Lesson III Persuasive Speech

I. Defining a Persuasive Speech

“Persuasive speeches aim to convince the audience to believe a certain view.”

Key Points
 Persuasive speeches can come in many forms, such as sales pitches, debates, and legal
proceedings.
 Persuasive speeches may utilize the three modes of persuasion: ethos, pathos and
logos.
 Ethos is the most important appeal in a persuasive speech.
 Factors such as body language, the willingness of the audience, and the environment
in which the speech is given, all affect the success of a persuasive speech.
 Audience Analysis is important in a persuasive speech, as the audience will be
convinced for their own reasons, not for the speaker’s reasons.
Key Terms
 persuasion: the process aimed at changing a person’s (or a group’s) attitude or behavior
 Logos: logical appeal to the audience; does the speaker’s argument make sense?
 pathos: emotional appeal to the audience
 Audience Analysis: the speaker’s understanding of the audience’s knowledge, personal
experience, and proximity to a topic
 ethos: credibility of the speaker, assigned to them by the audience

Definition
A persuasive speech is a specific type of speech in which the speaker has a goal of convincing
the audience to accept his or her point of view. The speech is arranged in such a way as to hopefully
cause the audience to accept all or part of the expressed view. Though the overarching goal of a
persuasive speech is to convince the audience to accept a perspective, not all audiences can be
convinced by a single speech and not all perspectives can persuade the audience. The success of a
persuasive speech is often measured by the audience’s willingness to consider the speaker’s argument.

The Sales Pitch

An example of a persuasive speech is a sales pitch. During a sales pitch, the speaker is trying to
convince the audience to buy his or her product or service. If the salesperson is successful, the audience
(the person being sold to) will choose to purchase the product or service.

However, salespeople understand that just because someone does not make a purchase after the first
sales pitch does not mean the pitch failed. Persuasion is often a process. People may need multiple
persuasive pitches and a lot of outside information before they are ready to accept a new view.

Components of a Persuasive Speech

While ethos is an essential part of a persuasive speech, pathos and logos are usually combined to form
the best possible argument.
While a speaker can attempt to establish ethos, or credibility, with an audience, it is ultimately assigned
to them based on the audience’s perception. If the audience does not perceive the speaker as a credible
source on the topic about which they are speaking, they will ultimately have a hard time considering the
speaker’s argument.

The logos in a speech, or logical appeals, are arguments that present a set of information and show why
a conclusion must rationally be true. For example, arguments heard in court are logical arguments.
Pathos, emotional appeals, are appeals that seek to make the audience feel a certain way so that they
will accept a conclusion. Negative political ads, for example, often incorporate emotional appeals by
juxtaposing an opponent with a negative emotion such as fear.

How to Succeed
Using an attention- grabbing device is a powerful way to begin a persuasive speech. If you can make
your audience laugh, think about a personal experience, or tell an anecdote that produces emotion, they
are more likely to listen to the content of your argument. Additionally, keeping a speech within 6-8
minutes makes the audience less likely to let their mind wander away from what you are saying.
The effectiveness of a persuasive speech also depends on factors beyond the words of the speech. The
willingness of the audience to accept a new view, the body language of the speaker, and the
environment in which the speech is given all can affect the success of a persuasive speech.
A successful speaker will do their best to establish strong ethos with their audience, and combine pathos
and logos to form the best possible argument. Audience analysis is an important factor when giving a
persuasive speech. For example, if a speaker is trying to convince the audience not to tell their children
about Santa Claus, using arguments that relate and resonate with them, such as encouraging them to
remember how they felt when they discovered he wasn’t real, will be more successful than if the
speaker shared a negative personal experience of their own.

II. The Goals of a Persuasive Speech: Convincing, Actuation, and Stimulation

Persuasive speeches can be designed to convince, incite action, or enhance belief by the
audience.

Key Points
 Convincing speeches aim to get the audience to change their mind to accept the view put
forth in the speech.
 Actuation speeches seek to incite a certain action in the audience.
 Stimulation speeches are designed to get an audience to believe more enthusiastically in a
view.
Key Terms
 actuate: To incite to action; to motivate.
 stimulation: An activity causing excitement or pleasure.
 convince: To make someone believe, or feel sure about something, especially by using logic,
argument or evidence.
The overall goal of a persuasive speech is for the audience to accept your viewpoint as the speaker.
However, this is not a nuanced enough definition to capture the actual goals of different persuasive
speeches. Persuasive speeches can be designed to convince, actuate, and/or stimulate the audience.

Convincing
A convincing speech is designed to cause the audience to internalize and believe a viewpoint that they
did not previously hold. In a sense, a convincing argument changes the audience’s mind. For example,
suppose you are giving a persuasive speech claiming that Coke is better than Pepsi. Your goal is not just
for the audience to hear that you enjoy Coke more, but for Pepsi lovers to change their minds.

Actuation
An actuation speech has a slightly different goal. An actuation speech is designed to cause the audience
to do something, to take some action. This type of speech is particularly useful if the audience already
shares some or all of your view. For example, at the end of presidential campaigns, candidates begin to
focus on convincing their supporters to actually vote. They are seeking to actuate the action of voting
through their speeches.

Stimulation
Persuasive speeches can also be used to enhance how fervently the audience believes in an idea. In this
instance, the speaker understands that the audience already believes in the viewpoint, but not to the
degree that he or she would like. As a result, the speaker tries to stimulate the audience, making them
more enthusiastic about the view. For example, religious services often utilize stimulation. They are not
trying to convince those of another religion to switch religions necessarily; there is an understanding
that the congregation already accepts part or all of the religion. Instead, they are trying to enhance the
degree of belief.

A. Persuasive vs. Informative Speaking

Informative and persuasive speeches differ in what they want the audience to walk away with:
facts or an opinion.

Key Points
o Informative speeches (or informational speeches) seek to provide facts, statistics, or
general evidence. They are primarily concerned with the transmission of knowledge to
the audience.
o Persuasive speeches are designed to convince the audience that a certain viewpoint is
correct. In doing so, the speaker may utilize information.
o Informative and persuasive speeches are exemplified by academic lectures and sales
pitches, respectively.
Key Terms
o informative: Providing knowledge, especially useful or interesting information.
There are many different subjects that can be used in informative speeches. College lectures about an
event in history or a historical figure would be considered informative speeches. Other examples of
subjects for an informative speech include an actor or actress, the field of advertising, a classic film the
history of Dracula, social networking websites, and what causes volcanoes.

Each of these examples lends itself to multiple types of information. For example, an informative speech
about a particular actor or actress would likely focus on providing a description of who the person is and
what movies or plays they have been in. Incorporating famous pictures or clips from works is a way of
increasing the audience’s retention of the information about the particular person.

An informative speech about the causes of a volcano could be considered a how-it-happens speech,
which could be similar to a how-to speech. A speech about volcanoes might include a model volcano,
describing how the model’s functioning is similar to processes in the real world.

More technical subjects, such as the field of advertising, require more technical information and specific
data relevant to the industry. Technical subjects especially, but really all informative speeches, benefit
from the use of visualizations, such as bar graphs or images. The choice of visual aids depends on what
information the speaker wants to inform the audience of. For example, a speech that intends to explore
the financial trends of political advertising over ten years would benefit from a bar graph. However, a
speech that is informing the audience on how political advertisements have functionally changed over
time would benefit from actual examples of ad campaigns.

In order to differentiate an informative speech from other types of speeches, it is important to stick to
the basic facts of the subject. No personal biases, unsubstantiated information, or popular opinion
should be included when stating the main ideas of the topic. The goal is to educate the audience on the
facts, not to provide the speaker’s opinion. When crafting an informative speech look at the subject
carefully and eliminate any potential statements that have prejudice or might persuade the audience.

B. Effective Informative Speaking

The Goals of an Informative Speech

An effective informative speech should be driven by a series of goals.

Key Points
 One of the goals of an informative speech is to enhance the understanding of
the audience.
 Another goal of an informative speech is to maintain the interest of the
audience.
 A final goal of an informative speech is for the audience to remember the
speech.
Key Terms
 goal: A result that one is attempting to achieve.
 inform: To communicate knowledge to others.
Informative (or informational) and persuasive speaking are related, but distinct, types of speeches. The
difference between the two lies in the speaker’s end goal and what the speaker wants the audience to
leave with.

Informative speeches are probably the most prevalent variety of speech. The goal is always to supply
information and facts to the audience. This information can come in the form of statistics, facts, or other
forms of evidence. Informational speeches do not tell people what to do with the information; their goal
is for the audience to have and understand the information. Academic lectures are often informational
speeches, because the professor is attempting to present facts so the students can understand them.

Informational speeches may have a tendency to become overdrawn and boring. Their goal is not to
excite the audience members, but rather to provide them with knowledge they did not have before the
speech.
Like informational speeches, persuasive speeches use information. However, persuasive speeches are
designed for the audience to not only hear and understand the information, but to use it to be
convinced of a viewpoint. The end goal of a persuasive speech is not for the audience to have
information, but rather for them to have a certain view. Persuasive speeches may use some of the same
techniques as informational speeches, but can also use emotions to convince the audience. A sales pitch
is one example of a persuasive speech.

