Chapter Five

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

**:The first law of thermodynamics is stated that; when a system undergoes a complete
cycle then the net heat supplied is equal to the net work done. This is based on the
conservation of energy principle, which follows from observation of natural events.

**:The second law of thermodynamics which is a natural law; indicates that, although the
net heat supplied in a cycle is equal to the net work done, the gross heat supplied must be
greater than the net work done, some heat must always be rejected by the system.

Note:- The second law asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity while the first
law is concerned with the quantity of energy and the transformations of energy from one
form to another with no regard to its quality.

**: To enable the second law to be considered more fully the heat engine must be
discussed.

Heat Engine (H.E.):-

The work can be converted to heat directly and completely, but converting heat to work
requires the use some special devices. These devices are called heat engines.

Heat engine:- Is a system operating in a complete cycle and developing net work from a
supply of heat, as shown below.

Heat engines differ considerably from one another, but all can be characterized by the
following.

1-They receive heat from a high temperature source (solar energy, oil furnace, nuclear
reactor, etc.)

2-They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a rotating shaft)

3- They reject the remaining waste heat to a low temperature sink (the atmosphere, rivers,
etc.)

4-They operate on a cycle.

 Qin : amount of heat supplied to steam in boiler from a high-temperature source (furnace)
Qout : amount of heat rejected from steam in condenser to a low temperature sink (the
atmosphere, a river, etc.)
Wout : amount of work delivered by steam as it expands in turbine
Win : amount of work required to compress water to boiler pressure

Wnet,out = Wout _ Win

From the first law

 dW =  dQ  u = 0
Wnet,out = Qin _ Qout

From the second law

Qin > Wnet , Qin (gross heat)

Thermal Efficiency:- The fraction of the heat input that is convert to net work output is a
measure of the performance of a heat engine and is called the thermal efficiency,  th .

𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
Wnet ,out
 th =
Qin
Qin − Qout
 th =
Qin
 Qout
th = 1 −
Qin

**: The second law implies that, the thermal efficiency always less than 100% (η < 100%).

Kalvin- Planck statement:-" It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to
receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net a mount of work". The Kalvin-Planck
statement can also be expressed as no heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100
percent.

Refigerators and Heat Pumps:- Is a system absorbed heat from a cold reservoir and
rejected the heat in a hot reservoir, as shown below.

Coefficient of Performance:-

The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed in terms of the coefficient of performance

(Cop), denoted by CopR. The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat, QL from the
refrigeratted space. To accomplish this objective, it requires a work input of Wnet,in. Then
the CopR can be expressed as.

QL
CopR =
QH − QL
**: Notice that the value of CopR can be greater than unity. That is, the a mount of heat
removed from the refrigerated space can be greater than the a mount of work input.

Heat Pumps:- Is a device that transfers heat from a low temperature medium to a high
temperature one. As shown in figure.

**: Refrigerators and heat pumps operate on the same cycle but

differ in their objective.

The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the refrigerated space

at a low temperature by removing heat from it. While the objective

of a heat pump is to maintain a heated space at a high temperature.

This is accomplished by absorbing heat from a low temperature source,

such as well water or cold outside air in winter, and supplying this

heat to the high temperature medium such as house.

**: The measure of performance of a heat pump is also expressed in terms of the
coefficient of performance (CopHP).

QH
CopHP =
QH − QL

Cop HP = Cop R + 1

Clausius statement:- The Clausius statement, which is related to refrigerators or heat

pumps. The Clausius statement is expressed as follows;"It is impossible to construct a
device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than the transfer of heat
from a lower temperature body to a higher temperature body".

Entropy:- Important property follows from the second law and it is represent the
measure of disorder of the systems and also represents the measure of quality of
energy of system.
 Quality of energy:- depend on the ability to convert the energy from one form to
another. For example thermal energy can be converted to mechanical energy or
electric energy, and this ability increase as the temperature of the thermal source
increase.

