Education in Ancient India Page |2

Declaration
The text reported in this project is the outcome of my own efforts and no
part of this report has been copied in any unauthorized manner and no
part has been incorporated without due acknowledgment.

Contents
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................6

EDUCATION: An Overview..........................................................................................................7

The Approach Adopted 7

The First Institution 7
Education in Ancient India Page |3

Gurukul System 8
The Aim 10
Theory of Education 10
The Admission of Pupils 10
The Unconventional Schools 11
Mathas 11
Shrenis 12
The Status of Women 12
Subjects (syllabus) and Students 13
University Towns 13
UNIVERSITIES IN ANCIENT INDIA........................................................................................14

Nalanda 14
Vikramashila 15
Odantapuri 16
Somapura 16
Jagaddala 17
Vallabhi 17
OBSERVATIONS & FINDINGS.................................................................................................19

REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................20

BOOKS 20
WEBSITES 20

Statement of Purpose
To study the education system in Ancient India

Methodology
Education in Ancient India Page |4

The project has been made by using various means for research, mainly
scholarly articles and books. References have been made to sources
using the Internet and electronic databases.

Objectives

 To portray the system of education that existed during the ancient

times in India
 To elucidate on a few chosen formal institutions of education

Hypothesis
Based on the premise that there existed a formal as well as informal
system of education in Ancient India

Coverage and Scope

This project deals with the education in ancient times in India then
moves on to a study of certain prominent institutions that existed at that
time.

Conceptual Framework
Education : Formal education consists of systematic instruction, teaching and training by
teachers. This consists of the application of pedagogy and the development of curricula. In a
liberal education tradition, teachers draw on many different disciplines for their lessons,
Education in Ancient India Page |5

including psychology, philosophy, linguistics, biology, and sociology. Formal education consists
of systematic instruction, teaching and training by teachers. This consists of the application of
pedagogy and the development of curricula. In a liberal education tradition, teachers draw on
many different disciplines for their lessons, including psychology, philosophy, linguistics,
biology, and sociology.

Ancient India: Ancient India is the period of time that extends from around 3ooo B.C till
approximately 500AD.
Education in Ancient India Page |6

INTRODUCTION
India has a rich tradition of learning and education right from the antiquity. These were
handed over generations to generations either through oral or written medium. The highly
esteemed Vedas have come to down to us. They existed for nearly 2000 years before they were
known in India. It was the knowledge of acoustics that enabled ancient Indians to orally transmit
the Vedas from generation to generation. The oldest Vedic texts are those of the Rig Veda,
dating from about the 1300's B.C. These are mostly mythical poems to the great Vedic gods--
Indra the Warrior, Agni the god of fire, Surya the sun god, and Varuna the upholder of heaven
and earth.

The later books of the Vedas are the Yajur Veda (mainly formulas for sacrifice), Sama Veda
(poetry from the Rig Veda adapted to melodies as priestly chants), and Atharva Veda (verses
dealing with peace and prosperity and the daily life of human society). Several prose sequels to
the Vedas were written in the period before the Christian era. First were the Brahmanas (Priestly
Explanations of Doctrine) and the Aranyakas (Forest Treatises), which discuss the function and
purpose of sacrificial rites and consider the relationship of man and the universe.A later group of
texts, the Upanishads (Spiritual Teachings), written in prose and poetry, continues this enquiry
into the nature of life. The Upanishads are great classics of spiritual and philosophical thought.

The reliance on orality is motivated in part by the power of spoken words to invoke the
intervention of the gods. In the Indic tradition, if the text has been learned in the proper way, and
by the proper person then the power of the word, when spoken, is irrevocable--the gods must act,
and will act. Writing the word on paper (stone, copper, whatever) is not a substitute for
pronouncing it. The utterance of an invocation is thus automatically what modern speech-act
theorists would call a performative speech act. This oral tradition is in some sense the epitomy of
orality, and not just a poor substitute for literacy. Institutional form of imparting learning came
into existence in the early centuries of the Christian era.
Education in Ancient India Page |7

EDUCATION: An Overview

The Approach Adopted

The approach to learning was to study logic and epistemology. The study of logic was followed
by Hindus, Buddhists and Jains, one of the most important topics of Indian thoughts was
pramana or means of reliable knowledge.

The Nyaya schools upheld four pramanas - perceptions of are liable by analogy or comparison,
word (Sabda), and pronunciation of a reliable authority such as the Vedas. The Vedanta school
added one more to it i.e. intuition. It is probably while studying the process of inference that the
schools of true logic arose.

