ClassSession 58932020621639390
ClassSession 58932020621639390
ClassSession 58932020621639390
MEMORY HIERARCHY
This refers to the ordered arrangement of memory systems or storage in current computer architecture
which seeks to take advantage of memory locality in reference to computer program execution.
Each level of the hierarchy has either increasing or decreasing tendencies of the characteristics that are
associated with memory systems. These characteristics are: Speed, Access time, Latency, Size, Cost,
Robustness, Power Consumption and Memory Length.
1. SPEED: This is the amount of information/data that can be accessed from a given memory system per
unit time. It is the number of bits (binary digits) that can be transferred into or out of a given memory
system per unit time. In other words, it is the rate at which information or data can written to or read
from, a given memory system per second. Units are bit per second (bps).
2. ACCESS TIME: This is the time taken for data to become available for use after a read or write
operation is initiated. The units for access time are Seconds (s).
3. LATENCY: This is the amount of time it takes for a red/write mechanism to position itself at the
appropriate location above or on the media prior to a read-write operation. It is normally associated
with memory systems that have moving parts. The units for Latency are Seconds (s).
4. CAPACITY: This is the maximum amount of data that a given memory system can accommodate for
storage, either long term or short term. The unit for capacity is the Byte (B).
5. SIZE: This is the maximum volume that a given memory system/object can occupy. It is simply, how
big or small the memory system is. Units, cubic meters (m 3).
6. COST: This the total expense in terms of currency that go into the manufacture and or purchase of a
memory system.
7. ROBUSTNESS: This is the measure of the susceptibility of a memory system to errors. It is simply the
measure of the reliability of a a memory system to errors, or how prone it is to errors.
8. POWER CONSUMPTION: This is the amount of electric power that a given memory system utilizes or
consumes in its overall operation. The units are Kilowatt Hours (kWhr).
9. MEMORY LENGTH: This is the amount of time that a given memory system can is capable of holding
data reliably, without the introduction of errors in the absence of a power connection.
2 Level One (L1) Cache: Often accessed in just a few CPU cycles, usually tens of bytes.
3 Level Two (L2) Cache: Higher Latency than L1 by 2x to 10x, often 512kB or more.
4 Level Three (L3) Cache(Optional): Higher Latency L2, often several MB in capacity.
5 Dynamic RAM: Hundreds of CPU Cycles, up to multiple GBs in capacity, Access time may not be
uniform.
6 Flash Memory: Faster than disks, up to 16/64 GB, transfer usually over USB.
7 Magnetic Disks (HDD, Zip Disk, Floppy Disk): Hundreds of thousands of cycles latency, TB
capacity.
8 Optical Storage (Blu-Ray, DVDs, CDs, Mini- Disks): Slower, larger capacity
9 Magnetic Tape
CACHE MEMORY
This is a relatively small, high speed memory that stores the most recently and frequently used
instructions or data from the larger but slower main memory. it is designed and built from Static RAM
(SRAM) cells which are composed of flip flops. It acts as an intermediate between the Processor and the
RAM or main memory. In so doing, it optimizes the performance of the computer system by reducing the
amount of time the processor has to wait for data and instructions from the larger but definitely slower
main memory.
L1 and L2 Caches
L1 cache is usually integrated into the processor chip and has very limited storage capacity. L1 is also
known as Primary Cache. L2 cache is normally in a separate memory chip external to the processor and
usually has a higher capacity than L1 cache. L1 cache is also known as Secondary Cache. Some systems
may have higher level caches (L3, L4, L5, etc) but these are optional. L1 & L2 are the most common.
Dynamic RAM uses Capacitors as storage elements and cannot retain data very long without the capacitors
being recharged by a process called Refreshing. Both SRAMs & DRAMs will lose data when dc power is
removed and, therefore, are classified as Volatile Memories.
Data can be read much faster from SRAMs than from DRAMs. However, DRAMs can store much more data
than SRAMs for a given physical size and cost because the DRAM memory cell is much simpler, and more
can be crammed into a given area than in the SRAM.
The cell is selected by placing an active (high) level on the Bit Select line and a data bit (0 or 1) is written
into the cell by placing it on the Data and Data lines. A data bit is read by taking it off the Data and Data
lines. Input data and Output data can share the same lines because the read and write operations occur at
different times.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS