SYNOPSIS

THE ROLE OF MEDIA IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION

1. The media, with specific reference to the collective entity of

newspapers, radio, television and the International Network (Internet), play a

very important role in national development. National development involves

changes or advancement in a nation aimed at improving the political,

economic and social lives of the people. The real influence of the media in

national development will depend on the media themselves, the societies in

which they operate, and the audience they reach. None of these factors are

the same everywhere, at all times, or under all conditions. The media in

dictatorships, for example, are not likely to exercise the same influence as

those in democratic societies. Even among similar types of government,

other factors, such as technology, the target audience and the message, may

influence the extent of media impact in the society.

2. Whatever the circumstances or the nature of the society in which the

media operate, certain factors are basic in the way they influence national

development. Every medium has a message; it has a target audience; it aims

at influencing a change; it influences attitudes, perceptions and decision-

making; and it generally influences behaviour.

vi
3. Terms of Reference. This study focuses on the role of media in

national development. It is designed to establish a relationship between the

media and national development. Accordingly, the study is set to test the

hypothesis that the role of media in national development is dependent upon

their independence, freedom, and the ability to effectively communicate

objective, balanced, fair and professional information to both government

and the general public. The study therefore seeks to answer the following

questions:

(a) To what extent do the media contribute to national

development?

(b) What are the factors which influence the role of media in

national development?

(c) In what ways do the media influence events in the society?

(d) What are the key issues for determining media influence the

society?

(e) How well have the media contributed to national development?

4. Aim and Scope. The aim of this study is to examine the role

of media in national development. There is no doubt that the topic is very

wide, therefore analysis will be limited to conventional media: newspapers,

radio, television and the Internet. The study will involve a comparative

vii
analysis of media contents, methods or styles of presentation, and the

environment in which the media operate. The specific objectives are to:

(a) Examine the role of media in national development.

(b) Determine the extent to which the media impact on national

development.

(c) Examine the functions of the media in nation-building.

(d) Evaluate the ways in which the media influence events in

society.

(e) Examine the factors which influence the role of media in

national development.

LAYOUT OF THE THESIS

5. The Thesis is organized into six Chapters. Chapter 1 covers the

Introduction, providing the background, statement of aim, scope of the study

and the preview, including plan of presentation. Chapter 2 deals with the

Role of Media in Society in their capacity as the Fourth Estate, agenda

setters, gatekeepers, watchdogs and force multipliers. Chapter 3 examines

the role of media in political, economic and social development. Chapter 4 is

the analysis of media’s contribution to nation-building. Chapter 5 focuses on

the Factors Affecting the Role of Media, such as sensationalism,

viii
propaganda, bias, freedom, ownership and media vices (pornography,

violence, etc). Chapter 6 concludes and makes recommendations.

BRIEF RESUME

6. The relationship between media and national development has been

tested in this study, and found to be positive. This has been achieved through

an in-depth comparative analysis of media’s role in various societies.

Researches conducted in these societies at different times indicate this

positive relationship. Available data enabled statistical analysis based upon

which conclusions were drawn. That the media play a crucial role in national

development is therefore not in doubt. They represent the tool for shaping

public opinion; promoting democracy and good governance, influencing

behaviour; facilitating nation-building; and promoting policies that

guarantee high quality of life. The media, as vanguard for political,

economic and social development, represent a functional organism that

carries out a specific role in society.

7. While it is true that the media are crucial in national development,

their role can only be optimized or enhanced under certain conditions.

Firstly, for the media to play any meaningful role in national development,

they must be free and independent. Media freedom is a core ingredient both

in theoretical conceptions of democracy and in the empirical measurement

ix
of it. Free press is one of the built-in mechanisms in democracy, designed to

oppose destructive and divisive attitudes.

8. Secondly, to succeed in their role, the media must be professional and

objective. Factors, such as media bias, sensationalism, propaganda and

distortions, negatively affect the contribution of the media in national

development. Freedom of the media must therefore go along with

responsibility. Thirdly, control of the media by a few individuals,

corporations or governments is inimical to the media’s ability to effectively

carry out their role. Fourthly, for the media to succeed in their role,

complementary institutions, such as the judiciary and media councils, must

reinforce their activities.

CONCLUSION

9. The media’s crucial role in national development is not in doubt. The

role covers the political, economic and social spheres. The media set the

public agenda and act as the gatekeeper of public issues. They perform the

watchdog role especially in political transparency and fight against

corruption. As the fourth estate, the media provide the checks and balances

in relation to the three branches of government, as created by the

Constitution. Media are particularly important in facilitating nation-building,

x
especially of post-colonial societies and those experiencing ethnic and

religious diversities.

10. The media must however play their role in national development in an

environment that is free and independent, with fair ownership spread.

Biases, sensationalism, propaganda, and media vices are inimical to media

role in national development.

xi
 Locker No.