Ancient Indian postulated syllogism though not as accurate as that of Aristotle. Yet, they
recognize some of the major fallacies of logic like reduction and absurdum, circular
argument,infinite regression, dilemma, and ignorance. In the field epistemology, Jains
contributed the most. There were not only two possibilities of existence and non-existence but
seven more.

The First Institution

Regarding institutional form of education the first was the guru-sishya system. This was called
the Gurukul. According to sacred texts, the training of the Brahmin pupil took place at the home
of a Brahmin teacher. In some texts the guru is depicted as the poor ascetic and it is the duty of
the student to beg for his teacher. The first lesson that was taught to the student was the
performance of sandhya and also reciting of gayatri. The family functioned as a domestic school,
an asrama or a hermitage where the mental faculties of the pupils were developed by the
teacher's constant attention and personal instruction.
Education in Ancient India Page |8

Gurukul System

A Gurukul (Guru refers to "teacher" or "master"; Kul refers to his domain, from the Sanskrit
word kula, meaning extended family.) is a type of ancient Hindu school in India that is
residential in nature with the shishyas or students and the guru or teacher living in proximity,
many a time within the same house. The Gurukul is the place where the students resided together
as equals, irrespective of their social standing. The students learn from the guru and also helps
the guru in his day-to-day life, including the carrying out of mundane chores such as washing
clothes, cooking, etc.

The guru-shishya parampara is a hallowed tradition in Hinduism. Other religious groups in India
have adapted it into different forms that fall within their religious ideology and framework such
as Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. At the end of a shishya's (student) study, the student offers a
"guru dakshina," since a guru does not take fees. A guru dakshina is the final offering from a
student to the guru before leaving the ashram.

By the colonial era the Gurukul system was almost dead in India excepting in a few remote
regions. An exception was Kerala where the warrior Nair clan and their own military Gurukuls
called Kalaris.

In the recent past, some efforts have been started both genuine and others driven by monetary
gains, whereby this gurukul tradition is in the phase of resurrection. Among example of modern
day revival of gurukula tradition is Ananda Marga Gurukula established by Ananda Marga in
1990 at Anandanagar (India) with a network of branches in scores of countries around the
world.It is not a religious school in Hindu tradition but rather a secular academic institution
based on universal spiritual principles. Vivekananda College near Madurai is an NAAC
-accredited `A' grade autonomous college that is run under a Gurukula system.
Education in Ancient India Page |9

There are many Vedic Gurukulas in modern India which follow ancient tradition. Government of
India provides financial and other help to Vedic teachers who establish such Vedic gurukulas for
imparting Vedic education without asking for any fees from the students ; the leading
government institution offering such assistance is Sândipani in Ujjain, named after the guru of
Krishna, which also helps Vedic gurukulas in preparing students for examinations held by
recognized Sanskrit universities.

In Karnataka, there are some projects run to rejuvenate the ancient Indian education system.
Prabodhini Gurukula, Maitreyi Gurukulam and Vedavijnana Gurukulam are the major ones.
Shubham Karoti and Om Shantidhama are also in the similar lines, which are near Bangalore,
capital of Karnataka.

In Mayapur (West Bengal, India) a Gurukula project-which has been in operation since the 70's,
is rejuvenating the ancient Gurukula system and providing students with a system of traditional
education and values.
Education in Ancient India P a g e | 10

The Aim
Education treated as a matter of individual concern, did not admit of the method of mass
production applicable in industry. The making of man was regarded as an artistic and not a
mechanical process. Indeed, the aim of education was the developing of the pupil's personality,
his innate and latent capacities. This view of education as a process of one's inner growth and
self-fulfillment evolved its own technique, its rules, methods and practices.

Theory of Education
The thinking principle, Manana Shakti was reckoned higher than the subject of thinking. So the
primary subject of education was the mind itself. According to the ancient Indian theory of
education, the training of the mind and the process of thinking, are essential for the acquisition of
knowledge. The chase counts more than the game. So the pupil had mainly to educate himself
and achieves his own mental growth. Education was reduced to the three simple processes of
Sravana, Manana and Niddhyaasana.

