# LITERATURE

I. INTRODUCTION

As humanity seeks to understand its nature, perhaps the best way is to study Literature. Through
Literature, we learn the innermost feelings and thoughts of man and gain to understand ourselves and
of life itself. Interpretation, sometimes known by the German term verstehen (understand) is an active
process of assigning meaning to something you observe, like a text, an act or a situation – any
experience really. (Littlejohn:2002)

LITERATURE – is defined as the total of preserved writings belonging to a given language or people
(Webster).

- is subject to the physical environment and the social and economic organization of a people.

TRUE LITERATURE – is a faithful reproduction of life, executed in an artistic pattern.

- It is a faithful reproduction of man’s manifold experiences blended into one harmonious

- It deals with the ideas, thoughts and emotions of man.

- It expresses the feelings of people to society, to the government, to his surroundings, to his
fellowmen and to his Divine Creator (Brother Azurin).

*REASONS WHY PEOPLE WRITE:

1. For self-expression

“The mouth speaks what the heart is full of.” Whatever be person’s emotions, whether he/she is glad or
sad, loving or grieving, he/she wants others to know. People may have wonderful and ingenious
imagination and want to give pleasure and to entertain others with real or imagined stories.

2. To spread knowledge and information

Some ideas are worth recording and remembering.

3. To pass on ideas and values

In this way, right attitudes are formed and good character is developed.

4. To impart truth, accuracy and evaluation

This would allow others to analyze, evaluate, form valid judgments, and make wise decisions.
(Garcia:1993)
 *WHY WE STUDY LITERATURE: Its Importance

1. Literature is a transmitter of values.

Literature study enhances the understanding of values and morals that lend support to good life:
honesty, friendship, love of country, respect for elders, self-discipline, justice, honor and the like. It
promotes and develops moral orientation.

2. It is a preserver of ideals, customs and traditions.

It is our link to the past. Understanding our past will help us strengthen our present and future from the
lessons learned from it.

3. It is experience.

A student can identify his/her own experience while reading about the experiences of others, make
comparison of his/her experience with those presented in vicarious situations presented in literature.

4. It is a source of pleasure.

Literature entertains and gives pleasure. The story, the sound, and the images presented in literary
pieces are the usual sources of pleasure.

5. It acts as a mirror of culture.

It provides vicarious experiences that will enrich our knowledge and perceptions of life and humanity.

6. It is a means of acquiring cultural insights.

Literature, like an artifact, is typically a product of a given culture.

7. Literature is an expression of man’s emotions and ideas.

These are clothed in the highest level of language, and therefore, they give the greatest insight into the
character of a people.

8. It uses language.

Studying literature enhances our knowledge of the medium used by literature.

9. It enlarges the mind.

Students’ awareness of the possibilities of life is increased. It exhibits thoughts and feelings not revealed
by people in real life.

10. Literature is a way of knowing.

It reveals knowledge we already possess, but do not know that it is already ours, until literature reveals
it to us.
 11. It helps students make real choices.

The knowledge, especially concrete universals, we get from literature increases our capacity for making
choices.

12. It fulfills a double role.

It helps us understand ourselves better and it brings us into closer communion with our fellowmen.

13. It promotes individual as well as social insights.

Individual’s innermost feelings and thoughts are defined when readers identify themselves with the
characters in situations. Complexities of social life as depicted in literature are important background
material studies of existing social problems.

14. It is an agent of change.

Literature contributes to significant changes in society by inculcating the promotions of ideals and ideas.
It is a potent force that influences people’s thoughts into action.

15. Literature, perhaps born out of social need, has always had a social function.

It educates, amuses, calms seditious minds, diverts discontent, propagates certain beliefs and discredits
others.

*LITERARY STANDARDS

Great literature is characterized by the following qualities:

1. Artistry

Great literature appeals to our aesthetic sense or sense of beauty.

2. Suggestiveness

Great literature appeals to our emotions. It stirs our imagination and feeling, moves us deeply and
evokes visions over and beyond the level of ordinary life and experience.

3. Intellectual Value

Great literature stimulates our thoughts. It makes us realize fundamental truths about life and human
nature; thus, enriching our mental life.

4. Spiritual Value

Great literature inspires and brings out moral values making us better persons. It relates to God’s plan
and purpose for humanity.

5. Permanence
Great literature has a lasting appeal. It can be read repeatedly, yet still gives new pleasure and fresh
insights. It stands through the ages and still opens new world of meaning and experience.

6. Universality

Great literature appeals to anyone, anywhere anytime. It is forever relevant. It deals with elemental
feelings, fundamental truths and universal conditions.

7. Style

Great literature is marked with the peculiar way in which the writer sees life, forms his/her ideas and
expresses them distinctively. It is the distinguishing expression of a writer. It should suit content.

*DIVISIONS OF LITERATURE

I. PROSE

- Prose is a discourse, which uses sentences usually forming paragraphs to express ideas, feelings and
actions. It generally concentrates on the familiar and the ordinary.

*DIVISIONS OF PROSE

A. FICTION

1. The Short Story

2. The Novel

B. NON-FICTION

1. The Essay

a. The Formal Essay

b. The Informal Essay

2. Oration 5. Memoirs

3. Biography 6. Letters

4. Autobiography 7. Diaries and Journals

II. POETRY

- Poetry may be described as rhythmic imaginative language expressing the invention, thought,
imagination, taste, passion and insight of the human soul.

- Poetry is “the rhythmical creation of beauty” (Edgar Allan Poe).

*KINDS OF POETRY

A. LYRIC

B. NARRATIVE

C. DRAMATIC

# LITERATURE

I. SHORT STORY

- Rosenthal and Yarmon define short story as “a form of prose communication in which the writer uses
imaginary characters and an invented conflict situation in an effort to provide the reader with a vicarious
experience (sympathetic participation) of the total situation (Armamento 1980).

- A short story makes us share in a series of events. The writer creates for events to happen. In a good
story, we are caught in the action: we begin to wonder about the outcome. Some things turn out as we
expect, and we are surprised by others. We often come to understand the characters and their motives
– why they act the way they do. Often a good story makes us share other’s feeling – of sadness,
happiness, bitterness, or disappointment. A good shot story gives us something to watch, to care about,
and to think about.

-McDougal (1989) defines short story as a work of fiction that usually can be read in one sitting. It has
only one main conflict, a few characters and limited detail. It is largely a product of the writer’s
imagination. A short story may be inspired by real life situations or it may be a flight of fantasy.

-Some of the best-known examples of early stories are myths, fables, parables and legends.

ELEMENTS OF THE SHORT STORY

1. Setting – Situation

- Refers to the time/when and place/where the story occurs.

- Situation gives the condition, state or circumstances in which the characters especially the
protagonists, find themselves involved in.

- Exposition phase refers to the first stage of a fictional plot in which necessary background information
is provided.
- Setting is also the physical background of a story. It includes not only geographical location but also
scenery, weather, furniture, clothing, the time of year, and the period of history in which the characters
are places.

- The kinds of settings are:

a) specific, such as 3 o’clock p.m. at the Luneta Park in Manila;

b) general, such as sometime in the future in outer space;

c) direct, as in “The Most Dangerous Game”;

d) indirect, by showing the characters’ reaction to their surroundings.

- The function of the setting is to help create the mood or atmosphere of a story. It can also trigger
action or cause conflict. At times, setting expresses the writer’s view of the world. Thus, it reinforces the
theme or main idea of the story. For example, a grim setting may reflect the writer’s grim view of life.

2. Characters and their Characterization

-Characters are lifelike persons thrown into the situation. They are the people or animals who take part
in the action.

-Characters are the central focus of the story. They control the plot, causing its twists and turns and
ultimate resolution.

-We must dig deep into the characters’ personality traits.

What is the character’s greatest fear?

His worst nightmare?

His proudest achievement?

-Characters should be given the illusion of reality and made believable so that they can take the reader
to places he/she has never dreamed possible.

-Characterization refers to the ways that writers develop their characters. A writer might describe the
way that a character looks and acts and present a character’s words. A writer might also show how
other characters react to a character and what they say about him or her.

-Characters may be major or minor depending on their development and on their role in the story.

*Five basic techniques to develop character are:

a) use of physical description to develop character;

b) descriptions of actions of the character;

d) use of direct comments from the narrator;

e) use of speech and actions of other characters to develop a character.

*CLASSIFICATION OF CHARACTERS

1. Stock – one who possess a recognizably universal trait such as stinginess, naivete (unaffected
simplicity), deceitfulness or loyalty.

Examples of these are: the naïve country bumpkin (awkward fellow or rustic); the impostor; the boasting
soldier; the self-effacing (shy) trickster; and the scapegoat (person bearing the blame for others).

2. Dynamic – one who changes significantly during the course of a story, carries with him the
reality of human growth and decline.

*KINDS OF CHARACTERS

a.) Protagonist – the hero or main character in the story. He is usually an admirable character.

b.) Antihero – a central character in a story, who lacks conventional heroic attributes; an inept or
otherwise ridiculous character like Robinhood, Catwoman, Maleficent and Capt. Jack Sparrow of Pirates
of the Caribbean

c.) Antagonist – the villain or a character in conflict with the hero and is usually less admirable than
the hero

d.) Foil – a character who, by contrast, points up the qualities or characteristics of another
character. For example, a foolish character sets a wise character’s wisdom in a stronger light.