For the non-flow energy equation for a reversible process;

dQ=du+pd𝜐
For a perfect gas

 d 
dQ = c dT + RT    T
dQ dT d
= c +R
T T 

For an adiabatic process; dQ=0

dQ dT d
 = c +R =0
T T 

This result can be shown to apply to all working substances,

dQ
ds = ……………………(5.6)
T

Where,

s : is the entropy

The unit of specific entropy is (kJ/kg.K) and the unit of the total entropy is (kJ/K).

S = ms
 From equation (5.6) the heat for reversible process is given by;

dQ = Tds
2
Q =  Tds........................(5.8)
1
2
W =  pd
1

**: There is a diagram on which areas represent work done in reversible process, there is
also a diagram on which areas represent heat flow in a reversible process. These diagrams
are the p-𝜐 and T-s diagrams respectively as shown in figures below.

Why it is important to know the entropy ?

Because it decide the real direction of path of processes.

The (T-s) Diagram:-

(A) For a vapor:

The (T-s) diagram for steam is given below.

s=0 at T=0.01°C for steam

**: The pressure lines in the liquid region are

practically coincident with the saturated liquid

line (i.e. portions AB, EF, and JK) and the

difference is usually neglected.

**: The pressure remains constant with temperature when the latent heat is added, hence
the pressure lines are horizontal in the wet region (i.e. portions BC, FG, and KL).
 **: The pressure lines curve up words in the superheated region (i.e. portions CD, GH, and
LM).

**: Entropy on the saturated liquid line represented by sf while on the dry saturated vapor
by sg. The difference sg-sf=sfg

**: The entropy of the wet steam is given by the entropy of the water in the mixture plus
the entropy of the dry steam in the mixture.

For wet steam with dryness fraction x

s = (1 − x) s f + xsg
s = s f + x( sg − s f )
s = s f + xs fg
Then the dryness fraction is given by;

s − sf
x=
s fg

Example (5.1):-

1 kg of steam at 7 bar, entropy 6.5 kJ/kg K, is heated reversibly at constant pressure until the
temperature is 250 °C. Calculate the heat supplied, and show on a T-5 diagram the area
which represents the heal flow.
Solution:
m=1kg, steam, p1=7bar, s1=6.5 kJ/kg.K, p1=p2, T2=250°C, Q=?
at p=7 bar sf =1.992 kJ/kg.K and sg =6.709 kJ/kg.K
sf < s1 <sg
the steam is wet at point 1
p2=7 bar and T2=250°C
at p=7 bar Ts=165°C
T2 > T s the steam is superheat at point 2

Q = (u 2 − u1 ) + W = (u 2 − u1 ) + p ( 2 − 1 ) = h2 − h1
h2 = 2955kJ / kg
h1 = h f 1 + x1h fg1
s1 = s f 1 + x1s fg1
6.5 = 1.992 + x1 (4.717)  x1 = 0.956
h1 = 697 + 0.956(2067) = 2673.05kJ / kg
 Q = 2955 − 2673.05 = 281.95kJ / kg
Example (5.2):-

A rigid cylinder of volume 0.025 m3 contains steam at 80 bar and 350°C .The cylinder is
cooled until the pressure is 50 bar. Calculate the state of the steam after cooling and the
amount of heat rejected by the steam. Sketch the process on a T-s diagram indicating the area
which represents the heat flow.
Solution:
V1=0.025m3, steam, p1=80 bar, T1=350°C, p2=50 bar, V1=V2 , Q=?

at p1=80 bar Ts=295°C

T2 > T s the steam is superheat at point 1

υ1=0.02994 m3/kg

υ1=υ2=0.02994 m3/kg

at p2=7 bar υg=0.03944 m3/kg

υg > υ2 the steam is wet at point 2

0.02994
 2 = x2 g 2  x2 = = 0.759
0.03944
Q = (u 2 − u1 ) + W  W = 0
u 2 = u f 2 + x2 (u g 2 − u f 2 ) = 1149 + 0.759(2597 − 1149) = 2248kJ / kg
h = u + p  u = h − p 
105
u1 = 2990 − 80 * 3 * 0.02994 = 2750.5kJ / kg
10
Q = 2248 − 2750.5 = −502.5kJ / kg
V V 0.025
= m= = = 0.835kg
m  0.02994

The total heat rejected =502.5*0.835=419.6 kJ

(B) For a perfect gas:

It is useful to plot lines of constant pressure and constant volume on T-s diagram for a
perfect gas.