 Sravana was listening to the truths as they fell from the lips of the teacher. Knowledge
was technically called Sruti or what was heard by the ear and not what was seen in
writing.
 The second process of knowledge called Manana implies that the pupil has to think out
for himself the meaning of the lessons imparted to him orally by his teacher so that they
may be assimilate fully.
 The third step known as Nidhyasana means complete comprehension by the pupil of the
truth that is taught so that he may live the truth and not merely explain it by word.
Knowledge must result in realization.
Education in Ancient India P a g e | 11

The Admission of Pupils

The admission was made by the formal ceremony Upanayana or initiation by which the pupil left
the home of his natural parents for that of the preceptor. In this new home he had a second birth
and was called Dvijya or twice-born.

The Unconventional Schools

Besides these regular schools of instructions, there were special institutions for the promotion of
advance study and research. These are called in the Rig Veda as Brahmana-Sangha, Academies
of learned most its discussions hammered into shape the very language of the country, the
refined language of Sanksrit (Samkrata) as the Vehicle of highest thought. These Academics
were called parisads, there is a reference to the Pancala Parisad in the Upanishads, in whose
proceedings even kings participated, learning was also prompted by discussions at public
meetings which were a regular of rural life, and were addressed by wandering scholars known
as Carakas, these scholars toured the country to deliver public discourses and invite discussion.

Ghatikas
The word ghatika is derived from the Sanskrit original root ghat which means "to take place" or
"form". Vatsyayana uses it in the sense of a religious assembly. The term ghatika has been
differently understood by scholars. Kielhorn interpreted it as an establishment for holy and
learned men and identified it with brahmapuri or the Brahmin quarters of a city. Barnett
interpreted it as a meeting place or hall of learned and godly men and thus connected it with
ghatige or ghalige which he takes to mean an assembly. Pathak translated it as a religious centre ,
and Minakshi took ghatika to mean the place or institution where scholars and students strove
after knowledge. The frequent mention of this term without details in many inscriptions has led
to these various interpretations. But we have positive evidence, in a few inscriptions, of ghatikas
being institutions of advanced learning in mediaeval Karnataka.

The earliest mention of a ghatika in this sense is found in Kakusthavarman's Talagunda

inscription belonging to the earlier half of the fourth century A.D. It mentions a ghatika at Kanci,
Education in Ancient India P a g e | 12

which in those days was a big cultural centre. Mayurasarman, the founder of the royal family of
the Kadambas, went to this ghatika with his guru, eager to study "the whole sacred lore".
Probably there was no such institution in his part of the country and the ghatiks of Kanci must
have been well-known as a seat of higher learning. We find numerous ghatikas in the later
centuries in Karnataka. Perhaps they were modeled on the ghatika at Kanci.

THE GHATIKAS OF KARNATAKA

The earliest example of a ghatika in Karnataka is to be found in Dharwar district at Kalas then
known as Kadiyuru. An inscription of that place, of 929-30 A.D., describes the land of Kadiyuru,
and the learned men studying in its agrahara and ghatika. The transformation of ghatika into
Kannada ghalige had taken place by the 10th century. In the ghalige of Kalas, the Brahmins
studied grammar, polity, literature, history, the great logic of Ekkaksaramuni and commentaries
on them.

Mathas
A maţha (also written math, matha or mutt) is a term for monastic and similar religious
establishments of the Hindu and Jain traditions. A maţha is usually more formal, hierarchical,
and rule-based than an ashram. Advaita maţhas: The oldest such institutions follow the Advaita
tradition, where the head of a maţha is called a Shankaracharya, a title derived from Ādi
Śankara. Hindu tradition states that he put in charge of the following mathas his four main
disciples: Sureshwaracharya, Hastamalakacharya, Padmapadacharya, and Totakacharya
respectively. The four Āmnāya maţhas founded by Adi Shankara, all of the Smarta tradition, are:

 Śringeri Śāradā Pīţham, at Sringeri, Karnataka

 Dwaraka Pītham, at Dwaraka, Gujarat

 Govardhana matha, at Puri, Orissa

 Jyotirmath, in Uttarakhand

In the early times a matha was a boarding house attached to a temple-school

(mathashhatrādinilayam  according to Amarakosh), but grew to be a center of learning by the
middle of the eighth century. Kalamukha Shaiva teachers played an important role in the spread
Education in Ancient India P a g e | 13

of education throughout the land. They arrived in Karnataka from Kashmir through Gujarat in
about 7th century C.E., and since they daubed their forehead liberally with bhasma (sacred ash)
they were nicknamed "black-faced" (kālāmukha) by the locals. Several Kalamukha mathas 
sprang up by the 10th century, out of which those at Ballegavi, Kuppattur, Sudi, Huli, Muttage
and Shrishaila were prominent. Some Kalamukha ascetics became royal preceptors as well8.