3. Plot – is the framework or outline of the story. This is also called the structure of events. It is the
plan of action, the arrangement or sequence of events in a story.

Plot comes from a conflict or struggle between two opposing forces. It is the summary in telling what
the story is all about. A fictional story does not begin with a plot. It begins with a situation or with a
character.

For example, a character encounters an obstacle or conflict of some kind, and then resolves it through
his or her own purposeful action. This makes up the events of the story or the plot.

The plot structure also refers to the series of causes and effects in the story. Each scene must be logical
extension of the scene that came before. It also refers to the sequence in which the events of a story are
arranged.

• The principal parts of the plot are:

a.) Exposition – setting and characters are introduced to the readers

*The character really confronts two kinds of conflict:

1.) external conflict – is often beyond the character’s control. It’s a situation he is thrust into, for better
or worse, and it’s what pulls the plot along from page to page. It could be a mystery that needs solving,
or moving to a new neighborhood, or a death in the family. It makes the period of time between the first
and last page of the story book different from any other time in the character’s life.

2.) internal conflict – is something the character brings to the story on page one. This conflict may be
known to the character – it could be lurking just under the surface – or it could be a problem the
character is aware of but has been ignoring. But when the character is confronted with the external
conflict, the internal conflict is brought to light.

The internal conflict is contained within the main character – guilt over cheating on a test at school,
anger at parents who recently separated, lack of self-confidence – and must be resolved in some way for
the character to grow.

________________________________________________________

Without external conflict, there is no plot – only angst or anxiety or dread illustrative of emotional
disposition. A story should have a big external conflict that forms the plot and keeps the story moving
and an internal conflict that forces the character to change, reflecting the theme. The theme will give
the story depth, and give the readers something to think about.

Example of conflict:

Vanity or falsehood of a character dissatisfied with her lot and condition, dissatisfied with her poverty,
yet feels she is made for the fine things in life like jewelry, money, fame, position, recognition – creates
a conflict that is internal.

*Sources of Conflict

1.) Self vs. Self – a conflict within one’s own mind such as pride, selfishness or insecurity

2.) Self vs. Others – a conflict between two persons or creatures, which is easiest to recognize

3.) Self vs. Environment – a conflict that springs from one’s surroundings

4.) Self vs. Nature – a conflict due to “acts of God” such as earthquake, typhoon or volcanic eruption

c.) Suspense – it is some kind of situation in which a challenge or a problem is created and leads us
to expect something very good or very bad to happen, but we don’t know what it will be. It is a state of
psychological expectation of ensuing event leading to the result. It also refers to a pleasant excitement
as to a decision or outcome of a challenge or problem.
d.) Climax – refers to the highest point in the ascending series of situations that make up the
complication. It is the point of great tension. It is also called the crisis, turn or reversal, the point at
which the forces in conflict reach highest intensification.

Complication – consists of many circumstances disturbing the normal or eventful course in the life of a
person. It may also be described as a climbing series of tense, dramatic situations or a sense of upward
movements toward the climax. At times, it consists of the events that comprise the plot. Each scene in
the story must be a logical extension of the scene that came before. Each climax, moment of suspense
or tension in the story must be a direct result of an earlier scene.

Crisis is the moment of fateful decision. It is the turning point for the protagonist.

Reversal concerns with a change in the fortune of the character. It also refers to the point when the
main character comes face-to-face with the conflict.

Ideally, the climax is contained within a scene, or a chapter at the most. The height of a climax, like the
peak of a roller coaster, occurs at the end of a chapter. It is a psychological state os rising order or
gradual intensification of interest.

e.) Resolution or Denouement – refers to the moment where we, as readers, understand the
position of the protagonist. It is also the moment when the characters understand their own final
positions. It is the sense of downward movement felt in reading the story. It also involves the
clarification of the fate of the characters. If the plot unfolds in a logical, cause and effect pattern, it will
end with an unavoidable resolution. Who the character is, how he or she changed during the story, and
how that character chose to deal with the conflict should lead to only one conclusion. The reader should
be able to look back from the end of the story/book and see one path that leads directly from the first
page to the last. The resolution (the effect of all that’s gone before) will be satisfying and believable if
the cause is believable.

4. Point of View – refers to the one who tells the story. The author presents the events of his story
as seen through someone’s eyes. The eyes, or point of view, may or may not be the author’s. Very often,
an author will tell a story from someone else’s point of view, either through the narrator (storyteller) or
through a character in the story.

*Kinds of Point of View

1.) Omniscient – is when the narrator is all knowing. The narrator is free to go into the mind of the
characters. We are told not only what is happening, but also what the characters feel and think.