Note:- A line of constant pressure slopes less steeply than a line of constant volume.

Prove:-

(1→A) constant volume process

A
dQ
s A − s1 = 
1
T

dQ=cυdT (for ideal gas)

 A
c dT T T
s A − s1 =  = c ln A = c ln 2
1
T T1 T1

(1→B) constant pressure process

B
dQ
s B − s1 = 
1
T

dQ=cpdT (for ideal gas)

B
c p dT TB T
s B − s1 =  = c p ln = c p ln 2
1
T T1 T1

cp > cυ (for any perfect gas)

 s B − s1  s A − s1

Point A must therefore lie to the left of point B on the diagram, and hence a line of constant
pressure slopes less steeply than a line of constant volume.

Note:- As the pressure rises, the temperature rises and the volume decreases.

Example (5.3):-

Air at 15°C and 1.05 bar occupies 0.02 m3. The air is heated at constant volume until the
pressure is 4.2 bar, and then cooled at constant pressure back to the original temperature.
Calculate the net heal flow to or from the air and the net entropy change. Sketch the process
on a T-s diagram.
Solution:
Air, T1=15°C, p1=1.05 bar, V1=0.02m3, V1=V2 , p2=4.2 bar, p3= p2 , T3= T1=15°C,
Q=?, Δs=?
Net heat flow=Q1→2+ Q2→3
Q1→2 = mc (T2 − T1 )
p1V1 = mRT1
1.05 *10 5 * 0.02
m= = 0.0254kg
287 * 288
p1 p 2
=
T1 T2
p2 4 .2
T2 = T1 ( ) = 288( ) = 1152K
p1 1.05
 4.2 *10 5 * 0.02 
or )  p 2V2 = mRT2  T2 = = 1152.3K 
 0.0254 * 287 
 Q1→2 = 0.0254 * 0.718(1152 − 288) = 15.76kJ
Q2→3 = mc p (T3 − T2 ) = 0.0254 *1.005(288 − 1152) = −22.06kJ
Net heat flow =15.76-22.06=-6.3 kJ

Heat rejected=6.3 kJ

Net decrease in entropy = s1 − s3 = ( s2 − s3 ) − ( s2 − s1 )

T2
c p dT T2 1152
s 2 − s3 = 
T3
T
= c p ln
T3
= 1.005 ln
288
= 1.393kJ / kg.K

T2
c dT T2 1152
s 2 − s1 = T T = c ln
T1
= 0 . 718 ln
288
= 0.9954kJ / kg.K
1

 ( s1 − s3 ) = 1.393 − 0.9954 = 0.3976kJ / kg.K

Total net decrease in entropy= m( s1 − s3 ) = 0.0254 * 0.3976 = 0.0101 kJ / K

Note:- The entropy is a property independent of the process.

Reversible Processes on T-s Diagram:-

1-Reversible isothermal process:

A reversible isothermal process will appear as a straight line on a T-s diagram, and the area
under the line must represent the heat flow during the process.

(a)For steam:-
T = cons tan t
dQ
ds =  dQ = Tds
T
Q = T ( s 2 − s1 )

s2 and s1 taken from tables

(b)For ideal gas:-

Q = T (s2 − s1 )

(s2-s1) can be evaluate from the non-flow equation

dQ = du + pd
dQ = c dT + pd
dQ = pd
p = RT
d
dQ = RT

RTd 
2 2
dQ
s2 − s1 =  = = R ln 2
1
T 1
T 1
 2 p1
p = c  p11 = p2 2  =
1 p2
 p
 s2 − s1 = R ln 2 = R ln 1
1 p2

2 p
Q = TR ln = RT ln 1
1 p2

Q =W

Example (5.4):-

Dry saturated steam at 100 bar expands isothermally and reversibly to a pressure or 10 bar.
Calculate the heal supplied and the work done per kilogram or steam during the process.
Solution:

Dry saturated steam, p1=100 bar, T2= T1 , p2=10 bar, Q=?, W=?

