Arc welding

Arc welding is a welding process that is used to join metal to metal by

using electricity to create enough heat to melt metal, and the melted
metals when cool result in a binding of the metals. It is a type of welding
that uses a welding power supply to create an electric arc between a
metal stick ("electrode") and the base material to melt the metals at the
point of contact. Arc welders can use either direct (DC) or alternating
(AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes.

The welding area is usually protected by some type of shielding gas,

vapor, or slag. Arc welding processes may be manual, semi-automatic, or
fully automated. First developed in the late part of the 19th century, arc
welding became commercially important in shipbuilding during the
Second World War. Today it remains an important process for the
fabrication of steel structures and vehicles. Gas metal arc welding

Contents
Power supplies
Consumable electrode methods
Non-consumable electrode methods
Corrosion issues Play media
Man welding a metal structure in a
Safety issues
newly constructed house in
Heat, fire, and explosion hazard Bengaluru, India
Eye damage
Inhaled matter
Interference with pacemakers
History
See also
References
Notes
Sources
Further reading
External links

Power supplies
To supply the electrical energy necessary for arc welding processes, a number of different power supplies can
be used. The most common classification is constant current power supplies and constant voltage power
supplies. In arc welding, the voltage is directly related to the length of the arc, and the current is related to the
amount of heat input. Constant current power supplies are most often
used for manual welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding
and shielded metal arc welding, because they maintain a relatively
constant current even as the voltage varies. This is important because
in manual welding, it can be difficult to hold the electrode perfectly
steady, and as a result, the arc length and thus voltage tend to
fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies hold the voltage constant
and vary the current, and as a result, are most often used for
automated welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, flux
cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding. In these processes,
arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in the distance
between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large
change in current. For example, if the wire and the base material get
too close, the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the
heat to increase and the tip of the wire to melt, returning it to its
original separation distance.[1]

The direction of current used in arc welding also plays an important

role in welding. Consumable electrode processes such as shielded
metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding generally use direct Engine driven welder capable of
current, but the electrode can be charged either positively or AC/DC welding.
negatively. In general, the positively charged anode will have a
greater heat concentration (around 60%).[2] "Note that for stick
welding in general, DC+ polarity is most commonly used. It
produces a good bead profile with a higher level of penetration.
DC- polarity results in less penetration and a higher electrode
melt-off rate. It is sometimes used, for example, on thin sheet
metal in an attempt to prevent burn-through."[3] "With few
exceptions, electrode-positive (reversed polarity) results in deeper
penetration. Electrode-negative (straight polarity) results in faster
melt-off of the electrode and, therefore, faster deposition rate."[4]
Non-consumable electrode processes, such as gas tungsten arc
welding, can use either type of direct current (DC), as well as A diesel powered welding generator (the
alternating current (AC). With direct current however, because electric generator is on the left) as used in
the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler Indonesia.
material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds,
while a negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds.[5]
Alternating current rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-penetration welds. One
disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after every zero crossing, has been addressed with
the invention of special power units that produce a square wave pattern instead of the normal sine wave,
eliminating low-voltage time after the zero crossings and minimizing the effects of the problem.[6]

Duty cycle is a welding equipment specification which defines the number of minutes, within a 10-minute
period, during which a given arc welder can safely be used. For example, an 80 A welder with a 60% duty
cycle must be "rested" for at least 4 minutes after 6 minutes of continuous welding.[7] Failure to observe duty
cycle limitations could damage the welder. Commercial- or professional-grade welders typically have a 100%
duty cycle.

