SPIT

(Lecture Notes: Chapter 2)

Chapter 2 : Social Context of Computinge (5 hr)
2.1 Society and Technology
2.1.1 Impact of Technology on Society and Vice Versa
2.1.2 Using Technology for Poverty Alleviation
2.1.3 Health Related Issues for an IT Professional
2.2 Internet and Society
2.2.1 Digital Divide and Bridging the Digital Divide
2,2,2 Governance of Internet
2.2.3 E-Governance and E-Government SystemsE

1.0 Society and technology

Definition of Society:
Many definitions of society; the definitions keeps changing, since society is dynamic.

i. Schaefer and Lamm: the largest form of human group, which consists of people who share
common heritage and culture. (Richard T. Schaefer and Robert P. Lamm)
ii. Ian Robertson: society gives content, direction and meaning to our lives, and we, in turn,
in countless ways, reshape the society that we leave to the next generation. Society is a
population that occupies the same territory, is subject to the same political authority and
participates in a common culture.
iii. P. Gisbert: a complicated network of social relationships by which every human being is
interconnected with his fellowmen.
iv. MacIver and Page: a system of usages and procedures, authority and mutual aid, of many
groupings and divisions, of controls of human behavior and of liberties.
v. Ginsberg: a collection of individuals unified by certain relation or modes of behavior,
which mark them off from others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from
them in behavior
vi. A.W. Green: the largets group to which any individual belongs
vii. John F. Cuber: a group of people who have lived long enough to become organized and to
consider themselves and considered as a unit more or less distinct from other human units.

1.0.1 A settlement with the following criteria is called a society

i. Population: A society has population. It can be small or big.
ii. Common territory: The people of a society occupy a common territory.
iii. Government or political authority: The people of a society have a common
government and political authority.
iv. Common culture and a sense of relationship/membership and committed to group.
 Lecture Notes on Professional Practice, Semester: IX, Program: BE Civil and Rural, Pokhara University
Compiled by: Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College, April 2015

1.0.2 Essential elements of a society (RPA, TBG, p1)

i. People and plurality: society consists of people, of both sexes, of different
physical features (age, skin color, eye color, hair color, height, weight, face type)
ii. Likeness and differences: Members of a society are alike in many aspects. This
“alikeness” bonds them, and they seek understanding and cooperation from each
other. The members of a society are different in many ways too, like culture
(language, religion, art, music, dance, food, dress, values, belief system),
profession, interest, opinion, views etc.
iii. Cooperation and interdependence: Members of a society cooperate with each
other, and they depend on each other. When the level of mutual cooperation
reduces, society tends to disintegrate.
iv. Stable and dynamic: Society is relatively stable; the norms, values, and culture are
normally stable/. Yet, society is dynamic. Some elements of a society change
slowly, and some change rapidly, depending on external and internal factors.

1.0.3 Types/Evolution of Society

i. Tribal: hunting and gathering society
ii. Pastoral: domesticate animals
iii. Horticultural: domesticate plants
iv. Agricultural/feudal: cultivation of crops, animal energy, irrigation, saving of
seed
v. Industrial: mechanized production, mass production
vi. Post-industrial: information and service, generation of knowledge

1.0.4 Factors/Drivers/Causes of social change

i. Physical environment/Contact with other societies: Physically easily
accessible society changes rapidly than those located in remote (difficult to
access) areas due to frequent contacts with members of different societies.
ii. Natural causes: Earthquake, landslide, flood, desertification, and tsunami
disintegrate social fabric and changes society.
iii. Technological: Information, knowledge and skills: Rate of social change
depends on access to information, ability to put together the information into
knowledge, ability to convert the knowledge into skills
iv. Anthropogenic (Human) activities: International War, Civil War, displacement
for “developmental” activities, industrial accidents, mass migration, education,
economic opportunity

1.0.5 Classical Theories of social change:

i. Cyclical: ups and downs, birth and death, Oswald Spengler: approximate 1000
year cycle. Critics of this theory cite examples that do not follow the 1000
year cycle.
ii. Evolution: changing with time, getting complex with time, society devel-
ops through time and change.
iii. Functionalist: changes as required to keep the whole society functioning, when
particular part of a society changes; based on the assumption that society is a
 Lecture Notes on Professional Practice, Semester: IX, Program: BE Civil and Rural, Pokhara University
Compiled by: Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College, April 2015

stable, orderly system; August Comte (1798-1857), Herbert Spencer, Emile

Durkheim, and Talcott Parsons propagate this theory. Society is composed of
interrelated parts, each of which serves a function and contributes to the
overall stability of the society. This theory emphasizes on changing role of
different parts of a society to maintain stability of a society.
iv. Conflict: Karl Marx (19th century) social class conflict between haves and
have-nots. Expanded version of conflict theory finds social conflict between
any groups in which the potential for inequity exists: racial, gender, religions,
political, economic, and so on. Unequal groups usually have conflicting values
and agendas, causing them to compete against one another. This constant
competition between groups forms the basis for the ever-changing nature of
society.

The triad is usually described in the following way:

 The thesis is an intellectual proposition.

 The antithesis is simply the negation of the thesis, a reaction to the proposition.
 The synthesis solves the conflict between the thesis and antithesis by reconciling their
common truths and forming a new thesis, starting the process over.

Cyclical: The Greeks were the first to utilize this model. Plato spoke of eras of time when,
initially, hope blossoms only to deteriorate as that era disintegrates. Spengler's view of
change was very similar to that of the Greeks, but his model was dressed in a biological
rather than uuologica1 garb. Culture, according to him, is the living entity of people, and
culture is housed in the civilization of that it arises, develops, ripens, decays and falls never to
return. An element of hope, however, was predicted in a similar model by Toynbee, who
believed the cyclical change could be interrupted by the creative minority. More recently
Sorokin considered that social changes follow a trendless cyclic pattern, i.e., like a swinging
pendulum, culture moves in one direction and then back in another.

The functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, is one of the major theoretical perspectives
in sociology. It has its origins in the works of Emile Durkheim, who was especially interested in
how social order is possible or how society remains relatively stable.
Functionalism interprets each part of society in terms of how it contributes to the stability of the
whole society. Society is more than the sum of its parts; rather, each part of society is functional
for the stability of the whole society. The different parts are primarily the institutions of society,
each of which is organized to fill different needs and each of which has particular consequences for
the form and shape of society. The parts all depend on each other.
For example, the government, or state, provides education for the children of the family, which in
turn pays taxes on which the state depends to keep itself running. The family is dependent upon
the school to help children grow up to have good jobs so that they can raise and support their own
families. In the process, the children become law-abiding, taxpaying citizens, who in turn support
the state. If all goes well, the parts of society produce order, stability, and productivity. If all does
not go well, the parts of society then must adapt to recapture a new order, stability, and
productivity.

Functionalism emphasizes the consensus and order that exist in society, focusing on social stability
and shared public values. From this perspective, disorganization in the system, such as deviant
behavior, leads to change because societal components must adjust to achieve stability. When
one part of the system is not working or is dysfunctional, it affects all other parts and
creates social problems, which leads to social change.

The functionalist perspective achieved its greatest popularity among American sociologists in the
1940s and 1950s. While European functionalists originally focused on explaining the inner
workings of social order, American functionalists focused on discovering the functions of human
behavior. Among these American functionalist sociologists is Robert K. Merton, who divided human
 Lecture Notes on Professional Practice, Semester: IX, Program: BE Civil and Rural, Pokhara University
Compiled by: Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College, April 2015

functions into two types: manifest functions, which are intentional and obvious, and latent
functions, which are unintentional and not obvious. The manifest function of attending a church or
synagogue, for instance, is to worship as part of a religious community, but its latent function may
be to help members learn to discern personal from institutional values. With common sense,
manifest functions become easily apparent. Yet this is not necessarily the case for latent functions,
which often demand a sociological approach to be revealed.
Functionalism has received criticism for neglecting the negative functions of an event such as
divorce. Critics also claim that the perspective justifies the status quo and complacency on the part
of society's members. Functionalism does not encourage people to take an active role in changing
their social environment, even when such change may benefit them. Instead, functionalism sees
active social change as undesirable because the various parts of society will compensate naturally
for any problems that may arise.
References
Anderson, M.L. and Taylor, H.F. (2009). Sociology: The Essentials. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
CliffsNotes.com. Three Major Perspectives in Sociology. 22 Jun 2011.
http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/topicArticleId-26957,articleId-26837.html.

Source: http://sociology.about.com/od/Sociological-Theory/a/Functionalist-Theory.htm
Accessed: June 14, 2013
Conflict theory emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order. This perspective is
derived from the works of Karl Marx, who saw society as fragmented into groups that compete for social and
economic resources. Social order is maintained by domination, with power in the hands of those with the
greatest political, economic, and social resources. When consensus exists, it is attributable to people being
united around common interests, often in opposition to other groups.

According to conflict theory, inequality exists because those in control of a disproportionate share of society’s
resources actively defend their advantages. The masses are not bound to society by their shared values, but by
coercion at the hands of those in power. This perspective emphasizes social control, not consensus and
conformity. Groups and individuals advance their own interests, struggling over control of societal resources.
Those with the most resources exercise power over others with inequality and power struggles resulting. There
is great attention paid to class, race, and gender in this perspective because they are seen as the grounds of
the most pertinent and enduring struggles in society.

Whereas most other sociological theories focus on the positive aspects of society, conflict perspective focuses
on the negative, conflicted, and ever-changing nature of society. Unlike functionalists who defend the status
quo, avoid social change, and believe people cooperate to effect social order, conflict theorists challenge the
status quo, encourage social change (even when this means social revolution), and believe rich and powerful
people force social order on the poor and the weak. Conflict theorists, for example, may interpret an “elite”
board of regents raising tuition to pay for esoteric new programs that raise the prestige of a local college as
self-serving rather than as beneficial for students.