2.) First Person Participant – the narrator here tells his own story. He could be the central
character, the first-person protagonist or a minor character.

3.) First Person Observer – the character tells in the first person, a story he has observed. This
observer lets us share in whatever scenes or events an eyewitness to the story would be able to see.
4.) Objective Third Person Observer – the author relates what happens in an objective manner
without giving his own comments and without portraying what goes on in the mind of his characters.
This point of view makes fiction more realistic or life-like.

5. Theme – is the central or dominating idea implicit in a work. It is the message of a story. Theme
is conveyed through the characters, setting, and plot. It is capable of being understood from something
else though not expressed. It is seldom stated. The theme is the abstract concept indirectly expressed
through recurrent images, actions, characters and symbols and must be inferred by the reader. Literally,
the theme is disassociated from any specific instance. It is the writer’s statement of the way things are
or should be.

*Procedure in determining the theme:

a.) think about the title

b.) analyze the central conflict

c.) trace the way the protagonist reacts or solves the conflict, noting changes in the character and
determining the cause of the change, and the lesson that the character has learned, and the writer’s
view of human nature

d.) state the lesson that the protagonist has learned.

6. Tone – reflects the author’s attitude toward his or her subject, characters, and readers. The
author’s tone suggests what our reaction should be and may be described as light-hearted, solemn,
bitter, affectionate, teasing, friendly, imperious (dominant, commanding), brusque (abrupt in speech or
manner).

7. Style – a writer’s characteristic way of saying things. Style includes the arrangement of ideas,
word choice, imagery, sentence structure and variety, coherence, emphasis and other rhetorical
requirements.

*Story Techniques Used in Fiction:

1.) Monologue – involves only one character speaking alone. It is employed to dramatize a situation.

*two types:

a.) Interior Monologue – refers to a character’s conscious thoughts that suddenly arise. It is
instantaneous, personalized and intense reserved for moments of highly dramatic self-analysis. The
thoughts are conscious thoughts that remain conscious unspoken thoughts.

b.) Pure Monologue – are quoted words being spoken by the thinker alone to himself and maybe
verbalized.

2.) Dialogue – is a technique of advancing thought processes and expression that require two characters.
*two types:

a.) Emotional Dialogue – refers to the spoken words, the action related to the words, including the
hero’s thoughts and reactions.

b.) Pure Dialogue – spoken to a person/character by someone else.

3.) Stream of Consciousness – is a flowing of thoughts that surge or comes to the level of mind
where the individual becomes aware of them.

*Reasons for usage:

a.) Overcomes the barriers of time and space

b.) Mental action becomes far and wide, without limit

c.) Provides a method of presenting character outside times and space

d.) Separates the presentation of consciousness from the chronological sequence of events

e.) Enables the quality of a given state of mind to be investigated so completely by means of pursuing to
their end the remote mental associations and suggestions

f.) Enables the reader to enter into the mind of the character

g.) It differs from the flashback in that, although both exist in the viewpoint character’s mind, stream of
consciousness has wider range. It can swing from past events to the present, as well as the future.
Flashback can only unite past episode with the present.

*Sample Illustrations of the Techniques of Presenting Thought Processes

(Armamento:1980)

Interior Monologue: No verbalization. The thought is or remains in the consciousness. It’s addressed to
the speaker “I”.

“I wonder whether my blue dress is tight on me,” Nina thought. “If it’s tight, it’ll surely give me much
trouble.”

Pure Monologue: It is verbalized with audible sounds directed at oneself (speaker).

“I wonder whether my blue dress is tight on me,” Nina told herself. “If it’s tight, it’ll surely give me much
trouble.”

Dialogue: “I wonder whether my blue dress is tight on me,” Nina told her friend. “If it’s tight, it’ll surely
give me much trouble.”
Stream of Consciousness: It is not put in quotation mark because the thought is not part of the
chronological sequence of events. The speaker’s mental action remains in the consciousness and the
speaker just becomes aware of it.

Nina wondered whether her blue dress was tight on her. If it was tight, it would surely give her much
trouble.

Objective Narration: Nina tried her blue dress on, she wriggled out of it.

4.) Flashback – refers to a series of scenes that took place in the viewpoint character’s life in the
past, and are relevant to what is happening to him in the present. It affords the reader a chance to
telescope the viewpoint character at a certain time in his life. This gives the character some kind of
depth and insight. It is illustrated by the V-plot pattern – the character’s past has bearing on his/her
present decision (Armamento 1980).

5.) Foreshadowing – is a technique in short story body development where the introduction of a
detail as casually and as naturally as possible is made before it becomes important so that the reader is
prepared for the importance it later assumes. The purpose is prepare the reader to accept that what
happens thus seem to have grown out of the nature of the character in the story (Armamento 1980).