Consumable electrode methods

One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal
arc welding (SMAW), which is also known as manual metal arc
welding (MMAW) or stick welding. An electric current is used to
strike an arc between the base material and a consumable
electrode rod or stick. The electrode rod is made of a material that
is compatible with the base material being welded and is covered
with a flux that gives off vapors that serve as a shielding gas and
provide a layer of slag, both of which protect the weld area from
atmospheric contamination. The electrode core itself acts as filler
material, making a separate filler unnecessary. The process is
very versatile, requiring little operator training and inexpensive Shielded metal arc welding
equipment. However, weld times are rather slow, since the
consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced and because
slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after welding.[8] Furthermore, the process is generally
limited to welding ferrous materials, though specialty electrodes have made possible the welding of cast iron,
nickel, aluminium, copper and other metals. The versatility of the method makes it popular in a number of
applications including repair work and construction.[9]

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), commonly called MIG (for metal/inert-gas), is a semi-automatic or
automatic welding process with a continuously fed consumable wire acting as both electrode and filler metal,
along with an inert or semi-inert shielding gas flowed around the wire to protect the weld site from
contamination. Constant voltage, direct current power source is most commonly used with GMAW, but
constant current alternating current are used as well. With continuously fed filler electrodes, GMAW offers
relatively high welding speeds; however the more complicated equipment reduces convenience and versatility
in comparison to the SMAW process. Originally developed for welding aluminium and other non-ferrous
materials in the 1940s, GMAW was soon economically applied to steels. Today, GMAW is commonly used in
industries such as the automobile industry for its quality, versatility and speed. Because of the need to maintain
a stable shroud of shielding gas around the weld site, it can be problematic to use the GMAW process in areas
of high air movement such as outdoors.[10]

Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) is a variation of the GMAW technique. FCAW wire is actually a fine metal
tube filled with powdered flux materials. An externally supplied shielding gas is sometimes used, but often the
flux itself is relied upon to generate the necessary protection from the atmosphere. The process is widely used
in construction because of its high welding speed and portability.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding process in which the arc is struck beneath a
covering layer of granular flux. This increases arc quality, since contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by
the flux. The slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by itself and, combined with the use of a
continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high. Working conditions are much improved over other arc
welding processes since the flux hides the arc and no smoke is produced. The process is commonly used in
industry, especially for large products.[11] As the arc is not visible, it is typically automated. SAW is only
possible in the 1F (flat fillet), 2F (horizontal fillet), and 1G (flat groove) positions.

Non-consumable electrode methods

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or tungsten/inert-gas (TIG) welding, is a manual welding process that
uses a non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, an inert or semi-inert gas mixture, and a separate filler
material. Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is characterized by a stable arc and high
quality welds, but it requires significant operator skill and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds. It
can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often applied to stainless steel and light metals. It is
often used when quality welds are extremely important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and marine applications.[12]
A related process, plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten electrode but uses plasma gas to make the arc. The
arc is more concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control more critical and thus generally
restricting the technique to a mechanized process. Because of its stable current, the method can be used on a
wider range of material thicknesses than can the GTAW process and is much faster. It can be applied to all of
the same materials as GTAW except magnesium; automated welding of stainless steel is one important
application of the process. A variation of the process is plasma cutting, an efficient steel cutting process.[13]

Other arc welding processes include atomic hydrogen welding, carbon arc welding, electroslag welding,
electrogas welding, and stud arc welding.

Corrosion issues
Some materials, notably high-strength steels, aluminium, and titanium alloys, are susceptible to hydrogen
embrittlement. If the electrodes used for welding contain traces of moisture, the water decomposes in the heat
of the arc and the liberated hydrogen enters the lattice of the material, causing its brittleness. Stick electrodes
for such materials, with special low-hydrogen coating, are delivered in sealed moisture-proof packaging. New
electrodes can be used straight from the can, but when moisture absorption may be suspected, they have to be
dried by baking (usually at 450 to 550 °C or 840 to 1,020 °F) in a drying oven. Flux used has to be kept dry as
well.[14]

Some austenitic stainless steels and nickel-based alloys are prone to intergranular corrosion. When subjected to
temperatures around 700 °C (1,300 °F) for too long a time, chromium reacts with carbon in the material,
forming chromium carbide and depleting the crystal edges of chromium, impairing their corrosion resistance in
a process called sensitization. Such sensitized steel undergoes corrosion in the areas near the welds where the
temperature-time was favorable for forming the carbide. This kind of corrosion is often termed weld decay.

