Fundamental Vehicle Loads & Their Estimation

• The simplified loads can only be applied in the preliminary design stage
when the absence of test or simulation data

• They should always be qualified and updated as more information
becomes available

VEHICLE OPERATING CONDITIONS & PROVING GROUND TESTS
• The significant proving ground events can be divided into two types:
a) Instantaneous overloads (large pot holes, kerb bump, large bump,
panic braking, high g cornering, service loads)
b) Fatigue damage ( medium size pot holes, Belgium block road,
twist course, Cobblestone track, service loads)

Example of service loads: towing,  jacking, hoisting
 LOADS CASES & LOAD FACTORS

• The vehicle designer needs to know the worst or most damaging loads in order 
to:
a) ensure the structure does not fail in service due to instantaneous overload 

b) ensure a satisfactory fatigue life

• Common assumption at early design stage:
If the structure can resist the worst possible loads then it is likely to have
sufficient fatigue strength

• For early design calculation, the actual dynamic loading is often replaced
by a factored static loading:
Pdyn = Pst x M

Or sometimes an extra FOS is used;  Pdyn = Pst x M x FOS

SYMMETRIC VERTICAL LOADS

Pzs = mzs (Gc − Gnr ) (kg)

Pzs = the vertical force (kg)

mzs = 2.5 for private cars,
2.5 for busses,
3.0 for lorries
Gc = total weight of the car (kg)
Gnr = weight of unsprung mass (kg)
ASYMMETRIC VERTICAL LOADS

Pzn = mzns (Gc − Gnr ) (kg)

Pzn = the asymmetric vertical force (kg)

mzns = 1.3 for private cars,
1.3 for busses,
1.5 for lorries
Gc = total weight of the car (kg)
Gnr = weight of unsprung mass (kg)
ASYMMETRIC VERTICAL LOADS (cont.)

⎛ rp ⎞
M s = mzns (R pp − R pl )⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (kg.m)
⎝2⎠
Ms = torque (kg.m)
mzns = 1.3 for private cars,
1.3 for busses,
1.5 for lorries
(Rpp – Rpl) = difference of forces
on the front wheels
(kg)
ASYMMETRIC VERTICAL LOADS (cont.)

For single bump:

⎛ rp ⎞ ⎛ rp ⎞ ⎛ rp ⎞
h1 = f og + f rp ⎜ ⎟ + f og ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + f rt ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (mm)
⎜z ⎟
⎝ p⎠ ⎝ rt ⎠ ⎝ zt ⎠

fog = deflection of the tyres (mm)

fr = deflection of the springs (mm)
r = the track width (mm)
z = the width between suspension
attachments (mm)
ASYMMETRIC VERTICAL LOADS (cont.)

For double bump:

⎛r⎞
h 2 = f og + f r ⎜ ⎟ (mm)
⎝z⎠

fog = deflection of the tyres (mm)

fr = deflection of the springs (mm)
r = the track width (mm)
z = the width between suspension
attachments (mm)
 ASYMMETRIC VERTICAL LOADS (cont.)

Maximum heights of actual road surface bumps

Bump Type of vehicle

Height
Cars Buses Lorries
Hr, mm ±200 ±250 ±300
 ASYMMETRIC VERTICAL LOADS (cont.)

If h1,2 < Hr, then one wheel may leave the road surface. The force
acting on each wheel and the torque acting on the car body are given
as:
R pl = 0
R pp = mzns R p
⎛ Rt − R pp ⎞⎛ rp ⎞
Rtl = mzns ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ rt ⎠
⎛ Rt + R pp ⎞⎛ rp ⎞
Rtp = mzns ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ rt ⎠
⎛ R p rp ⎞
M s = mzns ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
 ASYMMETRIC VERTICAL LOADS (cont.)

If h1,2 > Hr, then the force acting on each wheel and the torque acting
on the car body are given as:

⎛ R p ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ H r ⎞⎤
R pl = mzns ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎥
⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ h1, 2 ⎠⎥⎦
⎛ R p ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ H r ⎞⎤
R pp = mzns ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎥
⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ h1, 2 ⎠⎥⎦
⎡⎛ Rt ⎞ ⎛ R p ⎞⎛ H r ⎞⎛ rp ⎞⎤
Rtl = mzns ⎢⎜ ⎟ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎥
⎟⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ h1, 2 ⎠⎝ rt ⎠⎥⎦
⎡⎛ Rt ⎞ ⎛ R p ⎞⎛ H r ⎞⎛ rp ⎞⎤
Rtp = mzns ⎢⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎥
⎟⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ h1, 2 ⎠⎝ rt ⎠⎥⎦
⎛ rp ⎞⎛ H r ⎞
M s = mzns R p ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ h1, 2 ⎠
For single bump: If h1,2 < Hr, then one wheel may
⎛ rp ⎞ leave the road surface. The force
⎛ rp ⎞ ⎛ rp ⎞
h1 = f og + f rp ⎜ ⎟ + f og ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + f rt ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (mm) acting on each wheel and the
⎜z ⎟
⎝ p⎠ ⎝ rt ⎠ ⎝ zt ⎠ torque acting on the car body are
given as:
fog = deflection of the tyres (mm)
fr = deflection of the springs (mm) R pl = 0
r = the track width (mm) R pp = mzns R p
z = the width between suspension
attachments (mm) ⎛ R − R pp ⎞⎛ rp ⎞
Rtl = mzns ⎜⎜ t ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ rt ⎠
⎛ R + R pp ⎞⎛ rp ⎞
Rtp = mzns ⎜⎜ t ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ rt ⎠
⎛R r ⎞
M s = mzns ⎜⎜ p p ⎟⎟
Bump Type of vehicle ⎝ 2 ⎠
Height
Cars Buses Lorries If h1,2 > Hr, then the force acting on
each wheel and the torque acting on
Hr, mm ±200 ±250 ±300 the car body are given as:
⎛ R p ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ H ⎞⎤
R pl = mzns ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢1 + ⎜⎜ r ⎟⎟⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎣⎢ ⎝ h1, 2 ⎠⎦⎥
⎛ R p ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ H ⎞⎤
R pp = mzns ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ r ⎟⎟⎥
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ h1, 2 ⎠⎥⎦
⎡⎛ R ⎞ ⎛ R ⎞⎛ H ⎞⎛ r ⎞⎤
Rtl = mzns ⎢⎜ t ⎟ − ⎜⎜ p ⎟⎟⎜⎜ r ⎟⎟⎜⎜ p ⎟⎟⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ h1, 2 ⎠⎝ rt ⎠⎥⎦
⎡⎛ R ⎞ ⎛ R p ⎞⎛ H ⎞⎛ rp ⎞⎤
Rtp = mzns ⎢⎜ t ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ r ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ h1, 2 ⎠⎝ rt ⎠⎥⎦
⎛ r ⎞⎛ H ⎞
M s = mzns R p ⎜⎜ p ⎟⎟⎜⎜ r ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ h1, 2 ⎠
 LONGITUDINAL LOADS