Shrenis
Shreni, in the context of Ancient India, was an association of traders, merchants, and
artisans. Generally, a separate shreni existed for a particular group of persons engaged in the
same vocation or activity. Shrenis have sometimes been compared with the guilds. However,
persons engaged in life destroying activities like hunting and fishing did not form any shreni.

Well documented references to the existence of shreni have been found from 5th century BC,
and texts pertaining to Buddhism and Jainism mention existence of shrenis and conversion of
entire members of some shrenis to Buddhism or Jainism. Over a period of time, some shrenis
became very wealthy with surplus resources, and acted as custodians and bankers of religious
and other endowments. One of the widely referred shreni was of ivory carvers of Vidisha
(located in the modern Indian state of Madhya Pradesh). This shreni is accredited with
sponsoring and financially supporting the construction of the southern gateway of the Stupa at
Sanchi, which is currently a World Heritage Site.

Some scholars have opined that as the each economic activity and craft was having its specific
traditions and trade secrets, shrenis were formed to protect the same, and fathers use to pass on
the same to their sons, and so it continued from one generation to the next generation. Daughters
were excluded from becoming the members of the shreni, as once married they went to their
husbands’ homes, and were prone to divulge the trade secrets to the families of their husbands

The Status of Women

In those days women were admitted to the highest knowledge and did not suffer from any
education disabilities. There was equality between the sexes in the field of knowledge. The Rig
Veda mentions women Rais called Brahmanavadinis.
Education in Ancient India P a g e | 14

Subjects (syllabus) and Students

To begin with, in ancient India; the main subject was the Veda. The teacher would instruct
handful of students seated on ground. For many hours daily they would repeat verses after verses
of the Vedas till they attain mastery of at least one of them. To ensure correctness of memory,
the hymns were taught in more than one way. Soon the curriculum was expanded. The limbs of
the Veda or the six Vedangas were taught - the performance of sacrifice, correct pronunciation,
knowledge of prosody, etymology, grammer, and jyotisha or the science of calendar. Also in the
post-Vedic era, teachers often instructed their students in the six schools of Philosophy.

The writers of Smritis maintain that young women of upper class underwent this kind of training.
This is a doubtful contention. Princes and other leading Kshatriyas were trained in all the
manifold sciences to make them fit for government. Most boys of the lower orders learnt their
trades from their fathers.

University Towns

Some cities became renowned because of their teachers. Chief among them were - Varanasi,
Taxila from the day of Buddha and Kanchi in the beginning of the Christian era. Varanasi was
famous for its religious teachers. Taxila was known for its secular studies. Among the famous
men connected with Taxila was Panini, the grammarian of the fifth or fourth century B.C.:
Kautilya, the Brahmin minister of Chandragupta Maurya and Charaka one of the two leading
authorities of Indian medical sciences. The institutions imparting Vedic knowledge that exists
even today. There were also universities like Taxila and Ujjain for medicine and learning
including mathematics and astronomy respectively. In the south Kanchi became an important
center of learning. Hiuen Tsang remarks that Vallabhi was as great as Nalanda and
Vikramashila.
Education in Ancient India P a g e | 15

Although the Smritis maintained that a small number of students study under a single teacher,
university turned towns came into existence like Varanasi, Taxila etc. At Varanasi there were
500 students and a number of teachers. The whole establishment was maintained by charitable
people. Ideally, the teacher asked no fee, but the students repaid his debt by their service to the
teacher. A Jataka story tells of how a teacher of Taxila treated well the students who paid him
money while keeping other waiting.
Education in Ancient India P a g e | 16

UNIVERSITIES IN ANCIENT INDIA

Nalanda
Nalanda was the foremost Buddhist monastery and educational centre in North India. The
Etymology of the word Nalanda is interesting. Nala means ‘lotus', which symbolizes knowledge
and Da means ‘to give'. In other words Nalanda existed to impart knowledge which it did for
nearly a thousand years.

Nalanda is one of the oldest universities of Ancient India. It was located in the Indian state of
Bihar, near Modern Patna, which was earlier known as Pataliputra. The university dates back to
the time of Gautama Buddha who was supposed to have visited the place around 500 BC. Even
Mahavira the founder of Jainism is said to have lived in Nalanda for a while. It was also the first
residential university, and had in its heyday nearly 10000 students and about 2000 faculty
members. It was truly an international university as it had students and scholars, from China,
Japan, Korea, Persia, and Indonesia. The campus was a huge complex spread over 14 hectares
consisting of lecture halls, dormitories and temples.