Q = T ( s 2 − s1 )
s1 = s g = 5.615kJ / kg.K  p = 100bar
T1 = T2 = Ts = 311C
at  p 2 = 10bar , T2 = 311C
at  p = 10bar  Ts = 179.9C
 T2 Ts

The steam is superheat at point 2

 350 − 300 311 − 300
=
7.301 − 7.124 s 2 − 7.124
s 2 = 7.163kJ / kg.K
 Q = 584(7.163 − 5.615) = 904kJ / kg
Q = (u 2 − u1 ) + W W = Q − (u 2 − u1 )
u1 = u g = 2545kJ / kg
350 − 300 311 − 300
=  u 2 = 2811.8kJ / kg
2875 − 2794 u 2 − 2794
W = 904 − (2811.8 − 2545) = 637.2kJ / kg

Example (5.5):-

0.03 m3 of nitrogen (molar mass 28 kg/kmol) contained in a cylinder behind a piston is

initially al 1.05 bar and 15°C. The gas is compressed isothermally and reversibly until the
pressure is 4.2 bar. Calculate the change of entropy, the heat flow, and the work done, and
sketch the process on a p-v and T-s diagram. Assume nitrogen to act as a perfect gas.
Solution:
V=0.03m3, N2, M=28, p1=1.05 bar, T1=15°C, T2= T1 , p2=4.2 bar, Δs=?, Q=?, W=?

p1
s2 − s1 = R ln
p2
Ro 8314
R= = = 296.9 J / kg.K
M 28
1.05
 s2 − s1 = 296.9 ln = −411.6 J / kg.K
4. 2
1.05 *105 * 0.03
pV = mRT  m = = 0.0368kg
296.9 * 288

The total decrease in entropy=411.6*0.0368=15.15J/kg

Q = T ( s1 − s2 ) = 288 *15 .15 = 4.36 kJ

For the isothermal process for ideal gas W=Q= 4.36kJ (work input)
2-Reversible adiabatic process (Isentropic process):

For a reversible adiabatic process the entropy remains constant, and hence the process is
called an isentropic process.

(a)For steam:-

dQ
ds =  dQ = 0
T
 ds = 0  s1 = s 2

S1 and s2 are find from steam table

(b)For ideal gas:-


A reversible adiabatic process for a perfect gas the process follows a law p = c . Since
this process occurs at constant entropy, and is known as an isentropic process, the index γ,
known as the isentropic index of the gas.

s = 0  s1 = s2

Example (5.5):-

Steam at 100 bar, 375°C expands isentropically in a cylinder behind a piston to a pressure of
10 bar. Calculate the work done per kilogram of steam.
Solution:
Steam, p1=100 bar, T1=375°C, s2= s1 , p2=10 bar, W=?

at  p1 = 100bar, Ts = 311C
T1 Ts
The steam is superheat at point1
s1 = 6.091kJ / kg.K
s2 = s1 = 6.091kJ / kg.K
at  p2 = 10bar , s g = 6.586kJ / kg.K
 s g  s2
The steam is wet at point 2

Q = (u2 − u1 ) + W  Q = 0
W = u1 −u 2
 100 *105 * 0.02453
u1 = h1 − p11 = 3017 − = 2771.7 kJ / kg
103
u2 = u f 2 + x2 (u g 2 − u f 2 )
s2 − s f 2 6.091 − 2.138
s2 = s f 2 + x2 s fg 2  x2 = = = 0.889
s fg 2 4.448
u2 = 762 + 0.889(2584 − 762) = 2381.8kJ / kg
W = 2771.7 − 2381.8 = 389.9kJ / kg

3-Polytropic process:

(a)For steam:-

The relation p = c can be used to estimate the end states, p11 = p2 2 . The entropy
n n n

values at the end states can be read straight from tables.