Knifeline attack (KLA) is another kind of corrosion affecting welds, impacting steels stabilized by niobium.
Niobium and niobium carbide dissolves in steel at very high temperatures. At some cooling regimes, niobium
carbide does not precipitate, and the steel then behaves like unstabilized steel, forming chromium carbide
instead. This affects only a thin zone several millimeters wide in the very vicinity of the weld, making it
difficult to spot and increasing the corrosion speed. Structures made of such steels have to be heated in a whole
to about 1,000 °C (1,830 °F), when the chromium carbide dissolves and niobium carbide forms. The cooling
rate after this treatment is not important.[15]

Filler metal (electrode material) improperly chosen for the environmental conditions can make them corrosion-
sensitive as well. There are also issues of galvanic corrosion if the electrode composition is sufficiently
dissimilar to the materials welded, or the materials are dissimilar themselves. Even between different grades of
nickel-based stainless steels, corrosion of welded joints can be severe, despite that they rarely undergo galvanic
corrosion when mechanically joined.[16]

Safety issues
Welding can be a dangerous and unhealthy practice without the proper precautions; however, with the use of
new technology and proper protection the risks of injury or death associated with welding can be greatly
reduced.

Heat, fire, and explosion hazard

Because many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or flame, the risk of burns from heat
and sparks is significant. To prevent them, welders wear protective clothing in the form of heavy leather gloves
and protective long sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat, flames, and sparks. The use of
compressed gases and flames in many welding processes also pose an
explosion and fire risk; some common precautions include limiting the
amount of oxygen in the air and keeping combustible materials away
from the workplace.[17]

Eye damage

Exposure to the brightness of the weld area leads to a condition called

arc eye in which ultraviolet light causes inflammation of the cornea
and can burn the retinas of the eyes. Welding goggles and helmets
with dark face plates—much darker than those in sunglasses or oxy-
fuel goggles—are worn to prevent this exposure. In recent years, new
helmet models have been produced featuring a face plate which
automatically self-darkens electronically.[18] To protect bystanders, Welding safety checklist
transparent welding curtains often surround the welding area. These
curtains, made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield nearby
workers from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc.[19]

Inhaled matter

Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate

matter. Processes like flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal arc
welding produce smoke containing particles of various types of
oxides. The size of the particles in question tends to influence the
toxicity of the fumes, with smaller particles presenting a greater
danger. Additionally, many processes produce various gases (most
commonly carbon dioxide and ozone, but others as well) that can
prove dangerous if ventilation is inadequate.

Interference with pacemakers

Auto darkening welding hood with
90×110 mm cartridge and
Certain welding machines which use a high frequency alternating
3.78×1.85 in viewing area
current component have been found to affect pacemaker operation
when within 2 meters of the power unit and 1 meter of the weld
site.[20]

History
While examples of forge welding go back to the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, arc welding did not come into
practice until much later.

In 1800 Humphry Davy discovered the short pulsed electric arcs.[21][22] Independently a Russian physicist
Vasily Petrov discovered the continuous electric arc in 1802[22][23][24][25] and subsequently proposed its
possible practical applications, including welding.[26] Arc welding was first developed when Nikolai
Benardos presented arc welding of metals using a carbon electrode at the International Exposition of
Electricity, Paris in 1881, which was patented together with Stanisław Olszewski in 1887.[27] In the same year,
French electrical inventor Auguste de Méritens also invented a carbon arc welding method, patented in 1881,
which was successfully used for welding lead in the manufacture of lead-acid batteries.[28] The advances in
arc welding continued with the invention of metal electrodes in the late 19th century by a Russian, Nikolai
Slavyanov (1888), and an American, C. L. Coffin. Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger
released in Britain a coated metal electrode which gave a more stable arc. In 1905
Russian scientist Vladimir Mitkevich proposed the usage of three-phase electric arc
for welding. In 1919, alternating current welding was invented by C.J. Holslag but
did not become popular for another decade.[29]

Competing welding processes such as resistance welding and oxyfuel welding were
developed during this time as well;[30] but both, especially the latter, faced stiff
competition from arc welding especially after metal coverings (known as flux) for
the electrode, to stabilize the arc and shield the base material from impurities,
continued to be developed.[31]
Nikolay Benardos
During World War I welding started to be used in shipbuilding in Great Britain in
place of riveted steel plates. The Americans also became more accepting of
the new technology when the process allowed them to repair their ships
quickly after a German attack in the New York Harbor at the beginning of
the war.[32] Arc welding was first applied to aircraft during the war as
well, and some German airplane fuselages were constructed using this
process.[33] In 1919, the British shipbuilder Cammell Laird started
construction of a merchant ship, the "Fullagar", with an entirely welded
hull;[34] she was launched in 1921.[35]