Whereas American sociologists in the 1940s and 1950s generally ignored the conflict perspective in favor of the
functionalist, the tumultuous 1960s saw American sociologists gain considerable interest in conflict theory.
They also expanded Marx's idea that the key conflict in society was strictly economic. Today, conflict theorists
find social conflict between any groups in which the potential for inequality exists: racial, gender, religious,
political, economic, and so on. Conflict theorists note that unequal groups usually have conflicting values and
agendas, causing them to compete against one another. This constant competition between groups forms the
basis for the ever-changing nature of society. Critics of the conflict perspective point to its overly negative view
of society. The theory ultimately attributes humanitarian efforts, altruism, democracy, civil rights, and other
positive aspects of society to capitalistic designs to control the masses, not to inherent interests in preserving
society and social order.
References
Anderson, M.L. and Taylor, H.F. (2009). Sociology: The Essentials. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
CliffsNotes.com. Three Major Perspectives in Sociology. 22 Jun 2011.
http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/topicArticleId-26957,articleId-26837.html.
Source: http://sociology.about.com/od/Sociological-Theory/a/Conflict-Theory.htm
Accessed: June 14, 2013
 Lecture Notes on Professional Practice, Semester: IX, Program: BE Civil and Rural, Pokhara University
Compiled by: Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College, April 2015

There are many theories of social change. Generally, a theory of change should include
elements such as structural aspects of change (like population shifts), Processes and
mechanisms of social change, and directions of change.

 Hegelian: The classic Hegelian dialectic model of change is based on the interaction
of opposing forces. Starting from a point of momentary stasis, Thesis countered by
Antithesis first yields conflict, then it subsequently results in a new Synthesis.
 Marxist: Marxism presents a dialectical and materialist concept of history;
Humankind's history is a fundamental struggle between social classes.
 Kuhnian: The philosopher of science, Thomas Kuhn argues in The Structure of
Scientific Revolutions with respect to the Copernican Revolution that people are
unlikely to jettison an unworkable paradigm, despite many indications that the
paradigm is not functioning properly, until a better paradigm can be presented.
 Heraclitan: The Greek philosopher Heraclitus used the metaphor of a river to speak
of change thus, "On those stepping into rivers staying the same other and other waters
flow" (DK22B12). What Heraclitus seems to be suggesting here, later interpretations
notwithstanding, is that, in order for the river to remain the river, change must
constantly be taking place. Thus one may think of the Heraclitan model as parallel to
that of a living organism, which, in order to remain alive, must constantly be
changing. A contemporary application of this approach is shown in the social change
theory SEED-SCALE which builds off of the Complexity Theory subfield of
Emergence.
 Daoist: The Chinese philosophical work Dao De Jing, I.8 and II.78 uses the metaphor
of water as the ideal agent of change. Water, although soft and yielding, will
eventually wear away stone. Change in this model is to be natural, harmonious and
steady, albeit imperceptible.
 Resource-based economy: Jacque Fresco's concept of a resource-based economy that
replaces the need for the current monetary economy, which is "scarcity-oriented" or
"scarcity-based". Fresco argues that the world is rich in natural resources and energy
and that — with modern technology and judicious efficiency — the needs of the
global population can be met with abundance, while at the same time removing the
current limitations of what is deemed possible due to notions of economic viability.
Fresco's work in The Venus Project deals with physical reality and natural law rather
than economic abstractions. The Venus Project's website says this: "The Venus
Project is neither Utopian nor Orwellian, nor does it reflect the dreams of impractical
idealists. Instead, it presents attainable goals requiring only the intelligent application
of what we already know."[

Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_change#Prominent_theories_of_social_change
Accessed: June 14, 2013

1.0.6 Eastern and Western values of society

Eastern Values
Panchasheel:
1. Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty,
2. Mutual non-aggression,
3. Mutual non-interference in each other's internal affairs,
4. Equality and mutual benefit, and
5. Peaceful co-existence
 Lecture Notes on Professional Practice, Semester: IX, Program: BE Civil and Rural, Pokhara University
Compiled by: Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College, April 2015

i. Social Harmony
ii. Sacrifice for the welfare of group
iii. Modesty and frugality
iv. Truth and Integrity
v. Respect to elder, teacher, guest and ancestor
vi. Maintaining culture and tradition
vii. Helping the people in need (Paropakar)
viii. Purity in thought and acts
ix. Ritual as important as devotion or work

Western/American Values (Robin Williams, 1970)

i. Achievement and success
ii. Activity and work
iii. Moral orientation
iv. Humanitarianism
v. Efficiency and practicality
vi. Progress
vii. Material comfort
viii. Equality
ix. Freedom
x. External conformity
xi. Science and rationality
xii. Nationalism-patriotism
xiii. Democracy
xiv. Individual personality
xv. Group-superiority themes
 Lecture Notes on Professional Practice, Semester: IX, Program: BE Civil and Rural, Pokhara University
Compiled by: Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College, April 2015

1.1 Impacts and Consequences of Technology on Society

1.1.1 Socio-cultural Impact
Impact on Impact
Livelihood Livelihood is diversifying, many types of livelihood options available
Specialization of Profession Specialization in profession is increasing.
Health Access to health services is increasing, specific medicines are
available, diagnosis process improving, genetic engineering is curing
previously incurable diseases, assistance to specific needs of disabled
persons getting better through technically designed equipment,
welfare of aged citizens getting better
Education Access to education services getting better, distance learning is
improving access to education and latest information, e-book, e-
library, standardization of educational quality through use of ICT
technology, on line evaluation, on line test possible,
Family Family relation getting complex due to in-vitro fertilization, test-tube
baby, cloning, Family size reducing due to easier access to
contraception, micro-family getting possible, life span increasing,
several generation in family, change in status of female and disabled
Living Standard Living standard increasing, HDI increasing, poverty decreasing,
employment opportunity increasing, price of goods decreasing
Language Use of international language increasing, language use getting
standardized through mass media, brail script helping blind, sign
language use increasing for deaf
Social Norms and Values Social norms and values increasingly being challenged and altered or
replaced, social class disintegrating, new economic class emerging
Family tradition, culture, Family traditions increasingly being challenged and altered or
heritage replaced, heritage preservation getting better
Urbanization Urbanization increasing, concentration of resources and resource users
Commercialized Recreation Traditional dances, music, drama and games giving ways to movies,
video games, theme parks, pay per view programs