(b)For ideal gas:-

To find the entropy change for a perfect gas in the general case, consider the non-flow
energy equation for a reversible process;

dQ = du + dW

From Joule's law; du = c dT  and , p = RT

d
dQ = c dT + RT

dQ dT d
= c +R
T T 
dT d
 ds = c +R
T 

T2 
s2 − s1 = c ln + R ln 2
T1 1
T2 > T1 (it is more convenient to write)

2 T
s2 − s1 = R ln − c ln 1 ………………………..(5.14)
1 T2

**: The first part of eq.(5.14) is represent the change of entropy in an isothermal process
from υ1 to υ2.

2
 s A − s1 = R ln (for isothermal process)
1
**: The second part of eq.(5.14) is represent the change of entropy in a constant volume
process from T1 to T2.

T1
 s A − s2 = c ln (for constant volume process)
T2

It can be seen therefore that in calculating the entropy change in a polytropic process from
state 1 to state 2 we have in effect replaced the process by two simpler processes, from 1 to
A and then from A to 2.

 s2 − s1 = ( s A − s1 ) − ( s A − s2 )

Note:- Any two processes can be chosen to replace a polytropic process in order to find the
entropy change. For example, going from 1 to B and then from B to 2.
 s2 − s1 = ( s B − s1 ) − ( s B − s2 )
p1
s B − s1 = R ln ( Isothermal − process)
p2
T1
s B − s2 = c p ln (cons tan t − pressure − process)
T2

p1 T
 s2 − s1 = R ln − c p ln 1
p2 T2

T2  T p
H.W:- using the equation s2 − s1 = c ln + R ln 2 to prove that  s2 − s1 = c p ln 2 + R ln 1
T1 1 T1 p2

Example (5.6):-

In a steam engine the steam at the beginning of the expansion process is at 7 bar, dryness
fraction 0.95, and the expansion follows the law p 1.1 = cons tan t , down to a pressure of 0.34
bar. Calculate the change of entropy per kg of steam during the process.

Solution:

Steam, p1=7 bar, x1=0.95, p 1.1 = c , p2=0.34bar, s2- s1=?

p111.1 = p 2 21.1
2 p 1 p 1
= ( 1 ) 1 . 1   2 =  1 ( 1 ) 1. 1
1 p2 p2
1 = x1 g = 0.95(0.2728) = 0.26m 3 / kg  p1 = 7bar
7 11.1
 2 = 0.26( ) = 4.07m 3 / kg
0.34
at  p 2 = 0.34bar   g = 4.649m 3 / kg
 g  2
The steam is wet at point 2

2 4.07
x2 = = = 0.875
 g 2 4.649
s1 = s f 1 + x1 s fg1 = 1.992 + 0.95(4.717) = 6.473kJ / kg.K
s 2 = s f 2 + x 2 s fg 2 = 0.98 + 0.875(6.745) = 6.882kJ / kg.K
s 2 − s1 = 6.882 − 6.473 = 0.409kJ / kg.K

Increasing in entropy

Example (5.7):-

Calculate the change of entropy of 1 kg of air expanding polytropically in a cylinder behind a

piston from 6.3 bar and 550°C to 1.05 bar, the index of expansion is 1.3.
Solution:
s2- s1=?, m=1 kg, air, p11n = c , p1=6.3 bar, T1=550°C, , p2=1.05 bar, n=1.3
n −1
T1 p ( )
=( 1) n
T2 p2
n −1 0.3
p ( ) 1.05 1.3
T2 = T1 ( 2 ) n
= 823( ) = 544.3K
p1 6 .3
T2 
s2 − s1 = c ln + R ln 2
T1 1
RT1
p11 = RT1  1 =
p1
287 * 823
1 = 5
= 0.375m 3 / kg
6.3 *10
RT 287 * 544.3
2 = 2 = = 1.488m 3 / kg
p2 1.05 *105
544.3 1.488
 s2 − s1 = 0.718 ln + 0.287 ln = −0.297 + 0.396 = 0.1kJ / kg.K
823 0.375
p 6.3
or ) s A − s1 = R ln 1 = 0.287 ln = 0.514kJ / kg.K
p2 1.05