During the 1920s, major advances were made in welding technology,

including the 1920 introduction of automatic welding in which electrode A young woman arc welding in
wire was continuously fed. Shielding gas became a subject receiving much a munitions factory in Australia
attention as scientists attempted to protect welds from the effects of oxygen in 1943.
and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness were the primary
problems and the solutions that developed included the use of hydrogen,
argon, and helium as welding atmospheres.[36] During the following decade, further advances allowed for the
welding of reactive metals such as aluminum and magnesium. This, in conjunction with developments in
automatic welding, alternating current, and fluxes fed a major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and
then during World War II.[37]

During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were invented. Submerged arc welding was
invented in 1930 and continues to be popular today. In 1932 a Russian, Konstantin Khrenov successfully
implemented the first underwater electric arc welding. Gas tungsten arc welding, after decades of
development, was finally perfected in 1941 and gas metal arc welding followed in 1948, allowing for fast
welding of non-ferrous materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. Using a consumable electrode and a
carbon dioxide atmosphere as a shielding gas, it quickly became the most popular metal arc welding process.
In 1957, the flux-cored arc welding process debuted in which the self-shielded wire electrode could be used
with automatic equipment, resulting in greatly increased welding speeds. In that same year, plasma arc welding
was invented. Electroslag welding was released in 1958 and was followed by its cousin, electrogas welding, in
1961.[38]

See also
Welder – Tradesperson who specializes in fusing materials together
Robot welding
Sensors for arc welding
Weld quality assurance
References