1.1.2 Impact on Agriculture

Impact on Impact
Food Production Food production mechanized, food production increasing, Green Revolution
Food Processing Food processing getting complex, requiring industrial management
Food Preservation Food security increasing
Mechanization Mechanization of all aspects of agriculture is increasing
Commercialization From subsistence to cash crop, genetically modified food, patented seeds
Food Variety Increasing, year round availability
Fertilizer/Pesticide From organic to chemical, pesticide use increasing
Water use Increasing due to cash crops, reduced use by sprinkler, drip, root zone
1.1.3 Impact on Communication
Impact on Impact
Information generation and dissemination Increasing access to information
Mass communication: Newspaper, Magazines, Enhanced public awareness, timely information
FM Radio, TV, instant/breaking news to people
Internet and Social Media Increased access to information, social media
influencing design of communication techniques
Telephone, mobile phone Increased and easier access to telephone
Virtual Meeting, virtual reality, tele-medicines Less need of physical presence in meeting,
distance medicine services and remote controller
operation possible
 Lecture Notes on Professional Practice, Semester: IX, Program: BE Civil and Rural, Pokhara University
Compiled by: Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College, April 2015

1.1.4 Impact on Industry, Economy and Job

Impact on Impact
Industrial Production and mass production Increased production of similar size and design
Price of goods Relatively decreasing due to mass production
Capital intensive technologies and labor Increasing
saving device use
Mechanization, Automation, and Increasing efficiency of industry, economic
Robotics use indicators improving
Job opportunities Increasing, also for women, after WW II

1.1.5 Impact on Transportation: mass transportation of goods and services

Impact on Impact
Land transportation Road, multilevel roads, railways
Underground Metro/Underground railways
Water Naval transportation, river navigation
Air Air cargo, air travel, air ambulance

1.1.6 Impact on Politics

Impact on Impact
Spreading of message/manifesto Increasing speed spreading political messages and messages
and propaganda reaching to more people
TV Debate, recognition of People get chance to evaluate the candidates, election managers
candidates, election management manipulate media to their advantage
Link between politicians & people Increasing without physical contact/presence
Social media influencing policies Increasing
e-voting, e-governance Increasing
1.1.7 Impact on Dispute/Conflict Resolution:
Impact on Impact
Warfare Increased use of gun powder, rockets, missiles, drones, improvised
explosive devices
Weapons of mass destruction atom bomb, hydrogen bomb, nuclear bomb made but not yet used
(except two in WW II), Star War, MAD policy
Weapons of mass deception Misuse/abuse of mass media increasing

1.1.8 Commercialized recreation

Impact on Impact
Traditional recreation Declining
Modern recreation Increasing, Theme parks, swimming pools, video game parlor
International games Increasingly being costly and commercialized, pay per view,
exclusive right to broadcast

1.1.9 Consequences:
 Global Village through development of Transportation technology and ICT technology
 Industrialization and fossil fuel use causing global warming and increase in frequency of extreme
events (Global Climate Change)
 Human Development Index parameters improving: GNP, GDP, Per Capita Income, Per Capita
Energy use, access to education/health, WATSAN/WASH, employment, poverty, infant mortality
 Lecture Notes on Professional Practice, Semester: IX, Program: BE Civil and Rural, Pokhara University
Compiled by: Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College, April 2015

1.2 Effects of Major Technological Developments such as Printing, Gunpowder,

Mechanization, Computer, Organic Chemistry, Communication Satellites

1.2.1 Printing:
Written and mass produced record of agreements, laws, rules, regulations, guidelines,
procedure, manuals, books, newspapers, magazines, journals, easily available
Effects:
Need to memorize diminished, information available when needed
Judgment based on written laws rather than wisdom of justices,
3D printing: can change production mode, 3D Printers print house:
http://www.sciencealert.com.au/news/20141510-26336.html

1.2.2 Gunpowder:
Explosives, Dynamite, Warfare, Colonization, Endangered species, Crime, Terrorism
Effects: warfare getting increasingly violent and costly, species getting extinct,
increasing use of gunpowder in crimes and terrorist activities

1.2.3 Mechanization:
Industrial production, agricultural mechanization, transportation, robotics,
automation,
Effects:
Lower cost of goods and food
Easier movement over long distances
Standardization and interchangeability of design, size, shape
Safer working environment for dangerous jobs
Higher living standard, material comfort

1.2.4 Computer:
Modeling, simulation (visualization of potential impacts and solution before the event
occurs and solutions implemented), design, solution techniques (FDM, FEM),
Management Information System, Spatial planning using GIS, computer crimes,
intrusion on personal privacy, data mining, data theft,
Effects: information generating, storing and dissemination
Design of materials using simulation
Electronic equipment