A common cry against certain persuasive speeches is that they rely too much on emotion and not
enough on facts. A persuasive speech that succeeds in convincing the audience to accept a view but is
based on faulty or misleading information is unethical.

C. The Psychology of Persuasion

Each individual is persuaded by different things over different time-periods, so to be effective
each pitch must be customized.

Key Points
 Each person is unique, so there is no single psychological key to persuasion.
 Cialdini proposed six psychological persuasive techniques: reciprocity, commitment and
consistency, social proof, authority, liking, and scarcity.
 The Relationship Based Persuasion technique has four steps: survey the situation,
confront the five barriers to a successful influence encounter, make the pitch, and
secure the commitments.
Key Terms
 reciprocity: the responses of individuals to the actions of others
 social proof: People tend to do things that they see others are doing.

There is no single key to a successful persuasive speech. Some people take longer than others to be
persuaded, and some respond to different persuasion techniques. Therefore, persuasive speakers
should be cognizant of audience characteristics to customize the pitch.
Persuasion: A persuasive speech is given with the goal of influencing how the audience thinks about a
certain topic.

The psychology of persuasion is best exemplified by two theories that try to explain how people are
influenced.

Robert Cialdini, in his book on persuasion, defined six “weapons of influence:”

1. Reciprocity: People tend to return a favor. In Cialdini’s conferences, he often uses the example
of Ethiopia providing thousands of dollars in humanitarian aid to Mexico just after the 1985
earthquake, despite Ethiopia suffering from a crippling famine and civil war at the time. Ethiopia
had been reciprocating for the diplomatic support Mexico provided when Italy invaded Ethiopia
in 1937.
2. Commitment and Consistency: Once people commit to what they think is right, they are more
likely to honor that commitment even if the original motivation is subsequently removed. For
example, in car sales, suddenly raising the price at the last moment works because buyers have
already decided to buy.
3. Social Proof: People will do things they see other people are doing. In one experiment, if one or
more person looked up into the sky, bystanders would then look up to see what they could see.
This experiment was aborted, as so many people looked up that they stopped traffic.
4. Authority: People will tend to obey authority figures, even if they are asked to perform
objectionable acts. Cialdini cites incidents like the Milgram experiments in the early 1960s and
the My Lai massacre in 1968.
5. Liking: People are easily persuaded by other people whom they like. Cialdini cites the marketing
of Tupperware, wherein people were more likely to buy from others they liked. Some of the
biases favoring more attractive people are discussed, but generally more aesthetically pleasing
people tend to use this influence over others.
6. Scarcity: Perceived scarcity will generate demand. For example, saying that offers are available
for a “limited time only” encourages sales.

The second theory is called Relationship Based Persuasion. It was developed by Richard Shell and Mario
Moussa. The overall theory is that persuasion is the art of winning over others. Their four- step approach
is:
1. Survey your situation: This step includes an analysis of the persuader’s situation, goals and
challenges.
2. Confront the five barriers: Five obstacles pose the greatest risks to a successful influence
encounter – relationships, credibility, communication mismatches, belief systems, and interest
and needs.
3. Make your pitch: People need a solid reason to justify a decision, yet at the same time many
decisions are made on basis of intuition. This step also deals with presentation skills.
4. Secure your commitments: In order to safeguard the longtime success of a persuasive decision,
it is vital to deal with politics at both the individual and organizational level.
D. The Ethics of Persuasion
Persuasion is unethical if it is for personal gain at the expense of others, or for personal gain
without the knowledge of the audience.

Key Points
 Methods such as torture, coercion, and brainwashing are always unethical.
 Ethical persuasion has three components: the exploration of the other person’s viewpoint,
the explanation of your viewpoint, and the creation of resolutions.
 Tests such as the TARES test and the Fitzpatrick & Gauthier test are used to determine if a
persuasion attempt is ethical.
Key Terms
 coercion: Use of physical or moral force to compel a person to do something, or to abstain
from doing something, thereby depriving that person of the exercise of free will.

Ethics of Persuasion
Not all persuasion is ethical. Persuasion is widely considered unethical if it is for the purpose of personal
gain at the expense of others, or for personal gain without the knowledge of the audience. Furthermore,
some methods of persuasion are wholly written off as unethical. For example, coercion, brainwashing,
and torture are never considered ethical.

Barring any of the persuasive methods that are easily distinguished as unethical (such as torture), the
line between ethical and unethical is less clearly demarcated. Ethical persuasion has a series of common
characteristics that are missing in unethical persuasion. Ethical persuasion seeks to achieve the following
three goals:
1. Explore the other person’s viewpoint
2. Explain your viewpoint
3. Create resolutions

Notably, this approach involves input from the audience and an honest explanation of your viewpoint. If
you have questions about the ethics of a persuasive attempt, there are a number of tests that can be
done.

E. TARES Test
Sherry Baker and David Martinson proposed a five-part TARES test to help guide the PR
practitioner to define ethical persuasion. An ethical persuasive speech must have all of the
following components:
1. Truthfulness of the message
2. Authenticity of the persuader
3. Respect for the audience
4. Equity of the persuasive appeal
Fitzpatrick & Gauthier
Fitzpatrick and Gauthier developed a series of questions that must be honestly answered to determine
how ethical a pitch is:
1. For what purpose is persuasion being employed?
2. Toward what choices and with what consequences for individual lives is persuasion being used?
3. Does the persuasion in this case contribute to or interfere with the decision-making process for
its target audience?

III. Types of Persuasive Speeches

A. Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Fact

Speeches about question of fact (something is true, exists, or does not exist) propose that the
speaker’s view is probably true.

Key Points
 Questions of fact contrast with questions of policy (which state that something should
be)  and questions of value (which state that something is good, bad, beautiful, or
worthwhile).
 Three basic types of questions of fact are historical controversy, questions of current
existence, and predictions.
 The speaker presents competing evidence in topical order and uses inductive reasoning to
draw a conclusion from the evidence. The conclusion asserts that the speaker’s view is
most likely true.
 The speaker has an ethical responsibility to provide reliable, valid evidence to the
audience, and to be aware of and avoid bias in the selection of the evidence.
Key Terms
 evidence: The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or
proposition is true or valid.

Questions of fact are one focus of persuasive speaking.

They propose that something is a fact. Questions of fact (which are also called propositions of
fact) basically state that something is, something exists, or something doesn’t exist. Questions of
fact contrast with questions of policy, which state that something should be, and questions of
value, which state that something is good, bad, beautiful, or worthwhile.

In a persuasive speech, the speaker answers a question by proposing an answer and attempting
to convince the audience that the answer is true and that they can believe the speaker. In
essence, the speaker wants to audience to accept the his or her view as the cold, hard facts.

The following are three basic types of questions of fact:

 Historical controversy: Knowledge that an event did happen in the past or that an object
actually did exist.
  Questions of current existence: Knowledge that something is happening now in the present
(such as global warming).
 Predictions: Forecasting what will happen in the future. Based on past events, the speaker
identifies a pattern and attempts to convince the audience that the event will happen again.
For example, if someone observes that gasoline prices drop right before national elections, he
or she could attempt to convince others that they will drop again before the next election.

Creating a Persuasive Speech on Questions of Fact

When creating a persuasive speech based around questions of fact, consider the following:
Thesis: When developing a persuasive speech, begin with a thesis that states that something is true,
meaning that it happened or did not happen. exists or does not exist.
Organization and Evidence: In general, the evidence should be presented in topical order. It is
important to consider the evidence carefully. The speaker must ask if it is possible that the observations
actually occurred or could have occurred. Is the source of the evidence reliable, and were they in a
position to actually observe what they reported? Is there reason to believe that a source may be biased,
either personally or by the thinking prevalent at the time in history?
Reasoning: The speaker will usually be dealing with inductive reasoning, in which he or she asks the
audience to agree with a conclusion after presenting all of the evidence. The speaker proves the position
by presenting compelling evidence to support the thesis.
Ethics: As a speaker you have an ethical responsibility to provide reliable, valid evidence to the audience
and be aware of and avoid your own bias in the selection of the evidence which you use.

A. Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Value

In persuasive speeches on questions of value, we argue something is right or wrong, moral or
immoral, or better or worse than another thing.

Key Points
 Persuasive speeches on questions of value imply certain actions, but they are not a call to
action.
 Persuasive speeches of value depend on a judgement that something is right or wrong,
moral or immoral, or better or worse than another thing.
 The speech should include an appeal, criteria for judgement, and facts that support the
appeal using the judgement criteria.
Key Terms
 policy: A principle of behavior, conduct, etc., thought to be desirable or necessary,
especially as formally expressed by a government or other authoritative body.

a. Introduction
There are three types of persuasive speeches:
 Persuasive speeches of fact
 Persuasive speeches of value
 Persuasive speeches of policy
 In this unit, our focus will be on persuasive speeches of value. Here is where we argue
something is right or wrong, moral or immoral, or better or worse than another thing. The
appeals are made on value judgements.

Examples include speeches that attempt to persuade the audience that it is wrong to drive over
the speed limit, that Pepsi is better than Coke, that it is better to live together before marriage,
that swimming is the best form of exercise, or that bikes are the best form of transportation to
get around town.