T1 823
s A − s 2 = c p ln = 1.005 ln = 0.416kJ / kg.K
T2 544.3
 s 2 − s1 = ( s A − s1 ) − ( s A − s 2 ) = 0.514 − 0.416 = 0.1kJ / kg.K
Increase in entropy
Example (5.8):-

0.05 kg of carbon dioxide (molecular weight 44 ) is compressed from 1 bar, 15°C, until the
pressure is 8.3 bar, and the volume is then 0.004 m3. Calculate the change of entropy. Take
cp for carbon dioxide as 0.88 kJ/kg K, and assume carbon dioxide to be a perfect gas.
solution:
m=0.05 kg, Co2, M=44, p1=1 bar, T1=15°C, , p2=8.3 bar, V2=0.004m3, s2- s1=?,
cp=0.88kJ/kg.K
**: (1) The process is not specified in the example.
(2) The process between 1 and 2 could be reversible or irreversible.

s1 − s 2 = ( s A − s 2 ) − ( s A − s1 )
p2
s A − s 2 = R ln
pA
Ro 8314
R= = = 188.95 J / kg.K
M 44
s A − s 2 = 188.95 ln 8.3 = 399.9 J / kg.K = 0.4kJ / kg.K
TA T
s A − s1 = c p ln = c p ln 2
T1 T1
8.3 * 10 5 * 0.004
p 2V2 = mRT2  T2 = = 351.42 K
0.05 * 188.95
351.42
 s A − s1 = 0.88 ln = 0.175kJ / kg.K
288
 ( s1 − s 2 ) = 0.4 − 0.175 = 0.225kJ / kg.K
The total decrease in entropy=0.225*0.05=0.0113kJ/K

Entropy and Irreversibility:

The change of entropy for all processes does not depend on the path process but only on the
end state. Therefore, provided on irreversible process gives enough information to fix the
end states then the change of entropy can be found.

dQ
ds = (For reversible process)
T

dQ
ds  (For irreversible process)
T

Example (5.9):-

Steam at 7 bar, dryness fraction 0.96, is throttled down 10 3.5 bar, Calculate the change of
entropy per unit mass of steam.
Solution:
Steam, p1=7 bar, x1=0.96, p2=3.5 bar, s2- s1=?
Throttling process is an irreversible process
 h1 = h2
h1 = h f 1 + x1h fg1 = 697 + 0.96(2067) = 2681.32kJ / kg
h 2 = h1 = 2681.32kJ / kg
at  p2 = 3.5bar  hg = 2732kj / kg
 hg 2  h2

The steam is wet at point 2

h2 = h f 2 + x2 h fg 2
2681.32 = 584 + x2 (2148)  x2 = 0.976
 s1 = s f 1 + x1 s fg1 = 1.992 + 0.96(4.717) = 6.52kJ / kg.K
s2 = s f 2 + x2 s fg 2 = 1.727 + 0.976(5.214) = 6.82kJ / kg.K
 s2 − s1 = 0.3kJ / kg.K

Increase of entropy

Note:- A throttling process assumes no heat flow, but there is a change in entropy because
the process is irreversible.

Example (5.10):-

Two vessels of equal volume are connected by a short length of pipe containing a valve; both
vessels are well lagged. One vessel contains air and the other is completely evacuated.
Calculate the change of entropy per kg of air in the system when the valve is opened and the
air is allowed to fill both vessels.
Solution:

Free expansion for a perfect gas; T 1=T2

VB=2VA

The process 1→2 is irreversible

For the purpose of calculating the change of entropy, imagine the process replaced by a
reversible isothermal process between states 1 and 2.

V2 2V
( s2 − s1 ) = R ln = 0.287 ln A = 0.199kJ / kg.K
V1 VA

Note:- In a reversible adiabatic process the entropy remain the same

(i.e. ds = dQ  dQ = 0  ds = 0  s 2 − s1 = 0  s 2 = s1 ) but in an irreversible adiabatic process

T
the entropy must always increase (i.e. dQ = 0  but  ds  0 ) this mean that ds = dQ is true
T
only for reversible processes.