Impact of Computer on Society

 Wide application: applicable almost everywhere

 Employment: increased for persons with new skills
 Productivity and competition: increased
 Standard of living: has improved.
 Privacy: reduced

Computer Crimes

Electronic Transaction Act 2004 has listed the following acts under the Computer
Crime
 Lecture Notes on Professional Practice, Semester: IX, Program: BE Civil and Rural, Pokhara University
Compiled by: Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College, April 2015

i. Theft, damage or alteration of computer source code

ii. Unauthorized access to materials on computer
iii. Destruction and computer and information system
iv. Publication of illegal materials on electronic form
v. Violation of confidentiality
vi. Posting of false information
vii. Submitting or showing forged license or certificate
viii. Non-submission of the document or other materials
ix. Computer fraud

1.2.5 Organic Chemistry:

Plastic, Polymer, plastic, Construction glues, fossil fuel, construction materials
Effects: New materials: including construction materials, PPR pipes, PVC pipes,
synthetic glues, synthetic clothes, bio-degradable plastic, light weight and stronger
materials, water proofing, paint
Fossil fuel: transportation, bitumen

1.2.6 Communication Satellites:

Mass Communication: Radio, TV, Newspaper, Internet, WWW, social media, virtual
meetings, Satellite maps, GIS, GPS, Map making, Open Source Mapping, Google
Maps, Global Circulation Modeling, Surveying, Wild Fire detection, Early Warning
Effects: ICT development, TV, GPS, Satellite Maps, Weather forecasting, Climate
Modeling, LiDAR, GIS based planning (urban, land use etc), Remote Sensing
 2.1.2 Using Technology for Poverty Alleviation
• The figure of US$1 income per day is widely accepted as a general indicator of extreme poverty.
• There is no absolute cut-off and income is only one indicator of the results of poverty, among many
others.
• According to the World Bank, poverty includes powerlessness, voicelessness, vulnerability, and
fear.
• Poverty also include the deprivation of basic capabilities and lack of access to education, health,
natural resources, employment, land and credit, political participation, services, and infrastructure
(European Commission, 2001).
•
The ICT-Poverty connection
• A knowledge gap is an important determinant of persistent poverty.
• Developed countries already possess the knowledge required to assure a universally adequate
standard of living.
• ICT can encourage greater interaction and communication within and between countries in order
to reduce the “digital divide”.
• Consider Kofi Anan’s quote on the digital divide as an indicator of poverty.
“The new information and communications technologies are among the driving forces of globalisation.
They are bringing people together, and bringing decision makers unprecedented new tools for
development. At the same time, however, the gap between information ‘haves’ and ‘have-nots’ is
widening, and there is a real danger that the world’s poor will be excluded from the emerging
knowledge-based global economy” (Anan, 2002).
Specific ICT Applications for poverty alleviation
Radio
• Radio has achieved impressive results in the delivery of useful information to poor people. Its
principal attribute is its ubiquity.
• A survey of 21,000 farmers enrolled in radio-backed farm forums in Zambia found that 90 percent
found programmes relevant and more than 50 percent credited the programmes and forums with
increasing their crop yields (Dodds, 1999).
• In South Africa, clockwork radios that do not require battery or electricity are being distributed to
villages to enable them to listen to development programming.
• The radio has been used extensively to disseminate health information, weather forcast and so on.

Television
• Not as common as the radio but has been useful in some settings.
• Probably the most notable example of TV for development comes from China with its TV
University and agricultural TV station.
• In Viêt Nam, two universities in the Mekong Delta Region work with the local TV station to
broadcast weekly farmer’s workshops that are watched by millions.
Telephone
• With the introduction of the GSM, there has been a massive expansion of telephone services in the
rural areas where the poor live.
• A good example is the Grameen hand phones in Bangladesh, in which the Grameen Bank, the
village-based micro-finance organization, leases cellular mobile phones to successful members.
• This has delivered significant benefits to the poor. The phones are mostly used for exchanging price
and business and health related information.
 • In Nigeria, it is quite obvious the economic benefits of the GSM. Think of how much employment
and income it has generated.
• In the rural areas, the phones offer additional non-economic benefits such as improved law
enforcement, reduced inequality, more rapid and effective communication during emergencies and
stronger kinship bonding.
• In China, villages that had the telephone, the most basic communications technology, experienced
declines in the purchase price of various commodities and lower future price variability.
• Village telephones facilitated job searches, improved access to emergency medical care and the
ability to deal with natural disasters; lowered mortality rates for livestock due to more timely advice
from extension workers; and improved rates in foreign-exchange transactions (Eggleston et al.,
2002).
Public address systems
• Commonly used in China and Viêt Nam where to deliver public information, announcements and
the daily news.
• PA systems are more localized than radio, but are technically simpler and less expensive.
• Research on poor communities indicate that the telephone and radio remain the most important
(direct access) ICT tools for changing the lives of the poor (Heeks, 1999).
Computers and the Internet
• Computers and the Internet are commonly made available to poor communities in the form of
community-based telecentres.
• These centers provide shared access to computers and the Internet and are the only realistic means
of doing this for poor communities. A few case studies will be cited later.
• The two key elements of telecenters are public access and a development orientation.
• It is the latter characteristic that distinguishes telecentres from cyber cafés.
• Telecentres can provide a range of ICT-based services from which they can earn an income, such
as telephone use, photocopying and printing, email and word processing.
• This helps with financial self-sustainability, which telecentres are often required to attain.
• Some argue that ICT-based development services should not have to be paid for by poor people,
and should be provided as a public service, rather like libraries.
Poverty Alleviation using ICT
• “The most effective route to achieving substantial benefit with ICTs in development programs is
to concentrate on re-thinking development activities by analyzing current problems and associated
contextual conditions, and considering ICT as just one ingredient of the solution”- Roger Harris.

Successful use of ICT for poverty alleviation

1. Distributing locally relevant information.
- Where information is provided in the local language and with locally relevant content, the community can
benefit significantly.
-The Village Information Shops in Pondicherry, India, provides information using the Tamil language and
Tamil script in the computers (Sentilkumaran and Arunachalam, 2002).
The above and other similar projects in India provide information on
- Commodity marketing information - Below-Poverty-Line Family List
system - Employment news
- Landholder’s passbook of land rights and - Rural matrimonial
loans - Rural market
- Rural Hindi e-mail - Rural newspaper
- Forms of various government schemes. - E-education
 -
2. Targeting disadvantaged and marginalized groups
- - ICT has been used to benefit disadvantaged groups such as women, disabled, non-English
speakers and so on.
- - Such groups usually require special assistance and attention in if they are to benefit from programs
that are targeted at poor people.
- - Strategies for reaching marginalized sectors of society through ICTs include the collection,
classification, protection, and commercialization of indigenous knowledge by minority groups
using ICTs. Traditional remedies are being recorded in databases and afforded protection from
foreign applications for patents.
3. Promoting local entrepreneurship
- ICTs have the potential to impact the livelihood strategies of small-scale enterprises and local
entrepreneurs in the following areas:
• Natural capital - opportunities for accessing national government policies
• Financial capital - communication with lending organizations, e.g., for micro-credit
• Human capital - increased knowledge of new skills through distance learning and processes
required for certification
• Social capital - cultivating contacts beyond the immediate community
• Physical capital - lobbying for the provision of basic infrastructure
4. Improving poor people’s health
Health care is one of the most promising areas for poverty alleviation through the use of ICTs. This can be
achieved in the following areas.
a. to facilitate remote consultation, diagnosis, and treatment.
b. To enable health workers in developing countries are accessing relevant medical training through
ICT-enabled delivery mechanisms.
c. Radio, TV (and more recently the Internet) have a history of effectively facilitating the
dissemination of public health campaigns and disease prevention strategies in developing countries.
5. Strengthening education
- In developing countries, distance education programmes help to educate more people for less
money.
- UNESCO and the World Bank have reported that in the world’s 10 biggest distance education
institutions, the majority of which are in the Third World, the cost of education per student is on
average about one third the cost at traditional institutions in the same country.
- China Central Radio and Television University has 1.5 million students, two-thirds of them in
degree programmes.
- The university caters to working adults. It broadcasts radio and TV lectures at fixed times to
students at 2,600 branch campuses and 29,000 study centres, as well as at workplaces.
- In primary and secondary education, radio and television are increasingly important means of
reaching the rural poor. In Mexico, over 700,000 secondary-school students in remote villages now
have access to the Telesecundaria program, which provides televised classes and a comprehensive
curriculum through closedcircuit television, satellite transmissions and teleconferencing between
students and teachers.
6. Promoting trade and e-commerce
- E-commerce is spreading most quickly among developing countries.
- M-commerce, defined as the buying and selling of goods and services using wireless handheld
devices such as mobile telephones or personal data assistants (PDAs),is likewise growing at a rapid
pace.
 - The main areas of m-commerce use are in text messaging or SMS (short messaging service), micro-
payments, financial services, logistics, information services and wireless customer relationship
management.
8. Supporting good governance
- E-governance is an area of ICT use that shows rapidly increasing promise for alleviating the
powerlessness, voicelessness, vulnerability and fear dimensions of poverty.
- ICTs have been used to spread democracy and include the poor in the process of governance.
9. Building capacity and capability
- Capacity building refers to developing an organization’s (or individual’s) core skills and
capabilities to help it (him/her) achieve its (his/her) development goals.
- ICTs can help to achieve this.
The Village Information Shops in Pondicherry, have used ICTs to build awareness in poor communities of
the government programs and entitlements that are available for their assistance
10. Enriching culture
- ICTs can simultaneously be a threat and an opportunity to a culture.
- ICTs can help to preserve indigenous culture.
- Aside from digitization of indigenous cultural artefacts, ICTs provide a means for cultural
communities to strengthen cultural ties.
- For example, the Internet is helping to unite Assyrian communities, regardless of their geographic,
educational, and economic backgrounds.
11. Supporting agriculture
- ICTs can provide useful information to farmers in the area of crop care and animal husbandry,
fertilizer and feedstock inputs, drought mitigation, pest control, irrigation, weather forecasting, seed
sourcing and market prices.
- ICTs can also enable farmers to participate in advocacy and cooperative activities.
12. Creating employment opportunities
- Unemployed people can use ICTs to discover job opportunities.
- They can become employed in the new jobs that are created through the deployment of ICTs.
- Through open job seeker banks, for example, employers can search and directly access résumés,
which in turn are linked electronically to job vacancy banks.
- One common option is to purchase a mobile phone through a micro credit program and to earn
income by providing low cost phone calls to others. This is quite common in Nigeria.
- India has seen rapid growth in cyber kiosks that provide access to social communication as well as
business support services for underprivileged groups.
- It has helped to reduce youth unemployment.
Limitations of ICT
• ICTs alone are insufficient for significant benefits to emerge.
• ICTs will not transform bad development into good development, but they can make good
development better.
• Effective applications of ICTs comprise both a technological infrastructure and an information
infrastructure.
• In rural settings in developing countries (where the vast majority of poor people live), it is always
a challenge to install the technological infrastructure, but the task is relatively simple compared to
establishing the information infrastructure.
• While ICTs provide opportunities for development, desirable outcomes always arise from the
actions of people.
 Lecture Notes on Professional Practice, Semester: IX, Program: BE Civil and Rural, Pokhara University
Compiled by: Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College, April 2015