Persuasive speeches on questions of value imply certain actions, but they are not a call to
action.

b. Questions to Ask Yourself

When analyzing any type of persuasive speech, you should ask yourself the following
questions:
 What is the speaker’s goal?
 What are the main points?
 How does the structure of the speech help the speaker to make the argument?
 How does the speaker try to make you care?
 How does the speaker use evidence?
 What kinds of sources does the speaker use?

c. Creating a Persuasive Speech on Questions of Value

How should you go about creating such a speech?
 Introduce appeals, information, and criteria.
 Provide evidence that makes your audience arrive at your conclusion. (Your claims
should agree with the current beliefs and feeling of your audience. )
 Use facts to justify your claims.
 Consider your audience’s feeling and values.

B. Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy

Persuasive speeches about questions of policy advocate for or against the status quo.

Key Points
 There are four basic organizational patterns for question of policy: problem-solution,
problem-solution with cause, comparative advantage of solutions, and Monroe’s
motivated sequence.
 Problem-solution considers the need (or the problem to be solved), the plan (or the
solution to the problem), and the practicality (how well the solution will work).
 Problem-solution with causes considers the nature and extent of the problem and the
direct relationship between the problem and its causes, and uses the causes as criteria to
evaluate potential solutions.
 Comparative advantages of solutions summarized the problem briefly, compare different
solutions to find the one that solves the most aspects of the problem, and ask the
audience to accept and implement the most advantageous solution.
 Monroe’s motivated sequence is Attention, Need, Satisfaction, Visualization, and Action.

Key Terms
 status quo: The state of things; the way things are, as opposed to the way they could be.
 Monroe’s Motivated Sequence: A method of persuasion developed by Alan H. Monroe,
based on establishing a psychological need for action in the audience and demonstrating
how to satisfy the need by taking action.
 policy: A principle of behavior, conduct, etc., thought to be desirable or necessary,
especially as formally expressed by a government or other authoritative body.

a. Questions of Policy
One focus of persuasive speaking is questions of policy, which advocates a change from
the status quo, or the way things are today. There is a “should”, or at least an implied
“should”, in the thesis statement. The speaker wants the plan proposed by the speech
to become policy. Questions of policy contrast with questions of fact, which state than
something is, exists or does not exist, and questions of value, which state that
something is good, bad, beautiful, or perhaps worthwhile.

The following sections describe some different ways to organize persuasive speeches
around questions of policy.

b. Problem-Solution
One way to organize a persuasive speech on a question of policy focuses on defining a
problem and a solution by covering three basic points:

 The Need: Convince the audience that there is a problem that must be addressed or a
need for change. It is essential to get the audience to believe that a problem exists so
they will implement a plan for a solution.
 The Plan: Convince the audience that it is not good enough to just sit around and
complain. Tell them what actions they must take. Be sure to address any aspects of the
solution that might make the audience less willing to act.
 The Practicality: Show the audience that the plan can succeed. Address the implications,
cite expert testimony, and reference the successful implementation of similar plans in
other places.

c. Problem-Solution with Cause

A common variation on the problem-solution organization includes consideration of the
causes. Discussing the causes of the problem directs attention to specific points that the
solution must address. The basic points of this organization are:
  The Problem: Describe the nature and extent of the problem. Specifically, describe that
the problem exists and how important or big the problem is.
 The Causes: Consider the direct relationship between the problem and its causes. Think
about the problem as an “effect,” and consider the causes that produced the effect.
Show a direct relationship between the problem and causes, not just a correlation
where one thing occurred before, after, or at the same time as another.
 The Solution: Use the causes as criteria to evaluate the solutions. If the speech says that
the problem was caused by x, y and z, then the solution or new policy needs to address
x, y, and z in order to solve the problem.

d. Comparative Advantages of Solutions

When the audience is already aware of and accepts that there is a problem, the speech
can focus primarily on comparing the advantages of one solution over another, as
follows:
 Summarize the Problem Briefly: Do not focus on convincing the audience to believe that
there is a problem that needs to be solved.
 Compare Different Solutions: Discuss different solutions, and find the one that solves
the most aspects of the problem. Compare one solution with others to select and
propose the best to the audience.
 Final Appeal: Ask the audience to accept and implement that solution as the policy.

e. Monroe’s Motivated Sequence

Another powerful method of structuring a persuasive message is by using a motivated
sequence. The organizational plan developed by Alan Monroe focuses on developing a
psychological need in the audience and then illustrating how to satisfy that need by
supporting the plan or policy advocated in the speech, as follows:
 Attention: Get the audience’s attention using a detailed story, shocking example,
dramatic statistic, or quotations.
 Need: Show how the topic applies to the psychological need of the audience members.
The premise is that action is motivated by audience needs. Go beyond establishing that
there is a significant problem; show that the need will not go away by itself. Convince
the audience members that they each have a personal need to take action.
 Satisfaction: Solve the issue. Provide specific and viable solutions that the government
or community can implement.
 Visualization: Tell the audience what will happen if the solution is or is not
implemented. Be visual and detailed. Paint a picture for the audience of what they will
experience and what the world will look like when the need is satisfied through the
speech’s plan.
 Action: Tell the audience members what specific action they can take to solve the
problem and change existing policy.

The advantage of Monroe’s motivated sequence is that it emphasizes what the audience
can do. Too often, the audience feels like a situation is hopeless; Monroe’s motivated
sequence emphasizes the actions the audience can take.
IV. Methods of Persuasive Speaking

A. Getting the Most Out of a Persuasive Speech

1. Expect Selective Exposure

In theory, people tend to select specific aspects of exposed information based on their
pre-existing perspective, beliefs, attitudes, and decisions.

Key Points
 The selective exposure theory is a concept that refers to individuals’ tendency to favor
information that reinforces pre-existing views while avoiding contradictory information.
 Selective exposure operates by reinforcing beliefs rather than exposing individuals to a
diverse array of viewpoints.
 Perceived usefulness of information, perceived norm of fairness, and curiosity regarding
valuable information are three factors that can counteract selective exposure.
Key Terms
 selective exposure: The selective exposure theory is a concept in media and
communication research that refers to individuals’ tendency to favor information that
reinforces pre-existing views while avoiding contradictory information.
 audience: A group of people within hearing; specifically, a group of people listening to a
performance, speech etc.; the crowd seeing a stage performance.

Introduction

The selective exposure theory is a concept in media and communication research that refers to
individuals’ tendency to favor information that reinforces preexisting views while avoiding contradictory
information. This theory suggests that people tend to select specific aspects of exposed information
based on their perspective, beliefs, attitudes, and decisions. People can determine the information
exposed to them and select favorable evidence, while ignoring the unfavorable.

This theory has been explored using the cognitive dissonance theory, which suggests
information consumers strive for results of cognitive equilibrium. In order to attain this equilibrium,
individuals may either reinterpret the information they are exposed to or select information that is
consonant with their view.

The premise of selective exposure relies on the assumption that information-seeking behavior
continues even after an individual has taken a stance on an issue. Previous information-seeking behavior
will be colored by various factors of the issue that is activated during the decision-making process. Thus,
selective exposure operates by reinforcing beliefs rather than exposing individuals to a diverse array of
viewpoints, which is considered an important aspect of a functioning democracy.
 There are several factors that persuade one when making decisions. Physical characteristics,
age, and more hold power to sway perception, luring people into habits of selective exposure. People
often stray away from new information because it conflicts with their own beliefs; because information
and resources are critical to learning this habit cripples the ability to learn new concepts and skills.
Selective exposure influences and family, friends, co-workers, even skilled professionals like
doctors. Media forms such as the internet, television, and paper sources are also inclined to selective
bias.

Selective exposure has been demonstrated in various contexts such as self-serving situations
and situations where people hold prejudices regarding out-groups, particular opinions, and personal and
group-related issues. The perceived usefulness of information, perceived norms of fairness, and curiosity
regarding valuable information are three factors that can counteract selective exposure. Remember this
as you prepare your persuasive speech.

How does selective exposure theory affect decision-making?

1. Selective exposure can affect the decisions people make because people may not be willing to
change their views and beliefs. Changing beliefs about one’s self, other people, and the world
are all challenges that cause people to fear new information.
2. A variety of studies have shown that selective exposure effects can occur in context of both
individual and group decision making.
3. Selective exposure can interfere or prevent the gathering of new information. Selective exposure
is prevalent in both groups of people and individually. In Jonas et al. (2001) empirical studies
were done on four different experiments investigating individuals’ and groups’ decision making.
This article suggests that confirmation bias is prevalent in decision making.
4. Those who find new information often draw their attention to areas where they hold some
personal attachment. Thus, information that supports the expectations or beliefs held by the
person draw greater attention, in keeping with selective exposure theory. Throughout the four
experiments, generalization was reliably considered valid and confirmation bias was always
present when test subjects sought new information and made decisions.

Tips for the Speaker

Be prepared. Like it or not, you are going to face selective exposure from your audience as you try to
persuade them to accept your stance. When preparing your speech, remember that perceived
usefulness of information, perceived norm of fairness, and curiosity regarding valuable information can
counteract selective exposure.

2. Don’t Expect Too Much

The expectations for both the speaker and the effectiveness of the speech should be
tailored for each speech.