**: The increase (gain) of entropy is a measure of the irreversibility of the process.

Irreversible adiabatic compression in a compressor Irreversible adiabatic expansion in a steam turbine

**: The increase of entropy, s 2 − s1 = s 2 − s 2 is a measure of the irreversibility of the

process.

Example (5.11):-

In an air turbine the air expands from 6.8 bar and 430°C to 1.013bar and 150°C. The heat
loss from the turbine can be assumed to be negligible. Show that the process is irreversible,
and calculate the change of entropy per kilogram of air.
Solution:
air, p1=6.8bar, T1=430°C, p2=1.013 bar, T2=150°C, s2- s1=?

Since the heat loss is negligible the process is adiabatic

For a reversible adiabatic process for a perfect gas;
  −1
T1 p 
=( 1)
T2 p2
0.4
1.013 1.4
T2 = 703( ) = 408K = 135C
6.8
but  T2 = 150C  at  p 2 = 1.013bar

The process is irreversible

**: The change of entropy; s 2 − s1 , can be found by considering a reversible constant

pressure process between 2 and 2'.

T2 423
s2 − s2 = c p ln = 1.005 ln = 0.0363kJ / kg.K
T2 408

Note:- It is not possible for process 1→2' to be reversible because in that case the area under
line 1→2' would represent heat flow and yet the process is adiabatic.

Availability:-

The theoretical maximum amount of work which can be obtained from a system at any state
p1 and T1 when operating with a reservoir at the constant pressure and temperature po and To
is called the availability.

(a) Non-flow systems:

Consider a system consisting of a fluid in a cylinder behind a piston, the fluid expanding
reversibly from initial conditions of p1 and T1 to final atmospheric conditions of po and To.

WEngine=Heat supplied-Heat rejected

Weng . = Q − To ( s1 − so )

**: The heat supplied to the engine is equal to the heat rejected by the fluid in the cylinder.
Therefore for the fluid in the cylinder undergoing the process 1 to o, we have
− Q = (u o − u1 ) + W fluid
W fluid = (u1 − u o ) − Q

Therefore adding the two equations.

W fluid + Weng . = (u1 − uo ) − Q + Q − To ( s1 − so )
W fluid + Weng . = (u1 − uo ) − To ( s1 − so )

The work done by the fluid on the piston is less than the total work done by the fluid, since
there is work done on the atmosphere which is at the constant pressure po.

Work done on atmosphere =po(υo-υ1)

The maximum work can be obtained is given by

Wmax. = Weng . + W fluid − Watm.

Wmax. = (u1 − uo ) − To ( s1 − so ) − po (o − 1 )
Wmax. = (u1 + po1 − To s1 ) − (uo + poo − To so )

Wmax . = a1 − ao
where;

(a): is called the non-flow availability function.

a = u + po − To s

(b) Steady flow systems:

From flow energy equation

C12 Co2
h1 + + gZ1 + Q = ho + + gZ o + W
2 2
Co = 0  Z o = 0  Q = To ( s1 − so )
C12
Wmax . = (h1 + + gZ1 ) − h0 − To ( s1 − so )
2

In many thermodynamic systems the kinetic and potential energy terms are negligible.

Wmax . = (h1 − To s1 ) − (ho − To so ) = b1 − bo

Where;

(b): is a steady flow availability function

 b = h − To s

Effectiveness:- It is the ratio of useful output to the availability of the system.

𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜀 =
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

For a compression or heating process the effectiveness becomes;

𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝜀=
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

Example (5.12):-

Steam expands adiabatically in a turbine from 20 bar, 400°C to 4 bar, 250 °C. Calculate:
(i) The isentropic efficiency of the process;
(ii) The loss of availability of the system assuming an atmospheric temperature of 15°C;
(iii) the effectiveness of the process,
Neglect changes in kinetic and potential energy.