1.5.1 Relation between individual freedom and social good

Individual freedom can be curbed when such curbing is for social good/harmony.

1.5.2 Limits on individual behavior

Individual behavior is limited by its interference in someone else’s freedom.

1.5.3 Economic, legal and philosophical analyses of individual freedom

(TBG, pp 10-12)

1.6 Exponential Growth. Alternative use of Scarce Resources,

1.6.1 Exponential growth of population
World population is growing at exponential rate. The growth is highest in developing
countries. In highly industrialized countries population is stagnant or decreasing.
Urban population is increasing at much faster rate. Rural population is decreasing,
partly due to migration.

1.6.2 Exponential growth in exploitation of natural resources

Advances in technology has made it possible to exploit natural resources at ever high
rate, increased access to resources.

1.6.3 Exponential decrease in availability of usable resources

Usable water is reducing due to contamination. Forest cover is decreasing rapidly.
Many species are getting extinct. Biodiversity is decreasing.

1.6.4 Alternative use of scarce resources:

Scarce resources: usable water, usable land, breathable air, minerals, heavy metals,
radioactive materials, herbs, scarce metals
Traditional Energy Source: Wood, Coal, Natural Gas, and Fossil Fuel
Alternative Energy: Hydro, Solar, Wind, Bio-fuel, Nuclear, atomic

1.7 Cause of International Tensions

1.7.1 Energy Security:
Fossil fuel,
coal,
nuclear,
hydropower

1.7.2 Water Security:

Upstream vs. downstream users
Riparian vs. Prior Use right
Rhine, Mekong, Bramhaputra, Ganga, Indus, Nile, Rio Grande, Euphrates and Tigris
Climate change aggravating water security and water quality
1.7.3 Land Security: lands with strategic value and land with natural resources
Mt. Sinai, Israel vs. Syria
Islands in Pacific Ocean: China vs, Japan, China vs. Korea, Korea vs. Japan
 Lecture Notes on Professional Practice, Semester: IX, Program: BE Civil and Rural, Pokhara University
Compiled by: Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College, April 2015

Kashmir: India vs. Pakistan

China vs. India: Arunachal Pradesh
Falklands: UK vs. Argentina
Kalapani: Nepal vs. India
Falklands: Argentina vs. Britain
Global warming Sea level rise: land under sea

1.7.4 Food Security

Desertification
Starvation
Whalers vs. environmentalists (Green peace)
Genetically Modified Food vs. Natural Right to produce, preserve and use seed
Patent on seeds

1.7.5 Religion
Christianity vs. Judaism
Christianity vs. Islamic
Judaism vs. Islamic
Hindus vs. Islamic

1.7.6 Political Ideology

Capitalism vs. Communism
Ultra Nationalism
Influence/Domination

1.7.7 Climate Change

GHG emission
Polluters vs. Adopters and “Copers”
Ozone layer depletion
Developers vs. Environmentalists (Green Peace)
Sea level rise: land under salty sea water

1.7.8 Industrial and Business

Industries manufacturing war equipment work in background to aggravate existing
conflicts

1.8 Risk and Overall Cost/Benefit

Risk is inherent in any engineering decision; there is no such thing as risk free decision.
The goal of an engineer (or a professional) in making decision is to reduce the level of
risk to an acceptable level.

1.8.1 Rational Analysis in Engineering Decision Making (RPA, pp.66-67)

Rational: having its source in or being guided by the intellect (distinguished from
experience or emotion);
 Lecture Notes on Professional Practice, Semester: IX, Program: BE Civil and Rural, Pokhara University
Compiled by: Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College, April 2015

Engineering decisions made by following accepted norms and standards are

considered rational decisions. Rational decision does not necessarily mean the best
decision. The rational decision making process assumes that the data/information
available for making the decision are available, can be quantified and analyzed;
however, the weightage assigned to the parameters affecting risk analysis tend to be
subjective, based on the decision maker’s experience and perception.

A simple example of a rational decision making process in engineering is as follows.