Key Points
 The expected effectiveness of each speech depends on a number of factors, such as
the audience, venue, time allotted, and the speaker’s experience.
  The expected quality of the delivery depends on the speaker’s experience and
comfort. Even the most gifted speakers make mistakes, so expecting perfection from a
novice is unreasonable.
 Anxiety of public speaking sometimes is derived from the idea that the audience
expects perfection. In reality, most audiences are sympathetic and want the speaker
to succeed.
Key Terms
 persuasion: the process aimed at changing a person’s (or a group’s) attitude or
behavior

Persuasion is the influence of beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, or behaviors

to convince an audience of something. A persuasive speech should move the audience
further along the pathway to believing that the espoused point of view is correct, but
not all views can be explained in one speech and not every audience can be swayed at
once.
The expectations of each persuasive speech should be tailored to the context of the
speech. Factors such as the speech itself, the audience, the venue, the time allotted, and
the speaker’s experience all need to be considered. For example, if you are not a doctor
but are asked to give a five- minute speech to the American Heart Association about
why fast food is the best food for heart health, your chances of persuading everyone is
pretty low. Even if you are the expert in the room, not everyone will be persuaded
because each person requires different processes to be convinced. The purpose of the
persuasive speech is to get the audience to think about your point of view and to accept
some of the vital points, not necessarily to make them buy everything you’re selling.

Similarly, the expectations for the delivery of the speech should not be set too
high. For a novice speaker to expect that he/she will never mispronounce a word, get
nervous, or skip a paragraph is unreasonable. Every speaker goes through the process of
making mistakes, and few, if any, speakers ever deliver a perfect speech. The expected
quality of the delivery of the speech depends on each individual speaker’s experience
and comfort level, though even the most gifted orators make mistakes.

Some of the anxiousness that often accompanies preparing for a speech is

derived from the idea that the audience expects perfection. However, the surprising
truth is that, in most cases, the audience is a sympathetic friend. Whether or not the
audience knows who you are, human nature dictates that they are very sympathetic to
you and what you have to say. Most people appreciate the difficulty of your role,
understand that you have something to say, and want the time they spend listening to
you to be worthwhile. In other words, before you start speaking, most audiences have a
vested interest in wanting you to succeed, and that translates into an attentive,
supportive group.

3. Employ Empathy and Sensitivity

 Appeals to empathy and sensitivity can be exceedingly effective, but only if used
correctly.

Key Points
 Appeals to empathy and sensitivity are called emotional appeals. Emotional
appeals seek to impart certain feelings in the audience so that they will act a
certain way. They can be much more powerful than logical arguments in some
situations.
 To deploy an emotional appeal, you need to share carefully selected information
that naturally makes your audience feel a certain way.
 Audiences can sense inauthentic emotional appeals and react negatively because
they feel that they are being negatively. Poorly used emotional appeals can have
the exact opposite effect than intended.
Key Terms
 emotional appeal: An attempt to make the audience feel certain emotions so that they will
be more likely to be engaged by the speech. Also known as pathos.

Appealing to the empathy and sensitivity of the audience is broadly termed an

emotional appeal. Emotional appeals can be a powerful rhetorical element of a
persuasive speech. They are an attempt to make the audience feel something, and in
the process, be persuaded by the speech. A crowd that is feeling something is much
more likely to be engaged, give consideration to your arguments, and remember the
speech.

Appeals to empathy and sensitivity can create a sense of connection and trust
between you and the audience. Since trust and connection are vital elements of being
able to persuade an audience, emotional appeals can be incredibly useful.

However, emotional appeals can also backfire if used incorrectly. If taken too far, an
appeal to emotion can seem to be forced. Audiences can tell the difference between an
honest emotional appeal and an attempt is to manipulate how they feel. Audiences
loathe feeling manipulated, so an audience that senses inauthentic motives will strongly
reject both the appeal and the speaker.

When the emotional appeal is both authentic and appropriately used, you can
develop a much stronger connection to your audience than by using logic alone.
However, to misuse an emotional appeal is to completely alienate your audience, and
even foster negative feelings.

4 Using Different Kinds of Appeals

The two primary kinds of appeals are evidential and emotional appeals.

Key Points
 Aristotle defined 3 types of appeals: logos (evidential), pathos (emotional), and ethos
(based on moral standing). Logos and pathos are the two most common contemporary
categories.
 Evidential appeals (logical appeals, logos) are based entirely on evidence that is then
shown to cause a certain outcome based on rationality alone. This is the type of
appeal allowed in scientific research and in courts of law.
 Emotional appeals (pathos) attempt to cause the audience to feel certain emotions in
order to persuade them. Stories and metaphors are examples of emotional appeals.
Key Terms
 evidential appeal: An attempt to show the logical connection between a set of evidence
and a consequence. Also known as logical appeal or logos.
 emotional appeal: An attempt to make the audience feel certain emotions so that they
will be more likely to be engaged by the speech. Also known as pathos.

Use Different Kinds of Appeals

According to Aristotle, there are three primary types of appeals:
1. Logos: A logical appeal. Also known as an evidential appeal.
2. Pathos: An appeal to the audience’s emotions.
3. Ethos: Moral expertise and knowledge.

For the purposes of this section, we will explore the two broadest and prevalent appeals,
logos and pathos.

 Logos (Evidential or Logical Appeal)

From a rationalist’s point of view, evidential appeals are the only type of appeal that
truly matter. Evidential appeals are formed by defining the evidence and then explaining
how the evidence must logically prove that a certain conclusion must be true. Evidential
appeals are the only type of persuasive speech allowed in a court of law; the evidence
must prove that the defendant has committed the crime in order for that person to be
found guilty.

 Evidential Appeal: The only type of rhetorical appeal accepted in a courtroom in

an evidential appeal.
Evidential appeals are also the basis for scientific research. A scientist must be able to
show the connection between evidence and a conclusion in order for his/her work to be
accepted. In persuasive speaking, the speaker must first explain the evidence in a way
that is comprehensible to the audience, yet complete. Then the scientist must explain
how that evidence logically leads to a consequence that supports his/her proposal.

 Pathos (Emotional Appeal)

An emotional appeal is intended to cause the audience to feel a certain way so that they
will be convinced by the speaker. Emotional appeals can manifest in a number of ways.
Metaphors, stories, and passionate delivery are all emotional appeals because their
effectiveness lies not only in the words, but in the emotions, they evoke in the audience.
Ultimately, the effectiveness of an emotional appeal is determined only by the audience.
If the audience does not feel the intended emotions, by definition, the appeal has failed.
B. Credibility Appeals

1. Defining Credibility
Credibility is defined as the objective and subjective components of the believability of
a source or message.

Key Points
 Credibility is a composite of subjective and objective factors, so it relates to
feelings and opinions, as well as facts and evidence.
 The subjective component of a public speaker’s credibility centers on the
speaker’s self-presentation.
 The objective aspect of a public speaker’s credibility is based on the speaker’s
expertise.
Key Terms
 subjective: formed, as in opinions, based upon a person’s feelings or intuition, not
upon observation or reasoning; coming more from within the observer than from
observations of the external environment.
 Objective: not influenced by irrational emotions or prejudices; based on facts or
evidence.
 credibility: The objective and subjective components of the believability of a source
or message.

Unmasking Credibility: Credibility is personal. In order to establish credibility, unmask yourself

and show the audience who you really are.

What is credibility? Credibility is defined as the objective and subjective components of the
believability of a source or message. Credibility is both objectives, or based on facts and
evidence, and subjective, based on opinions and feelings. This quality encompasses everything
from your college degree or professional certification to the immediate “gut feeling” people get
when they walk into the room.

Subjective Credibility: Self-Presentation

The subjective aspect of a public speaker’s credibility is based on the speaker’s self-
presentation. Here are some tips for earning credibility on a subjective level:
1. Dress the part. Show the audience that you take the speaking engagement seriously,
and that you hope to earn their respect. If you’re not sure how to dress, professional
attire is always a safe bet.
2. Look at the audience. Establishing eye contact will make you seem open and
trustworthy.
3. Speak loudly, clearly, and confidently. If you have confidence in yourself, the audience
will too.
Objective Credibility: Expertise
Mark Twain once said that an expert is just “an ordinary fellow from another town. ” If only it
were that easy! In reality, if you want to convince the audience that you are an expert, you will
have to show some credentials. Here are three ways to establish objective credibility:
a. State your credentials. Audiences will trust you more readily if you can prove that other
people value your expertise. Credentials include relevant degrees, certifications,
testimonials, recommendations, work experience, volunteer experience, and informally,
other types of personal experience.
b. Reveal a personal connection to your topic. Your input will have more weight if you can
demonstrate that the topic means something to you.
c. Establish common ground with your audience. If you can explain that, ultimately, you all
want the same thing, the audience will be much more likely to trust you and accept your
message.

2. Types and Elements of Credibility

Experience, training, and associations and connections are all important factors that can
boost credibility.