These loads are caused by braking or accelerating the vehicle or by

driving over a bump.
Px = ± mx (Gc − Gnr ) (kg)

Px = the longitudinal force (kg)

mx = 0.7 to 1.0
Gc = total weight of the car (kg)
Gnr = weight of unsprung mass (kg)
 LONGITUDINAL LOADS (cont.)

The case of a car driving into a bump or kerb:.

Px = mz R p tan θ (kg)

Px = the longitudinal force (kg)

mz = 2.5 for cars
Rp = static load on the front axle (kg)

The angle θ is obtained as follows:

⎡ ⎛ Hr ⎞⎤
θ = sin ⎢1 − ⎜⎜
−1
⎟⎟⎥
⎣ ⎝ rd ⎠⎦
rd is the dynamic radius of the wheel
(from tyre catalogue data) and Hr is
the actual height of road surface bump.
SIDE LOADS

Side loads arise from driving on a

curved track, or through a sideways
collision with an obstruction.
The maximum possible loading from
the centrifugal force C is determined by
the relationship between the wheel
track and the height of the centre of
gravity:

r Cb
tan γ = =
2 Z sc mzs Gc

r= track width (mm)

Zsc = height of centre of gravity (mm)
Cb = lateral component of the
inertial force (kg)
mzs = 2.5 for cars
Gc = total weight of the car (kg)
SIDE LOADS (cont.)

The loads at the suspension

attachment points, front and rear, are
⎛ r ⎞
Cb = R y = mzs Gc ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (kg)
⎝ 2 Z sc ⎠
⎛ r ⎞⎛ Lt ⎞
R py = mzs Gc ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (kg)
⎝ sc ⎠⎝ Lo ⎠
2 Z
⎛ r ⎞⎛ L p ⎞
Rty = mzs Gc ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (kg)
⎝ 2Z sc ⎠⎝ Lo ⎠

Lo = the wheelbase (mm)

Lt = the distance of the centre of
gravity from the rear axle (mm)
Lp = the distance of the centre of
gravity from the front axle (mm)
 STRESS ANALYSIS

Vehicle structures are divided into three types:

(i) closed integral structures

(ii) open integral structures
(iii) flat or punt-type structures

The idealistion of The idealistion of The idealistion of

a closed integral an open integral a flat or punt-type
structure. structure. structure.
STRESS ANALYSIS (cont.)

(i) Closed Integral Structures

A structure is closed if the main design
surfaces form a closed system and if
shear forces occur between them when
loaded in torsion.

Figure (b) shows the distribution of

edge forces when this closed integral
structure is under torsional loading.

The application of torque Ms onto the

structural surface ABCD produces
edge forces K1, K2, etc. in all surfaces
and also produces the reaction Ms on
the surface A’B’C’D’.
STRESS ANALYSIS (cont.)

(i) Closed Integral Structures (cont.)

Figure (c) shows the distribution of

edge forces when this closed integral
structure is under bending.
STRESS ANALYSIS (cont.)

(ii) Open Integral Structures

A structure is open if it lacks the upper
or the front and rear structural surfaces
and if edge shear forces do not arise
between all the surfaces.

Figure (a) shows the open integral

structure open at the top.

Figure (b) shows the distribution of

edge forces when the structure is
under torsion.
STRESS ANALYSIS (cont.)

(ii) Open Integral Structures (cont.)

Figure (c) shows the distribution of
edge forces when the structure is in
bending.
 STRESS ANALYSIS (cont.)
a)
(ii) Open Integral Structures (cont.)
Figure (a) shows the idealisation of a
vehicle structure open front and rear.

Figure (b) shows the distribution of

forces in torsion.
 STRESS ANALYSIS (cont.)
a)
(ii) Open Integral Structures (cont.)
Figure (a) shows the idealisation of a
vehicle structure open front and rear.

Figure (c) shows the distribution of

forces in bending.
STRESS ANALYSIS (cont.)

(iii) Flat or punt type structures

Figure (a) shows the idealisation of a
flat or punt type vehicle structure.

Figure (b) shows the distribution of

forces in torsion.
STRESS ANALYSIS (cont.)

(iii) Flat or punt type structures (cont.)

Figure (a) shows the idealisation of a
flat or punt type vehicle structure.

Figure (c) shows the distribution of

forces in bending.