In a hydropower projects, the locations of various civil engineering components (like
headworks, desilting basin, headrace canal/pipe, forebay, powerhouse, tailrace exit
point) and electro-mechanical components (like selection of turbine, generator) has to
be decided. There are multiple parameters affecting the decision, one of them being
the locations of the civil engineering components; different locations result in
different benefit-cost ratio. Decision is made based on evaluation of different options
of the location of the components.

1.8.2 Risk and Acceptable risk

Risk: Exposure to the possibility of loss, injury, or other adverse circumstance

Risk: The expected value, taken over all possible states of the world, of the loss
incurred in making a choice.

The level of acceptable risk depends on social value system. In a society with low
value of human life, the level of acceptable risk is high, which affects analysis of
overall benefit/cost of a project because of lower cost of insurance, safety measures,
medical provisions, etc.

1.8.3 Newer parameters of cost of projects

Overall cost: involves cost of ecological services, social cost, cultural cost, heritage
loss cost, on top of economic cost.

1.9 Education and Training of Technologists, Scientists and Engineers.

1.9.1 Traditional education and training of Technologists, Scientists and Engineers
Formal training
Continuous Education
Skill versus Knowledge

1.9.2 Multi-disciplinary education and training of Technologists, Scientists and Engineers

Technologists, Scientists and Engineers from different disciplines coming together to
solve complex problems
Education and Training of separate disciplines, provided one at a time

1.9.3 Interdisciplinary education and training of Technologists, Scientists and Engineers

 Lecture Notes on Professional Practice, Semester: IX, Program: BE Civil and Rural, Pokhara University
Compiled by: Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College, April 2015

Education and training of multiple disciplines intertwined, at provided at the same time
General Characteristics of American Values
Developing Countries

1. Agriculture as the main occupation 1. Achievement and success

2. High population growth 2. Activity and work
3. Low per capita GNP 3. Moral orientation
4. unemployment and under employment 4. Humanitarianism
5. technological backwardness 5. Efficiency and practicality
6. low labor productivity 6. Progress
7. Dualism 7. Material comfort
8. Underutilized natural resources 8. Equality
9. Foreign trade orientation 9. Freedom
10. Lack of socio-economic consciousness 10. External conformity
11. Science and rationality
12. Nationalism – patriotism
13. Democracy
14. Individual Responsibility
15. Group – superiority
themes

Old Exam Questions from Chapter 1 (Background Perspective)

Society:
1. Define society. Explain the approaches for social change.
2. Discuss in brief about the elements of a society. (8) (RPA, p2)
3. What are the essential elements of a society? Describe in detail.
4. What are the essential elements of a society? Briefly discuss western philosophy on
change and development. (8) (RPA, pp 6-7)
5. What do you mean by social change? Discuss the sources of social change.
6. What do you mean by social change? Discuss the sources of social change.(12) (RPA, pp 4-5)
7. What is social change? What are the factors responsible for social change? (8) (RPA, pp 4-5)
8. What are the theories of social and cultural change? Explain. [7] (RPA, pp 6-7)
9. Briefly discuss functionalist, evolution and conflict theory on social and cultural change.
(7) (RPA, pp 6-7)
10. What are the theories of social and cultural change? Briefly explain the evolution theory
of cultural change. (8)
11. What is the impact of education in social and cultural change? Explain. [8]
12. What do you understand by society? Discuss the theories of social change.
13. Define social change. What are the theories of social change? Explain about the cyclical
theory.
14. Describe the characteristics of the western society.

Impact of Technology on Society

15. Define technology. What are the effects of technology on society?
16. Explain technological change.
17. Briefly explain the impact of technology on society.
18. Describe the impact of technology in the rural society.
19. What is the role of transportation facility to improve the economic condition of the rural
people of Nepal? Explain with the help of suitable example. (7)
 Lecture Notes on Professional Practice, Semester: IX, Program: BE Civil and Rural, Pokhara University
Compiled by: Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College, April 2015

20. What do you understand by technology and how does it impact the society? Throw light
on how technological development is reflected in Human Development. (15) (RPA, pp 16-
18)
21. What is the impact of technology on society for bringing social as well as cultural
change? Briefly discuss. (7) (RPA, pp 16-18)
22. 'Technology is the indicator of development.' Relate it with societies of the world. Write
technological achievement of 21st century that has greatest impact on human.
23. Write about the impact of computer in society.
24. Explain the impact of computer in the society.
25. What are the impacts of computer on society? Discuss in detail.

Developing Countries
26. Explain the characteristics of developing countries.
27. What do you understand by developed and developing countries? Discuss.

Short Note Type Questions

a. Factors causing Social Change
b. Cause of international tensions
c. Characteristics of developing countries
d. Individual freedom versus societal goals
 Lecture Notes on Professional Practice, Semester: IX, Program: BE Civil and Rural, Pokhara University
Compiled by: Prof. Dr. Hari Krishna Shrestha, Nepal Engineering College, April 2015

Unit Test Questions:

1. List the essential elements of a society.

2. List the stages of evolution society.
3. List the factors of social change.
4. List the classical theories of social change.
5. List the impact of recent technological advances on agricultural practices in Nepal.
6. List the four major technological developments which have impacted society as large.
7. List the actions considered to be computer crime by the Electronic Transaction Act 2004
of Nepal.
8. List the impacts of developments in communication technology in the society and
technical works.
9. List the sources of international tension.
10. List different types of education and trainings related to engineers and scientists.