Key Points
 Personal experience in the workplace, at home, in a hobby, or volunteering
situations can bolster your credibility. You can support the validity of your
experience with testimonials and personal recommendations.
 Formal or informal training that relates to your topic can also support your
credibility.
 If you connect yourself and your message to credible people, your own
credibility will benefit from the association.
Key Terms
 credibility: The objective and subjective components of the believability of a
source or message.

i. Credibility from Experience

Imagine this scenario: you, a veteran mountain climber, are slated to give a
speech about climbing safety to a group of mountaineers that is about to set off on a
dangerous expedition. What would be the best source of credibility in that situation?
Experience! The mountaineers would probably not be very impressed to hear that you
read a book about climbing safety once, or that some of your best friends are
mountaineers. However, if you bring in stories, photographs, and examples from your
own climbing experience, you will assure them that you really know what you’re talking
about. Drawing from your work experience, volunteering experience, hobbies, and
informally, other types of personal experience can do a lot to boost your credibility as a
speaker.
 ii. Credibility from Training
Do you have any formal or informal training that relates to your topic? If so,
mention it during your speech to build your credibility. Relevant training programs and
credentials include academic degrees, professional certifications, classes, conferences,
and personal research. Even if your training isn’t directly related to your topic, there
may be an indirect connection. Don’t feel obligated to stretch your story if it really
doesn’t fit, but also don’t rule out training experiences that are out of your current field.

iii. Credibility by Association

Machiavelli’s maxim teaches a valuable lesson: people will not only judge you
on your own merits alone, but also on the merits of your associates. This rule isn’t only
for rulers, it applies to public speakers too. If you want to be seen as a credible person,
align yourself with other credible people. You can do this by citing testimonials from
respected figures or mentioning personal recommendations that validate your
expertise. Another approach is to quote prominent figures in your field, demonstrating
an awareness of the issues and conversations that are current trends in that field.

3. Building Credibility
If you want to build credibility with your audience, you must demonstrate that you are a
person of character.

Key Points
 Establishing your good character is a crucial part of winning the audience
‘s trust.
 For a public speaker, character is not only about being a good person or a
law-abiding citizen; speakers should also be looking out for the needs of
their listeners.
 To show your listeners that you care about their needs and interests, find
common ground with the audience, appeal to shared beliefs and goals,
and entertain potential objections.
Key Terms
 character: Moral strength; consistency of values and principles.

Greek philosopher Heraclitus’s famous maxim, “Character is destiny,” has echoed

through the ages: if you want to win the audience’s trust, you must demonstrate that
you are a person of character. Aristotle argues that establishing good character is one of
the most important means of persuasion. Roman orator Quintillian defines persuasive
rhetoric as essentially “the good man speaking well. ”British Historian, James A. Froude
takes the colloquial idea of “building character” one step further, leading us to imagine
a laborious undertaking in a blacksmith’s forge, shaping “character” with a hammer. The
literature surrounding public speaking emphasizes the importance of establishing good
character, but also admits that it is not easy.
 iv. Credibility, Character, and Caring
Personal character is an important addition to the elements of credibility we discussed
in the last segment. However, it is important to note that, for a public speaker, character is not
as simple as being a nice person or a law-abiding citizen. Public speakers are responsible for
communicating something of value to a large group of people. A public speaker of character
should listen to the needs of the audience, entertain potential objections, walk the audience
through opposing viewpoints, and respond to questions. Show your listeners that you’re looking
out for them. After all, why should they trust you if you don’t care about them? To bring the
audience’s needs and interests to the forefront of your speech, follow these steps:

Building Credibility: Credibility is built through character, trustworthiness, experience, expertise, and
associations/connections.
1. Find common ground with your audience.
2. Appeal to shared beliefs and values.
3. Identify a shared goal.
4. Return to this shared goal throughout the speech.
5. Demonstrate that you have considered other perspectives on the issue.
6. Show that you understand the appeal of opposing positions.
7. Make a case for your own position.

v. Ethical Usage
Credibility appeals, while an effective form of persuasive speaking, carry a
unique set of ethical challenges and considerations.

Key Points
 There are three types of appeal techniques in persuasive speaking: logos,
pathos and ethos. Ethos is focused on the credibility appeal, that is, a
rhetorical appeal to an audience based on the speaker’s credibility.
 It is unethical to lie to your audience about who you are and what you
bring to the table in terms of experience, credibility and authority.
 When it comes to ethical usage of credibility appeals, stick to authenticity
and speaking honestly about who you are.
Key Terms
 ethos: A rhetorical appeal to an audience based on the speaker/writer’s
credibility.

Ethical Usage of Credibility Appeals

Speeches grounded in the principles of rhetoric focus on three types of rhetorical

appeals: logos, pathos, and ethos. While logos and pathos appeal to reason and emotion,
respectively, ethos takes on a decidedly different approach entirely. Speakers using ethos seek to
persuade their audience by demonstrating their own credibility and authority.
 To elaborate, the construction of authority is reflected in how a speaker presents themselves,
what diction they use, how they phrases their ideas, what other authorities to which they refer, how
they composes themselves under stress, their experience within the context of their message, as well as
their personal or academic background.

Ethical Considerations
Obviously, if you elucidate a persuasive portrait of your personal credibility and authority, you
make a more persuasive case on the credibility and authority of your words. However, when building a
persuasive case using ethos, it may be tempting to stray into territory that borders on the unethical.

Consider the following example:

 You might not realize it at first, but interviewing for a job is an abbreviated form of
persuasive speaking. You’re trying to persuade an employer to offer you a job. This
method of persuasion relies heavily on the use of ethos, as you’re trying to make your
case as to why you’re the best person for the job.
 When you submit your résumé and cover letter, you provide your potential employer with
an overview of your skills, experiences and background and how they best fit with the
position and company with whom you seek employment.
 While many employers complete extensive background reviews and reference checks,
they may not follow up with every single bullet point on your résumé. While it might be
tempting to beef up your list of achievements by stretching the truth: naming yourself a
college club president as opposed to member, listing an award you may have nominated
for but not having won (without clarifying that fact) – these are all unethical ways of
padding your résumé, and thus, unethically using ethos to persuade your potential
employer to hire you for the job.

This same example holds true in more formal scenarios of persuasive public
speaking. It is unethical to lie to your audience about who you are and what you bring to the
table in terms of experience, credibility and authority. It is equally unethical to even bend
the truth on the slightest detail about what makes you a credible or authoritarian speaker
on your given subject.

Whether it’s a flat-out moment of dishonesty or a simple “little white lie,”

disingenuousness, once discovered, will eradicate any credibility or authority you have as a
speaker. When it comes to ethical usage of credibility appeals, stick to authenticity and
speaking honestly about who you are.

C. Evidentiary Appeals
Defining Evidence
Evidence refers to the available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief
or proposition is true.
 Key Points
 Accurate, contextual, easily understandable evidence builds credibility to your
persuasive argument.
 The success or failure of an evidential appeal depends on how well the evidence
has been defined and laid out for the audience.
 Any information used as evidence must be complete enough that it strengthens
the appeal. Otherwise, weak evidence will only erode the argument.
 Name and define the evidence only as comprehensively as the scope of the speech
allows; dense supporting materials can actually confuse your audience by
overwhelming them with too much or too deeply defined evidence.
Key Terms
 evidence: The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or
proposition is true or valid.

Evidence refers to the available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or
proposition is true. The facts and information affirm the validity of the idea. To understand it in the
opposite, to lack evidence is to lack the validity of a belief or idea. Evidence builds credibility.

As the name suggests, evidential appeals rely on the use of evidence to persuade the audience.
Evidential appeals can be used in both emotional and logical appeals, though the method for delivery
differs. The success or failure of the appeal depends on how well the evidence has been defined and laid
out for the audience.

In the context of persuasive speaking, evidence can be evaluated for its persuasive ability in the
following three ways:
1. Accuracy: The evidence must be truthfully constructed and defined. For example, if an argument
hinges on the premise that grass is purple, no rhetorical technique will be able to persuade the
audience. Evidence must be accurate to be credible, as its credibility rests on its accuracy.
2. Audience Understanding: Evidence must be presented completely, but in a manner that the
audience can comprehend. For example, an evidential appeal that uses rising carbon dioxide
levels as evidence for stricter pollution regulation will not be effective if the audience does not
know what carbon dioxide is or why it is bad for the environment. The audience must be able to
understand the evidence before it is used in an appeal.
3. Relevant Context: The evidence must be defined within the context of the appeal. A textbook
definition of the different types of bonds between the atoms of carbon dioxide is not relevant
information for why the tax rate should be lowered.

Information used in evidential appeals must serve two purposes at once. First, it must be
complete enough that it strengthens the appeal. If the evidence is weak, incomplete, or irrelevant, it
does not help the appeal, and may even hurt its persuasiveness. Secondly, the evidence must be defined
only as comprehensively as necessary. The purpose of an evidential appeal is to persuade the audience;
overwhelming the audience with too much information or evidence may only confuse them.
a. Deploying Evidence
Deploy accurate, relevant, and thorough evidence strategically in order to most
effectively argue your point.