It was supported by the income from a number of villages which the monastery acquired over
time through donations. The subjects taught here were Grammar, Rhetoric, Prose, logic,
metaphysics, astrology, astronomy, ayurveda, mathematics and of course Philosophy. In fact
Nalanda was renowned as a centre of Buddhist learning. Nalanda's contribution to the evolution
of Buddhism is immense. Three forms of Buddhism namely, Mahayana, (followed in China,
Japan, Korea and Viet Nam) Vajrayana (followed in Tibet, Mongolia, Russia , North eastern
China) and Theravada had its protagonists in the portals of Nalanda University.

The decline of Buddhism in India is closely connected with the burning of Nalanda. The
renowned centre of learning was razed to the ground by Turkish Muslim Invaders the Khiljis.
For centuries it remained unknown having been reduced to mounds of earth, but in 1861 Sir
Alexander Cunningham rediscovered this ancient seat of learning. The inscriptions, Icons and
sculptures found during the excavation were then preserved in a museum.
Education in Ancient India P a g e | 17

Vikramashila
Vikramashila is said to have been situated on the banks of the Ganges near the northern part of
Magadha. Although its site was undiscovered, the Indian newspaper Searchlight of 25.4.80
carried an account of the discovery of the ruins of Vikramshila by Dr. B. S. Varma,
Superintending Archeologist in charge of the discovery of the ruins of the Vikramshila
Excavation Project.

According to this Vikramashila was situated at Antichak Village, Kahalagon, Bagalpur District
Vikramashila was said to be a sister institution of Nalanda.

It was said to have been founded by a monk called Kamapala, under the patronage of King
Dharmapala. (AC 770-810). The King granted land-endowments for its upkeep later King
Yasapala also patronised the institutions by liberal land endowments. Under the Pala Kings
Vikramashila rose to 9 positions when it rivalled Nalanda and bade well to outshine it. In the
centre of the university was the main lecture-hall. It was called Vidyagriha. There were six
entrances to this building and near each entrance was a monastery for resident monks about 150
teachers were accommodated in each monastery.

Like Nalanda Vikramashila was also surrounded by a high-wall. There were six Dvara Panditas
i.e Professors who examined candidates seeking admission. Here too high standards were
maintained. 108 Professors were engaged in teaching and administrative duties. The curriculum
of studies was similar to that of Nalanda. Here preference was given to the Tantric form of
Buddhism.

Dipankara Sri Gnana who is also known as Atisha (AC 960-1055) was the more-famous of the
scholars of Vikramashila. His fame spread far and wide as the propagator of Buddhism in Tibet
Tibetans hold his name in the highest veneration. When he was at Vikramashila he was invited to
teach and propagate Buddhism in Tibet. He postponed it for some time till he completed his
work at Vikramashila and then undertook the task. Vikramashila achieved its high water mark of
prosperty and fame under him. Sri Gnanas period was the golden era of Vikramashila. In 1038
Sri Gnana left Vickramsila for Tibet to organise Buddhist studies in that country. Vikramashila
was managed by a staff of Professors.
Education in Ancient India P a g e | 18

They constituted the Board of Education, Board of Administration, Board of Discipline and the
Board in charge of entrance examinations. Inaugurated in about 800 A.C. it graced the land until
it was demolished by the Muslim invaders.

Odantapuri
Odantapuri was considered the second oldest of Indias universities. This was situated in
Maghada, about 6 miles away from Nalanda. Acharya Sri Ganga of Vikramashila had been a
student here. Later he joined Odantapuri King Gopala (660-705) was the patron who helped to
found this university. According to the Tibetan records there were about 12,000 students at
Odantapuri.

Our knowledge of this seat of learning is obscure. This too perished at the hands of the Muslim
invaders. It is said they mistook the universities with their high walls for fortresses. They thought
the Buddhist monks were "Shaven headed Brahmins" who were idolaters.

