface much of the body

Acquired Immune System – create defense against pathogens

1. Antigens – antibody generator; causes immune system to identify a pathogen and then create
an antibody against it
2. Antibodies – tags; not cells; highly specialized proteins produced by B cells to recognize and
help lay down the invaders; can’t kill invaders themselves
3. Lymphocytes – type of WBC; go after specific things that already know about
a. T-Cells – found in bone marrow; migrate and mature in the thymus gland behind the
breastbone
b. B-Cells – originate and mature in bone marrow

2 Types of Lymphocytes
1. Cell-Mediated Response – cells are affected already
a. Helper T-Cells – can’t kill pathogens themselves; activate and direct the cell that can
kill; get information from other immune cells
a. Antigen Presentation – infected cell presenting antigen for destroying
b. Cytotoxic Cells – when cells is almost dead
a. Interlukin I – tells the Helper T-cell to look at the unhealthy cells
b. Interlukin II – tells all the lymphocytes about the unhealthy cells
i. Helper T-Cell – makes a lot of copies of itself
1. Effector T-Cells – travel around secreting signaling proteins
that stimulate other nearly lymphocytes to take action
2. Memory T-Cells – keep a record of the invader and provide
future immunity against it
2. Humoral Response – infections is in the body fluids not yet in cells; design to catch pathogens
that are floating around in the body that haven’t actually invaded any of the cells yet
a. B-Cells – patrolling bloodstream; signal from Helper T-Cell; covered antibodies; can
detect and bind to a specific antigen
b. Plasma/Effector Cells – antibody as blueprint to create a lot of antibodies to a specific
pathogen
c. Memory Cells

Lecture #33: ENDOCRINE GLAND

1. Endocrine System and Nervous System – both carry information around the body
a. Nervous System – carries information quickly and the responses are usually short-lived
b. Endocrine System – responses take a while but effects last for hours or even weeks
2. Hormone – greek “to arouse activity”; secreted by endocrine glands also manufacture
3. Exocrine Glands – salivary glands, sweat glands; send stuff outside of the body
a. Crines – greek “secretions”

Types of Glands
1. Pituitary Gland – brain
2. Thyroid Gland – throat
3. Adrenal Gland – stomach
4. Pancreatic Gland – pancreas/liver
5. Gonad – reproductive

Signaling Hormones
1. Paracrine Signaling – release hormone cell molecules that degrade really quick and are only
received within a small region in the body; e.g. testes >> testosterone
2. Autocrine Signaling – sends chemical signal messages within a cell or from on cell to the
different cell at most; e.g. single T-cell
3. Signal Receptor – cells receive hormones; depending on where the hormone fits
a. Steroid – makes muscles big, angry-driven; cholesterol, lipid, soluble; penetrate cell
b. Peptides – chains of amino acids; water soluble, don’t dissolve in lipids; can’t penetrate
cell
c. Moamines – based on a single amino acid; water soluble, don’t dissolve in lipids; can’t
penetrate cell

Types of Glands

1. Pituitary Gland – “master gland”; makes hormone that instruct other glands to make other
hormones; connected to the hypothalamus; act as liaison between the NS and ES
a. Posterior Pituitary – extension of hypothalamus; secretes 2 hormones that are made
by the hypothalamus
i. Oxytocin – stimulates contraction of the uterus during childbirth; breastfeeding,
anxiety, orgasm
b. Anterior Pituitary – both manufactures and secretes; thyroid
2. Thyroid Gland – regulated metabolism, appetite muscle function, blood pressure, heart rate
a. Negative Feedback Loop – how it interacts with PG
 b. Pituitary – thyroid’s thermostat
c. TSH – thyroid stimulating hormone
3. Adrenal Gland – top of the kidneys; maintain the level of salt and water; response to stress
a. Sympathetic >> Pituitary Gland >> Adrenal Gland >> Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
b. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ATH) – make epinephrine; adrenaline
c. Heart and Nervous System
4. Pancreas – regulate levels of glucose in blood
a. High Glucose – secretes insulin in blood
b. Low Glucose – secretes glucagon in blood
i. Glucagon – stimulates the liver and muscles to start the process that breaks up
the glycogen and fat to release the glucose
5. Gonads – sex glands
a. Testes – androgens
i. Testosterone – sperm-making
b. Ovaries
i. Estrogen – serotonin >> calm
ii. Progestins – growth of the uterine lining

Lecture #34: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

1. Asexual Reproduction – by yourself
2. Sexual Reproduction
a. Gamete –sex cells; haploid cells
i. Ovum – egg; Ovule - plants
ii. Sperm – small, mobile
3. Hermaphroditic – have both sex organs
4. Genitals
5. Egg and Sperm
6. Birds – XY (F) XX (M)
7. Female (XX) – default setting in mammalian
8. Secondary Sex Characteristics – puberty signs

Female
1. Gonads
2. Ovaries – where the eggs are kept; menstrual cycle
3. Ovulation – egg>> fallopian tube
4. Endometrium – tissue layer inside the wall of the uterus

Male
1. Scrotum
2. Epididymis – sperm mature and grow flagella
3. Semen
4. Emission

Lecture #35: ARCHAEA, BACTERIA, AND PROTISTS: OLD AND ODD

1. Unicellular
2. Oldest and earliest lineage

***
1. Protist – eukaryotic organism; make up the kingdom protista under domain eukarya
2. Bacteria and Archaea – own prokaryotic domain

Similarities of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic

1. Plasma Membrane – filled with cytoplasm
2. Ribosomes – contains RNA and synthesized protein
3. DNA – carry instruction s for operating cell

Differences of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic

1. Eukaryotic – chromosomes are strands
2. Prokaryotic – chromosomes are plasmids
Archaea - earliest living things; adaptability

Key Group

1. Methanogens – lives in moderate environment e.g. mud, swamps; hydrogen gas and CO2
a. Methane – waste product of methanogens (methane generators)
2. Extremophiles – no only tolerate but prefer really wicked surroundings
a. Thermophiles – live in temperatures that are high
3. Halophiles – salt-lovers; Dead Sea, Great Salt Lake; breathe oxygen, heterotrophic

Bacteria – parasitic
1. Horizontal Gene Transfer – how bacteria reproduce; antibiotic resistance

Gram Staining
1. Gram Positive Bacteria – thick cell membranes; huge group; live individually e.g.
staphylococcus, streptococcus, leprosy and tuberculosis
2. Gram Negative Bacteria – thinner membranes
3. Proteobacteria – takes many forms
4. Cyanobacteria – only prokaryotic that uses photosynthesis; aquatic food webs
5. Spirochetes – cork-shaped; harmless
6. Chlamydia – parasitic animal cell; causes blindness

Protist – youngest eukaryotic

1. Protozoa – animal-like; tiny animals, heterotrophs, locomotion: flagella, cilia e.g. amoebas,
malaria
2. Algae – plant-like