Key Points
 When crafting your speech, consider the following three areas: accuracy,
relevance, and thoroughness.
 Make sure that your evidence, be it facts, statistics, personal testimony, or other
pieces of information, comes from credible sources.
 Make sure your evidence is directly related to the points you are trying to make
while also anticipating competing evidence that may contradict your line of
reasoning.
 By thorough by fully explaining and defining your evidence to your audience, but
don’t overwhelm them in the process.
Key Terms
 Accuracy: Exact conformity to truth, or to a rule or model; degree of conformity of a
measure to a true or standard value.
 evidence: The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or
proposition is true or valid.
 thorough: painstaking and careful not to miss or omit any detail

When using evidential appeals in your persuasive speech, make sure to deploy evidence
strategically in order to most effectively argue your point.

Gathering Evidence: In persuasive speaking, the speaker must gather and deploy evidence
strategically.

Strategies for Deploying Evidence Effectively

As you craft your persuasive speech, ask yourself the following questions:
 Is My Evidence Accurate?
 It can’t hurt to double check. Make sure that your evidence, be it facts, statistics, personal
testimony, or other pieces of information, comes from credible sources. How do you know if
it’s a credible source? If they are well-known, respected leaders or sources of information in
a given field, you can be fairly confident in their credibility. As for web sources, make sure
the site you’re accessing is impartial and unbiased. It’s also helpful to anticipate any
questions your audience may have about your evidence, including any challenges they may
make to its credibility or accuracy.
 Is My Evidence  Relevant?
 Just how well does your evidence actually back up your argument? Just because it might be
believable to you does not mean it will be as compelling to another. That disconnect might
occur when your evidence is not actually relevant to your argument. Make sure your
evidence is directly related to the points you are trying to make. Likewise, your audience
may have evidence of their own to contradict your line of reasoning; anticipate these
contradictions and argue your point with evidence to counter their disagreements. In short,
 keep your evidence relevant, but make sure to have more up your sleeve if needed to
further prove your point.
 Is My Evidence Thorough?
 Sometimes your case may not be compelling simply because you haven’t fully supported
your thesis. Your evidence may only skim the surface. It’s a fine balance between thoroughly
explaining and defining your evidence to your audience and overwhelming them in the
process. In this regard, it’s important to have a comprehensive understanding about the
knowledge base of your audience. Let the lowest level of understanding in your audience
dictate how thorough you need to be; at the same time, don’t over-explain or get into so
much depth that you lose more of your audience than you win over.

b. Ethical Usage: Considering Other Viewpoints

Persuasive speakers have an ethical duty to consider opposing viewpoints and evidence
before being sure that theirs are correct.

Key Points
 The same evidence can be interpreted differently by different people.
 Falsified evidence (intentionally or unintentionally) is unethical to use. Finding
false evidence that is due to statistical fallacy can only be found after deep
critique.
 If an argument can withstand the honest critique of an opponent and is based on
true and complete evidence, then the appeal is on sound ethical ground.
Key Terms
 fallacy: An error in reasoning often due to a misconception or a presumption; used
in informal discourse to mean an argument which is problematic for any reason

The honest consideration of other viewpoints is an ethical duty if you are a persuasive
speaker seeking to convince the audience of something you believe to be true. You may
be making the wrong conclusion based on the evidence or your evidence may be
flawed, both of which can be shown by examining other views. Perhaps you and your
opponent are using the same evidence but come to different conclusions. If you are able
to consider other viewpoints and still believe in your original view, then you are ethically
able to attempt to persuade others.

Different Viewpoints:

Political debates highlight how people can interpret the same evidence different ways
and come to opposing views.
As a persuasive speaker, there is always an incentive to invent, or even just fudge evidence so as
to strengthen your appeal and weaken opposing viewpoints. However, this is akin to lying, and
clearly unethical.

Furthermore, evidence must generally be accepted only after intense scrutiny. Statistics,
and many types of evidence, do not fall neatly into the category of “true” or “false.” While there
 are some undeniable truths, such as the fact that the earth is round, there are many more that
fall into a gray area. This is due to the fact that evidence comes from a process which may be
flawed. When the process is flawed, there may be a statistical fallacy. For example, if a survey
asks skewed questions, the results may not reflect the truth. Though many researches,
scientists, pollsters, and investigators do their best to avoid fallacies, the possibility always exists
that one may be proven.

Since it is very easy to unintentionally lie by not explaining all the nuances of the
evidence and it is very easy to use evidence that may contain fallacies, it is the duty of every
speaker to consider the viability of opposing viewpoints before rejecting them. It is your ethical
duty to allow others to criticize your viewpoints because if your argument is truly sound and you
are truly making the appeal to convince the audience of something that you believe to be true
based on all the evidence, then your evidence should be able to withstand the scrutiny.

D. Logical Appeals
Different Lines of Reasoning
Apply two different lines of reasoning—inductive and deductive—to consciously make
sense of observations and reason with the audience.

Key Points
 Inductive reasoning, also known as induction, is a kind of reasoning that
constructs general propositions that are derived from specific examples.
 Inductive reasoning is probabilistic; it only states that, given the premises, the
conclusion is probable.
 One important aspect of inductive reasoning is associative reasoning: seeing or
noticing similarity among the different events or objects that you observe.
 Deductive reasoning is the process of reasoning from one or more general
statements, laws, or principles regarding what is known, in order to reach a
logically certain conclusion.
Key Terms
 syllogism: An inference in which one proposition (the conclusion) follows
necessarily from two other propositions, known as the premises.
 inductive reasoning: A kind of reasoning that constructs or evaluates general
propositions that are derived from specific examples. Inductive reasoning
contrasts with deductive reasoning, in which specific examples are derived from
general propositions.
 deductive reasoning: The process of reasoning that uses given true premises to
reach a conclusion that is also true. Deductive reasoning contrasts with inductive
reasoning.

Reason is the capacity for consciously making sense of things. Reason, or “reasoning,” is associated with
thinking, cognition, and intelligence. It is the means by which rational beings understand cause and
effect, truth and falsehood, validity, and what is good or bad. The result is a reason that could then be
used to explain or justify some event, phenomenon, or behavior.
As you develop arguments for your persuasive speech, you are likely to engage in two different
lines of reasoning: inductive, which uses associations, and deductive.

A. Inductive Reasoning and Associative Reasoning

Inductive reasoning, also known as induction, is a kind of reasoning that constructs general
propositions that are derived from specific examples based on previous observations. One important
aspect of inductive reasoning is associative reasoning: seeing or noticing similarity among the different
events or objects that you observe. For example, if you throw a ball in the air and it comes back down,
again and again, you observe the same event happening and are likely to conclude that when you kick a
ball in the air, it will come back down.

Inductive reasoning is probabilistic; it only states that, given the premises, the conclusion
is probable. Consider these simple logical statements, known as syllogisms. Here is a statistical syllogism
to illustrate inductive reasoning:
1. 90% of humans are right-handed.
2. Joe is a human.
3. Therefore, the probability that Joe is right-handed is 90%. If you were required to guess, you
would choose “right-handed” in the absence of any other evidence.

Here is another stronger example:

100% of life forms that we know of depend on liquid water to exist. Therefore, if you discover a new
life form, it will probably depend on liquid water to exist.

This argument could have been made every time a new life form was found, and would have
been correct every time. While it is possible that in the future a life form that does not require water will
be discovered, in the absence of other factors, the conclusion is probably correct, as it has been in the
past.
Inductive reasoning is used to determine properties or relationships based on previous
observations or experiences, and then to formulate general statements or laws based on limited
observations of recurring phenomenal patterns. The conclusion of an inductive argument follows with
some degree of probability.
Inductive reasoning involves association or analogical reasoning. In order to engage in inductive
reasoning, we must observe, see similarities, and make associations between conceptual entities. The
ability to structure our perceptions relies on the associative network in our brain, which allows us see
the likeness and form a concept, about the similarities.

Deductive and Inductive Reasoning: There are key differences between deductive and inductive reasoning.
B. Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning, also called deductive logic, is the process of reasoning from one or more
general statements, laws, or principles regarding what is known, in order to reach a logically certain
conclusion. Deductive reasoning involves using given, true premises to reach a conclusion that is also
true. If you accept or know the general principle as true, then you can apply it to the specific case to
conclude that it is also true.
Consider the general principle of the law a gravity: what goes up must come down. Now, when
you throw the ball in the air, you conclude that it will fall down based on your knowledge of the general
law of gravity. Deductive reasoning contrasts with inductive reasoning in that a specific conclusion is
arrived at from the general principle when reasoning deductively. If the rules and logic of deduction are
followed, this procedure ensures an accurate conclusion.

Here is a classic example of a deductive argument:

1. All men are mortal.
2. John is a man.
3. Therefore, John is mortal.

The first premise states that all objects classified as “men” have the attribute “mortal. The second
premise states that “John” is classified as a “man”—a member of the class or group of “men.” The
conclusion then states that “John” must be “mortal” because he inherits this attribute from his
classification as a “man. ” If both premises are true, the terms are clear, and the rules of deductive logic
are followed, then the conclusion of the argument follows by logical necessity.

Conclusion
In summary, with inductive reasoning, you are making observations of specific or particular
events and then drawing a general conclusion; whereas with deductive reasoning, you are starting with
a general statement and applying it to particular instances when you draw your final conclusion about a
particular instance, person, or object.