Somapura
Somapura was situated in East Pakistan. King Devapala (AC 810-850) is said to have erected the
Dharmapala-Vihara at Somapura. The ruins of these buildings cover an area of about 1 square
mile. There was a large gate and the buildings were surrounded by a high-wall. There were about
177 cells for monks in additions to the shrines and image houses. A common refectory and a
kitchen are among the ruins, Remains of three -strayed buildings are to be seen. This university
flourished for about 750 years before it was abandoned after the Muslim invasion.
Education in Ancient India P a g e | 19

Jagaddala
King Ramapala (1077-1129) is said to be the founder of this University. Jagaddala University
was the largest construction works undertaken by the Pala Kings. This was a centre for the study
and dissemination of Tantric Buddhism. It followed the methods, practices, and traditions of
Nalanda. According to Tibetan works many books were translated to the Tibetan language at
Jagaddala. The Buddhist teacher Sakya Sri Bhadra, seeing that Nalanda, Vikramshila, and
Odantapuri were in ruins after the Muslim invasion, entered Jagaddala for his studies. It is said
that his pupil Danaseela translated ten books to Tibetan Sakya Sri Bhadra was responsible for the
propagation of Tatntric Buddhism in Tibet. He lived for seven years at Jagaddala. In 1027 the
Muslim invaders sack and destroyed Jagaddala.

Vallabhi
Vallabhi University achieved as much fame as Nalanda. The Maitraka kings who ruled Western
India constructed a monastery at Vallabhitheir capital. While Nalanda was the centre for
Mahayana Buddhism, Vallabhi achieved fame as the centre for Hinayana Buddhism. The
Maitraka kings spent lavishly to maintain their university. They gave every encouragement and
assistance to Buddhist studies at this institution. In the 7th century Vallabhi was as prosperous
and famous as Nalanda. Hieum Tsang visited Vallabhi, and reported in his "Ta-Tang-Si-Yu-Ki"
as follows:

-"The population of Vallabhi is very large. The country is rich and prosperous. There are over a
hundred millionaire families there. Imported luxury goods are seen in this city. There are about
100 monasteries with about 6,000 Buddhist monks. Most of them belong to the Sammitiya Sect.
There are also many Hindu temples and a large Hindu population in this past of the country. The
Buddha had visited this land during his ministry. There are stupas erected by King Asoka to
mark the spots hallowed by the Buddha’s visit."

There are about 100 shrines and about 6,000 resident monks studying at Vallabhi. They do not
believe that Abhidharma was the teaching of the Buddha. They believed in the Antarabhava
doctrine and were exponents of Puggalavada a traditions that disregards Abhidharma teachings
that are inconsistent with the Sutra-Teachings.
Education in Ancient India P a g e | 20

I-Tsing records that foreign students were found at Vallabhi. They come from many lands far
and near from these facts we know that like Nalanda-Vallabhi was internationally recognised.
There was a large library. This was maintained by a fund established by the King.

The course of studies included Comparative Religion. The Six systems of Hindu Philosophy and
various other schools of Buddhism, Politics, Law, Agriculture, Economics also formed a part of
the curriculum.
Education in Ancient India P a g e | 21

OBSERVATIONS & FINDINGS

We have seen through this project that India is indeed very rich with respect to
educational heritage. This comes as no surprise as India’s cultural and traditional heritage as
such is very rich. Through systems involving Mathas, Gurukulas system etc. a strong base was
laid for the students to move into higher education in prestigious universities like Nalanda,
Vikramashila, Vallabhi etc. We also see that during that period we were not as socially
backward as it may thought to be as women were entitled to the highest quality of education and
the suffered from no educational difficulties. Through the project we also know that scriptures
were of great relevance as the Vedas form a major part of students syllabus, especially the Rig
Veda. After education the students had to move into their professional lives. With respect to this
stage of their lives we have understood the relevance of the concept of Shrenis. Overall, we have
gained a fair insight into the educational system of ancient India through this project. The onus is
now on us, to preserve this knowledge and inculcate relevant concepts and methodologies into
our modern ways of teaching and learning.
Education in Ancient India P a g e | 22

REFERENCES
BOOKS

 Thapar, Romila ; Cultural Pasts, Oxford University Press, 200

 Basham, AL; Cultural History of India, Oxford University Press, 1998

 Spear, Percivial; History of India, Volume 1, Penguin Books, 1998

 Mukherjee, Radha Kumud; Ancient Indian Education, Motilal Banarasi Das Publication,
1990.

 Thapar, Romila: Ancient Indian Social History, Orient Blackswan, 2006

WEBSITES

 www.ramachandrapuramath.org

 www.prabodhinigurukula.org

 www.vvgurukulam.org