Notes
1. Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 246–249
2. "Welding Metallurgy: Arc Physics and Weld Pool Behaviour" (https://canteach.candu.org/Conte
nt%20Library/20053426.pdf) (PDF). Canteach.
3. "DC vs. AC Polarity for SMAW" (http://www.lincolnelectric.com/en-us/support/welding-solution
s/Pages/polarity-for-smaw.aspx). Lincoln Electric. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
4. "AC/DC: Understanding Polarity" (http://www.lincolnelectric.com/en-us/support/process-and-th
eory/Pages/understanding-polarity-detail.aspx). Retrieved 20 November 2017.
5. Lincoln Electric 1994, p. 5.4.5
6. Weman 2003, p. 16
7. What does welder "duty cycle" mean? http://www.zena.net/htdocs/FAQ/dutycycle.shtml
8. Weman 2003, p. 63
9. Cary & Helzer 2005, p. 103
10. Lincoln Electric 1994, p. 5.4.3
11. Weman 2003, p. 68
12. Weman 2003, p. 31
13. Weman 2003, pp. 37–38
14. Drive Off Moisture and Get Better Welds (http://www.phx-international.com/moisture_article.htm
l) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20060315092327/http://www.phx-international.com/mo
isture_article.html) March 15, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
15. Intergranular Corrosion (http://httd.njuct.edu.cn/MatWeb/corrosie/c_iga.htm) Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20060421214659/http://httd.njuct.edu.cn/matweb/corrosie/c_iga.htm) 2006-
04-21 at the Wayback Machine
16. Galvanic Corrosion (http://www.keytometals.com/page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&site=kts&NM=1
60)
17. Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 52–62
18. http://ohsonline.com/articles/2005/10/through-a-glass-darkly.aspx
19. Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 42, 49–51
20. Marco, David; Eisinger, George; Hayes, David L. (1992). "Testing of work environments for
electromagnetic interference". Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 15 (11 Pt 2): 2016–22.
doi:10.1111/j.1540-8159.1992.tb03013.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1540-8159.1992.tb0301
3.x). PMID 1279591 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1279591).
21. Hertha Ayrton. The Electric Arc, pp. 20 (https://archive.org/stream/electricarc00ayrtrich#page/2
0/mode/2up) and 94 (https://archive.org/stream/electricarc00ayrtrich#page/94/mode/2up). D.
Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1902.
22. Anders, A. (2003). "Tracking down the origin of arc plasma science-II. early continuous
discharges" (https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc785757/). IEEE Transactions on
Plasma Science. 31 (5): 1060–9. Bibcode:2003ITPS...31.1060A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/
abs/2003ITPS...31.1060A). doi:10.1109/TPS.2003.815477 (https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTPS.20
03.815477).
23. "Дуговой разряд" [electric arc], Большая советская энциклопедия [Great Soviet
Encyclopedia] (in Russian)
24. Lazarev, P.P. (December 1999), "Historical essay on the 200 years of the development of
natural sciences in Russia" (http://ufn.ru/ufn99/ufn99_12/Russian/r9912h.pdf) (Russian),
Physics-Uspekhi, 42 (1247): 1351–1361, Bibcode:1999PhyU...42.1247L (https://ui.adsabs.harv
ard.edu/abs/1999PhyU...42.1247L), doi:10.1070/PU1999v042n12ABEH000750 (https://doi.or
g/10.1070%2FPU1999v042n12ABEH000750), archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2011021
1173732/http://ufn.ru/ufn99/ufn99_12/Russian/r9912h.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2011-02-
11.
25. Shea, William R., ed. (1983). Nature mathematized: historical and philosophical case studies in
classical modern natural philosophy. Dordrecht: Reidel. p. 282. ISBN 978-90-277-1402-2.
26. "Encyclopedia.com. Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography" (http://www.encyclopedia.co
m/doc/1G2-2830903379.html). Charles Scribner's Sons. 2008. Retrieved 9 October 2014.
27. "Beginnings of submerged arc welding" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070057/http://b
ulletin.is.gliwice.pl/PDF/2014/03/02_Turyk_Grobosz_Beginnings_of_submerged_arc_welding.
pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://bulletin.is.gliwice.pl/PDF/2014/03/02_Turyk_Grobo
sz_Beginnings_of_submerged_arc_welding.pdf) (PDF) on 2016-03-04.
28. Houldcroft, P. T. (1973) [1967]. "Chapter 3: Flux-Shielded Arc Welding". Welding Processes.
Cambridge University Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-521-05341-9.
29. Cary & Helzer 2005, pp. 5–6
30. Cary & Helzer 2005, p. 6
31. Weman 2003, p. 26
32. "Weld It!" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,772840-2,00.html). TIME
Magazine. 1941-12-15. Retrieved 2008-11-07.
33. Lincoln Electric 1994, pp. 1.1–5
34. Royal Naval & World Events time line (http://www.rnecmanadon.com/about/timeline.php)
35. Case Studies on Shipbuilding (http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/me480/Lecture/W03/CS2/CaseSt
udyShips.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20090203133252/http://oregonstate.edu/i
nstruct/me480/Lecture/W03/CS2/CaseStudyShips.html) February 3, 2009, at the Wayback
Machine
36. Cary & Helzer 2005, p. 7
37. Lincoln Electric 1994, pp. 1.1–6
38. Cary & Helzer 2005, p. 9

Sources
Cary, Howard B.; Helzer, Scott C. (2005), Modern Welding Technology, Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey: Pearson Education, ISBN 978-0-13-113029-6
Kalpakjian, Serope; Schmid, Steven R. (2001), Manufacturing Engineering and Technology,
Prentice-Hall, ISBN 978-0-201-36131-5
Lincoln Electric (1994), The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, Cleveland, Ohio: Lincoln
Electric, ISBN 978-99949-25-82-7
Weman, Klas (2003), Welding processes handbook, New York: CRC Press, ISBN 978-0-8493-
1773-6

Further reading
ASM International (society) (2003). Trends in Welding Research. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM
International. ISBN 0-87170-780-2
Blunt, Jane and Nigel C. Balchin (2002). Health and Safety in Welding and Allied Processes.
Cambridge: Woodhead. ISBN 1-85573-538-5.
 Hicks, John (1999). Welded Joint Design. New York: Industrial Press. ISBN 0-8311-3130-6.

External links
Arc Flash Awareness (https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/video/2007-116d/) video (25:39) from
U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

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