C. Deploying a Rational Appeal

A rational appeal uses logical arguments and factual evidence to persuade individuals.
 Key Points
 Deploying rational appeals focuses on reasoning and how you use evidence to reason with
your audience and invention, how arguments are formed based on the classical proof of
logos –rational appeal and logic.
 The burden of proof is on you the speaker to develop the right appeals for the particular
audience.
 When deploying deductive reasoning consider whether or not the audience is likely to
accept the general premise as valid and true before you attempt to deduce other ideas or
courses of action based on the general premise.
 When deploying inductive reasoning consider if you have observed or collected enough
evidence to draw a highly probable conclusion.
 When deploying associative reasoning, you will want to make sure that the ideas are
indeed similar and that there are not obvious or outstanding differences which would
negate the association you propose.
 As you deploy a rational appeal consider if your reasoning is sound, whether the audience
will accept your evidence and reasoning, and what objections the audience might raise so
you can address the most significant points of disagreement in your message.
Key Terms
 Invention: the formulation of arguments based on logos–rational appeal or logic.

Forming a Rational Appeal

A rational appeal uses logical arguments and factual evidence to persuade individuals that
whatever thesis you are supporting is viable and likely to result in the obtainment of goals. When you
focus on rational appeals you are dealing with the mind and cognition of the audience.

The Mind: When you focus on rational appeals, you are dealing with the audience’s mind and cognition.
The study of rhetoric has historically focused on three types of persuasive appeals– ethos,  pathos, and
logos. Our focus on reasoning and how you to use evidence to reason with your audience is part of the
study of logos. Additionally, you are concerned with invention,  which is the first of the five canons of
rhetoric identified by Cicero, the classical Roman rhetorician. Invention is how you formulate arguments
based on logos–rational appeal or logic.

When you appeal to reason you use logically constructed arguments using your evidence to
persuade your audience to agree with you. You might use many different forms of evidence to support
your rational appeal. Basically, the burden of proof is on you the speaker as you develop your appeals to
the audience. As you deploy a rational appeal consider: Is my reasoning sound, and what will the
audience accept as a believable evidence?

Is Your Reasoning Sound?

Prior to your speech, it is important to consider the soundness of your evidence and reasoning.

Deductive reasoning: For example, if you are engaging in deductive reasoning, you will want to consider
whether or not the audience is likely to accept the general premise as valid and true before you attempt
to deduce other ideas or courses of action based on the general premise.
 If you are quoting an authority and drawing conclusions from the authority, it is important to ask
if the audience will accept or believe the authority. Remember to quote or use sources that the
audience is familiar and will believe; using other authorities or sources will likely not be productive.

Inductive reasoning: If you are engaging in inductive reasoning, you will want to consider whether you
have observed or collected enough evidence to draw a highly probable conclusion. Or, did you draw a
hasty conclusion based on too few examples or observations?

If you are using statistical evidence as part of your inductive reasoning, it is important to
consider how the data was collected and whether it is truly valid. If you do not have valid statistical
data, then the inductions will not be valid. Before using any data, ask:
 Is the source biased, or perceived as biased?
 Is the source competent in the field being consulted?
 Is the information current?

Associative reasoning (analogy): When engaging in associative reasoning, you will want to make sure
that the ideas are indeed similar and that there are no obvious or outstanding differences which would
negate the association in the mind of your audience.

Address Resistance and Concerns of the Audience

Finally, in persuasive situations it is important to anticipate the potential resistance and
counterarguments your audience might feel. When you have a sense of what objections the audience
might raise, you can and should address the most significant points of disagreement in your message.
Arguments from reason (logical arguments) have some advantages, namely that data are
(ostensibly) difficult to manipulate, so it is harder to argue against such an argument; and such
arguments make the speaker look prepared and knowledgeable to the audience, enhancing ethos. In
addition, if you have built ethos with the audience then it will enhance your appeal with arguments from
reason.

D. Logical Fallacies
A fallacy is an error in reasoning; there are two basic categories of fallacies–formal and informal.

Key Points
 “Formal” refers to the form of the argument. An argument that contains a formal fallacy
will always be invalid. However, even if a premise is not accurate, the formal conclusion
could still be valid if the rules of logic are followed.
 An informal fallacy is an error in reasoning that occurs due to a problem with the content,
rather than mere structure, of the argument and is often due to a misconception or a
presumption.
 Common Fallacy–hasty generalization: argues from limited examples or a special case to a
create general rule that applies to many cases.
 Common Fallacy–Popular sentiment or bandwagon appeal (argumentum ad populum):
appeal to the majority; appeal to loyalty, “Everyone is doing it”.
  Common Fallacy–If it comes before, it is the cause, post hoc ergo propter hoc: believing
that temporal succession implies a causal relation.
 Common Fallacy–Two events co-occurring is not causation, cum hoc ergo propter hoc:
believing that correlation implies a causal relation.
Key Terms
 fallacy: An error in reasoning often due to a misconception or a presumption; used in
informal discourse to mean an argument which is problematic for any reason
 straw man: An insubstantial concept, idea, endeavor or argument, particularly one
deliberately set up to be weakly supported, so that it can be easily knocked down;
especially, to impugn the strength of any related thing or idea.
 red herring: A clue or information that is or is intended to be misleading, that diverts
attention from a question; often thought to relate to using smelly fish to train dogs to
recognize the real scent of something they were supposed to be tracking.

Errors in reasoning–formal and informal

A fallacy is an error in reasoning. There are two basic categories of fallacies–formal and informal.

1. Formal Fallacies
Formal fallacies occur when there is a problem with the form, or structure, of the
argument. “Formal”  refers to the form of the argument. An argument that contains a formal fallacy will
always be invalid.

Consider an example with a visualization of faulty reasoning involving categorical deduction.

Categorical Deduction: Deductive reasoning can be  valid, while  the major premise is not valid.
1. All flowers are animals.
2. All animals can jump.
3. Therefore, all flowers can jump.

Even though it is quite obvious that the first premise is not true and further that the conclusion
is not true, the whole syllogism is still valid. By applying formal logic to the syllogism in the example, the
conclusion is still valid.

2. Informal Fallacies
An informal fallacy is an error in reasoning that occurs due to a problem with the  content, rather
than mere structure, of the argument. In informal logic and rhetoric, a fallacy is usually an error in
reasoning often due to a misconception or a presumption. Some of the more frequent common logical
fallacies are:
 Converse fallacy of accidental or hasty generalization: argues from limited examples or a
special case to a general rule.  Argument: Every person I’ve met has ten fingers, therefore, all
people have ten fingers. Problem: Those, who have been met. are not a representative subset
of the entire set.
 Making the argument personal (argumentum ad hominem): attacking or discrediting the
opposition’s character. Argument: What do you know about the U.S? You aren’t even a
 citizen. Problem: personal argument against an opponent, instead of against the opponent’s
argument.
 Popular sentiment or bandwagon appeal (argumentum ad populum): an appeal to the
majority; appeal to loyalty.  Argument: Everyone is doing it. Problem: Concludes a proposition
to be true because many or most people believe it.
 Red herring (Ignoratio Elenchi): intentionally or unintentionally misleading or distracting from
the actual issue. Argument: I think that we should make the academic requirements stricter
for students. I recommend that you support this because we are in a budget crisis and we do
not want our salaries affected.  Problem: Here the second sentence, though used to support
the first, does not address the topic of the first sentence, instead switching the focus to the
quite different topic.
 Fallacy of false cause (non sequitur): incorrectly assumes one thing is the cause of another.
Non Sequitur is Latin for “It does not follow.” Argument: I hear the rain falling outside my
window; therefore, the sun is not shining. Problem: The conclusion is false because the sun
can shine while it is raining.
 If it comes before it is the cause (post hoc ergo propter hoc): believing that temporal
succession implies a causal relation. Argument: It rained just before the car died. The rain
caused the car to break down.  Problem: There may be no connection between the two
events.
 Two events co-occurring is not causation (cum hoc ergo propter hoc): believing that
correlation implies a causal relation. Argument: More cows die in the summer. More ice
cream is consumed in summer months. Therefore, the consumption of ice cream in the
summer is killing cows. Problem: No premise suggests the ice cream consumption is causing
the deaths. The deaths and consumption could be unrelated, or something else could be
causing both, such as summer heat.
 Fallacy of many questions or loaded question (Plurium Interrogationum): groups more than
one question in the form of a single question. Argument: Have you stopped beating your
wife? Problem: Either a yes or no answer is an admission of guilt to beating your wife.
 Straw man: creates the illusion of having refuted a proposition by replacing it with a
superficially similar proposition (the “straw man”), and refuting it, without ever actually
refuting the original. Argument: Person A: Sunny days are good Person B: If all days were
sunny, we’d never have rain, and without rain, we’d have famine and death. Therefore, you
are wrong.  Problem: B has misrepresented A’s claim by falsely suggesting that A claimed
that only sunny days are good, and then B refuted the misrepresented version of the claim,
rather than refuting A’s original assertion.
 The false dilemma or either-or fallacy: the listener is forced to make a choice between two
things which are not really related or relevant. Argument: If you are not with us, you are
against us. Problem: The presentation of a false choice often reflects a deliberate attempt to
eliminate any middle ground.
 Card-stacking, or cherry picking: deliberate action is taken to bias an argument by selective
use of facts with opposing evidence being buried or discredited. Argument: Learn new skills,
become a leader and see the world. Problem: Only the positive benefits of military service are
used to recruit, and not the hazards.
As a speaker you want to carefully consider your reasoning and how you draw your logical conclusions in
order to avoid faulty reasoning.