Solution:

steam, Q=0, p1=20 bar, T1=400°C, p2=4 bar, T2=250°C

(i) η=?
At p1=20 bar and T1=400°C the steam is superheated T1 >Ts
At p2=4 bar and T2=250°C the steam is superheated T2 >Ts

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝜂 =
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘

h1 − h2
=
h1 − h2
h1 = 3248kJ / kg  s1 = 7.126kJ / kg.K
h2 = 2965kJ / kg  s2 = 7.379kJ / kg.K
s1 = s2 = 7.126kJ / kg.K
 2862 − 2753 h2 − 2753
=
7.172 − 6.929 7.126 − 6.929
7.126 − 6.929
 h2 = ( )(109) + 2753 = 2841.4kJ / kg
7.172 − 6.929
3248 − 2965
 = = 0.696 = 69.6
3248 − 2841.4
(ii) Loss of availability = b1 − b2 = (h1 − To s1 ) − (h2 − To s2 )

= (h1 − h2 ) + To ( s2 − s1 )

= (3248 − 2965) + 288(7.379 − 7.126) = 355.9kJ / kg

(iii)

W h −h 3248 − 2965
= = 1 2 = = 0.795 = 79.5
b1 − b2 b1 − b2 355.9

Example (5.13):-

Air at 15°C is to be healed to 40°C by mixing it in steady flow with a quantity of air at 90°C.
Assuming that the mixing process is adiabatic and neglecting changes in kinetic and
potential energy, calculate the ratio of the mass flow of air initially at 90°C to that initially
at15°C. Calculate also the effectiveness of the heating process if the atmospheric temperature
is 15°C.
Solution:
•
Air, T1=15°C, T2=90°C, T3=40°C, m2• = ? , ε=?
m1
• • • •
m T + m T = (m + m )T3
1 1 2 2 1 2

m2• m2•
T1 + T = (1 + )T3
m1• m1•
2

m2•
(T2 − T3 ) = (T3 − T1 )
m1•
m2• T3 − T1 40 − 15
= = = 0.5
m1• T2 − T3 90 − 40
Increase of availability of system= b3 − b1 = h3 − To s3 − (h1 − To s1 )
= h3 − h1 − To ( s3 − s1 )
= c p (T3 − T1 ) − To ( s3 − s1 )

T3 313
s3 − s1 = c p ln = 1.005 ln = 0.0837kJ / kg.K
T1 288

increase of availability of system=1.005(40-15)-288(0.0837)=1.0194kJ/kg.K

 m2•
Loss of availability of surroundings= • b2 − b3 
m1

m2• m2•
= • (h2 − To s2 ) − (h3 − To s3 ) = • (h2 − h3 ) − To ( s2 − s3 )
m1 m1

T2 363
s2 − s3 = c p ln = 1.005 ln = 0.149kJ / kg.K
T3 313

Loss of availability of surroundings=0.5[1.005*50-288*0.149]=3.67kJ/kg

1.0194
= = 0.278 = 27.8
3.67

Example (5.14):-

A liquid of specific heat 6.3 kJ/kg .K is heated at approximately constant pressure from 15°C
to 70°C by passing it through tubes which are immersed in a furnace. The furnace
temperature is constant at 1400°C. Calculate the effectiveness of the heating process when
the atmospheric temperature is 10°C.
Solution:
cp=6.3kJ/kg.K, p1=p2 , T1=15°C, T2=70°C, ε=?, To=10°C
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝜀=
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

Increase of availability of the system= b2 − b1 = (h2 − To s2 ) − (h1 − To s1 ) = (h2 − h1 ) − To ( s2 − s1 )

= c p (T2 − T1 ) − To ( s2 − s1 )
 T 
= c p (T2 − T1 ) − To c p ln 2 
 T1 
 343 
= 6.3(70 − 15) − 2836.3 ln = 34.9kJ / kg
 288 

W
 carnot =  W =  carnot * Q1
Q1
Q1 − Q2 Q T (s − s ) T 283
 carnot = = 1− 2 = 1− 2 1 4 = 1− 2 = 1− = 0.831
Q1 Q1 T1 ( s1 − s 4 ) T1 1673
h1 + Q = h2 + W  W = 0
Q = h2 − h1
W = 0.831(h2 − h1 ) = 0.831c p (T2 − T1 ) = 0.831* 6.3(70 − 15) = 287.9kJ / kg
34.9
 = = 12.1
287.9