E. Emotional Appeals
Defining Emotional Appeal
An emotional appeal is used to sway the emotions of an audience to make them support the
speaker’s argument.
Key Points
 Pathos represents an appeal to the emotions of an audience.
 An emotional appeal uses the manipulation of the emotions rather than valid logic to win
an argument.
 Emotional appeal is a logical fallacy, whereby a debater attempts to win an argument by
trying to get an emotional reaction from the opponent and audience.
 In debating terms, emotional appeals are often effective as a rhetorical device, but are
generally considered naive or dishonest as a logical argument, since they often appeal to
the prejudices of listeners rather than offer a sober assessment of a situation.
Key Terms
 logical fallacy: A fallacy; a clearly defined error in reasoning used to support or refute an
argument, excluding simple unintended mistakes.

Pathos represents an appeal to the audience’s emotions. Pathos is a communication technique

used most often in rhetoric (where it is considered one of the three modes of persuasion, alongside
ethos and logos), and in literature, film, and other narrative art.

Emotional appeal can be accomplished in a multitude of ways:

 By a metaphor or storytelling, common as a hook
 By a general passion in the delivery
 By an overall emotion
 By the sympathies of the speech or writing as determined by the audience

The pathos of a speech or writing is only ultimately determined by the audience.

The Purpose of an Emotional Appeal

An emotional appeal is directed to sway an audience member’s emotions and uses the
manipulation of the recipient’s emotions rather than valid logic to win an argument. An emotional
appeal uses emotions as the basis of an argument’s position without factual evidence that logically
supports the major ideas endorsed by the presenter. In an emotional appeal, persuasive language is
used to develop the foundation of an appeal to emotion-based arguments instead of facts. Therefore,
the validity of the premises that establish such an argument does not prove to be verifiable.
Emotional Appeal: A picture like this could be used as an emotional appeal for a charity campaign to
increase funding for soldiers’ families.

Emotional appeal is a logical fallacy, whereby a debater attempts to win an argument by trying
to get an emotional reaction from the opponent and audience. It is generally characterized by the use of
loaded language and concepts (God, country, and apple pie being good concepts; drugs and crime being
bad ones). In debating terms, emotional appeals are often effective as a rhetorical device, but are
generally considered naive or dishonest as a logical argument, since they often appeal to the prejudices
of listeners rather than offer a sober assessment of a situation.

Examples of Emotional Appeals

Children are more often than not toddled out as an appeal to emotion. From pictures of starving
children to motivate people to give to charity to using them as any excuse to ban things that children
shouldn’t even be aware of (e.g., guns), they are repeatedly paraded in front of audiences to appeal to
their emotional protective instincts, often overriding anyone’s sense of rationality. “For the children” or
“think of the children” as emotional appeals have been used with success in passing political motions
such as Proposition Hate in California.
As with children, cute animals override most people’s logic. Even if the pictures of animal testing
put out by PETA are 50 years out of date, they still provoke an emotional response rather than a
reasoned one when trying to assess cruelty in animal testing.

F. Producing an Emotional Appeal

Finding words to match the speech context and audience’s disposition is essential to producing
an effective emotional appeal.

Key Points
 Producing an emotional appeal requires an understanding of your audience and what may
strike their emotions the most.
 An effective way to create emotional appeal is to use words that have a lot of pathos
associated with them. Pathos is an emotional appeal used in rhetoric that depicts certain
emotional states.
 An example of a speech that is particularly effective at producing an emotional response
with its listeners is Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech. The speech uses
rhetoric to convey the point of equal opportunity for all people.
Key Terms
 pathos: An appeal to the audience’s emotions.
 Disposition: A habit, a preparation, a state of readiness, or a tendency to act in a specified
way.
 rhetoric: The art of using language, especially public speaking, as a means to persuade.

Producing an Emotional Appeal

Producing an emotional appeal requires an understanding of your audience and what may strike
their emotions the most.
For example, if you are giving a speech at an event to raise money for a children’s hospital, it
would be appropriate to use an appeal to emotions relating to children. For instance, the speaker could
use an emotionally charged anecdote about a child who was sick and was cured at this hospital. This
story stresses the value that the hospital had on improving the child’s health.
Emotional Appeals: Martin Luther King, Jr.’s speech “I Have a Dream” effectively produced an emotional
response from the audience.

In general, an effective way to create emotional appeal is to use words that have a lot of pathos
associated with them. Pathos is an emotional appeal used in rhetoric that depicts certain emotional
states. Some examples of “pathos” charged words include: strong, powerful, tragic, equality, freedom,
and liberty. These words can be used in a speech to intensify an emotional appeal to an audience.

The Emotional Appeals in “I Have a Dream”

An example of a speech that is particularly effective at producing an emotional response with its
listeners is Martin Luther King, Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech.
The speech uses rhetoric to convey the point of equal opportunity for all people. It is considered
by many as a prime example of successful rhetoric and emotional appeal.
In the speech, Martin Luther King Jr. weaves current events into the fabric of American history,
underscoring the tragedy with biblical rhetoric. King hinges his call for change on three refrains, or
repeated phrases. He frames his vision for the future with the famous phrase, “I have a dream.”
As his speech draws to a close, he wills his vision to become reality across the country, moving
on to the refrain, “Let freedom ring!” He closes his speech with the repeated line, “Free at last!” King
articulates cruel injustices, leads us in imagining a world without those injustices, and then appeals to
his audience emotions through these phrases and the idea of a world with equal opportunity.

G. Ethical Usage
When you make emotional appeals avoid unethical tactics, such as exploitative manipulation.

Key Points
 Ethos (plural: ethe) is an appeal to the authority or honesty of the presenter.
 Emotional appeals will encourage the audience to identify with your message on a visceral
level, bypassing intellectual filters, such as skepticism and logic.
 It may be appealing to take a shortcut to making the audience sympathize with your point
of view. However, emotional appeals don’t always hold up well after the fact–so fortify
your emotional appeal by engaging the intellect, too.
Key Terms
 ethics: The study of principles relating to right and wrong conduct.
 manipulation: The usage of psychological influence over a person or situation to gain a
positive outcome.
 ethos: A rhetorical appeal to an audience based on the speaker/writer’s credibility.

Ethical Usage
Emotional appeals are very powerful. When you stir sympathy in your listeners, you encourage
them to identify with your message on a visceral level, bypassing intellectual filters, such as skepticism
and logic.
However, this may be unethical because you are not allowing your listeners to logically consider
your argument and rationally determine how they would react to your argument in absence of an
emotional appeal.
 It may be appealing to take a shortcut toward making the audience sympathize with your point
of view. An emotional appeal may save you the trouble of working out a good argument. However,
emotional appeals don’t always hold up well after the fact when your audience has had a chance to
process your message.
Therefore, be sure to substantiate your emotional appeal with both logic and facts.

Emotional Manipulation
Since emotional appeals are very strong, they can sometimes be used inappropriately in order to gain
something from the audience members.

For example, an emotional appeal could be used in a political rally to persuade people to vote
for the candidate, especially if the vote will happen in the next few days. This emotional appeal may
persuade audience members to vote for you or your candidate, but it may also be unethical or
considered manipulative if the audience members do not have a chance to rationally process the
message before the vote takes place.
This is especially critical for situations, such as politics, which people generally have emotionally
charged opinions about.
Some inappropriate uses of manipulative techniques of emotional appeals include:
 Lying or lying by omission: telling outright falsehoods or misleading by leaving out crucial
pieces of information.
 Denial: refusing to admit that you or your affiliates have done anything wrong.
 Covert intimidation: using subtle, indirect or implied threats.
 Guilt tripping: suggesting that the audience does not care enough, is too selfish, or has it easy.
Guilt tripping encourages self-doubt and submissive behavior.
 Shaming: using tactics, such as direct criticism, a fierce look or glance, an unpleasant tone of
voice, rhetorical comments, and subtle sarcasm to undermine audience members.
 Playing the victim: putting on the role of a victim of circumstances or the bad behavior of
others in order to evoke sympathy.
 Vilifying the victim: acting as though the victim of the bad behavior of your (or your
associates) did something to deserve negative consequences.
 Seduction: using charm, praise, and flattery to manipulate others.

In order to ethically portray an emotional appeal, be sure to avoid these inappropriate uses and
manipulative techniques for emotional appeals. Emotional appeals can be effective if they are not
manipulative and are used to further an honest message.

How to Prove that You are Ethical

Ethos (plural: ethe) is an appeal to the authority or honesty of the presenter. It is how well the presenter
convinces the audience that he or she is qualified to present (speak) on the particular subject. It can be
done in many ways:
 By being a notable figure in the field in question, such as a college professor or an executive of
a company whose business is that of the subject.
 By having a vested interest in a matter, such as the person being related to the subject in
question.
 By using impressive logos that show the audience that the speaker is knowledgeable on the
topic.
 By appealing to a person’s ethics or character.