THE ROLE OF MEDIA IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

One of the objects of a newspaper is to understand the popular

feeling and give expression to it; another is to arouse among the
people certain desirable sentiments; the third is fearlessly to
expose popular defects.1
- Mahatma Gandhi

Background

11. Communication, the process of creating shared meaning through

sending and receiving information, is vital for understanding and providing

knowledge to people.2 It enables people to understand and appreciate their

environment, and facilitate relationships between and among individuals and

societies. Communication can be oral or written; formal or informal; verbal

or non-verbal; traditional or modern. Whatever form it takes, communication

is meant to convey information from one party to another. The source,

message, medium, receiver and effects are the main ingredients of

1
World Development Report 2002, New York, Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 181.
2
Stanley J. Baran, “Introduction to Mass Communication,” McGraw Hill Online
Learning Center, http://highered.mcgraw-
hill.com/sites/0767421906/student_view0/chapter3/chapter_overview.ht...

1
communication.3 Communication between a mass medium and its audience

is mass communication.4 There are multiple ways by which communication

is made, and these are collectively known as the “media”.

12. The word “media” comes from the plural of the Latin word medium,

and it is used as a collective noun to refer to television, radio, newspapers,

magazines, films, the International Network (Internet), etc.5 The media can

be examined either in terms of broadcast media, or print media. Further, a

medium is described as hot, meaning a high definition channel of

communication, such as print or radio, which focuses on a single sensory

receptor. It is cool, meaning a low definition channel of communication,

such as television, which stimulates several different senses and requires

high sensory involvement.6

13. In certain instances, the word “press” is used to refer to the print

media, while in other instances the word “journalism” is used to describe the

business or practice of writing and producing news. The phrase “mass

3
D. McQuail and S. Windahl, Communication Models, London, Longman, 1986.
4
Ibid.
5
Busakorn Suriyasarn, “Internet and National Development,” Thai Media and
Telecommunications, May 1998. http://www.busakorn.addr.com/thaitcom/internet-
nationaldevelopment.htm.
6
“Media and Technology Communication Theories,”
http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/comm321/gwalker/media.htm

2
media” is sometimes used to describe the collective entity of the media. In

this study, the word media is used to refer to both the print and broadcast

media as indicated above.

14. The extent to which the media is a factor for national development has

been a subject of discourse in communication literature. However, before

delving into the discourse, it is necessary to define the phrase “national

development”, so as to understand and appreciate the issues involved in the

relationship between media and national development. According to the

Oxford Dictionary, development means “a new stage in a changing

situation.”7 To develop is to become more advanced. In the context of a

nation, Eapen projected that three major factors must be considered in any

discussion on development – economic growth, self reliance, and social

justice.8 National development involves political, economic and social

factors. Development is a qualitative change, which entails changes in the

structure of the economy, social environment, and political disposition. The

targets of national development are the people, because it is focused on

7
F.G. Fowler and H.W. Fowler, eds. The New Pocket Oxford Dictionary, Oxford, 2001,
edn. 9.
8
K.E. Eapen, The Media and Development: An Exploratory Survey in Indonesia and
Zambia, Leeds, 1973.

3
human population. The overall object of national development is human

development, the purpose of which is to enlarge people’s choices for:

…greater access to knowledge; better nutrition and health

services; more secure livelihoods; security against crime and
physical violence; political and cultural freedoms; and a sense
of participation in community activities…9

15. The media have been variously described as the fourth estate, agenda

setter, watchdog, force multiplier, and gate-keeper, all in an effort to

demonstrate their influence on society. Conversely, the media have been

viewed as avenue for sensationalism, propaganda, and bias, factors inimical

to national development. Given these perceptions about the media, to what

extent do they contribute to national development?

Justification of the Study

16. This study is significant in exposing the value of communication and

information for the development of societies. It is especially important today

because, due to the impact of Information Technology (IT), the world has

become a global village. Beyond the ordinary value of information,

democracy cannot thrive without free and independent media to provide

checks and balances to the three arms of government. Likewise, the media

cannot be effective in national development if they are not responsible by

9
UNDP Human Development Reports (2002), http://hdr.undp.org/mdg/

4
being free from sensationalism, propaganda and bias in their coverage. The

study could be used to re-appraise the role of media in both India and

Nigeria, in addition to the fact that it would contribute to the body of

knowledge and stimulate further work on media research.

Statement of the Aim

17. Aim. The aim of the study is to examine the role of media in national

development. The specific objectives are to:

(a) Examine the role of media in society.

(b) Determine the extent of media role in national development.

(c) Evaluate how the media influence events in society.

(d) Analyse the role of media in strengthening democracy,

economic growth, peace and security, and nation-building.

18. Hypothesis. The hypothesis to be tested is that media’s role in

national development is dependent upon their independence, freedom, and

the ability to effectively communicate objective, balanced, fair, and accurate

information to both government and the public. To test this hypothesis,

certain assumptions are made:

(a) Media access to public information and their ability to

accurately transmit such information for the benefit of the public is a

pre-requisite for national development.

5
 (b) Media need to be free and independent, have the capacity to

reflect diverse views, and the ability to report on various subjects,

while remaining accountable.

(c) Higher media penetration promotes greater responsibilities of

public and private agents.

(d) Control of media by any single or concentrated interest groups

can hinder their ability to play their role.

(e) Media can be more effective if complementary institutions,

such as the judiciary, reinforce their independence and quality.

Scope of the Study

19. The study is limited to only four areas of the media: newspapers,

radio, television and the Internet. It involves comparative analysis of media

contents; methods or styles of presentation; and the environment in which

the media operate. Further, it examines the role of media in the political,

economic and social development in a nation, and the impact on these

spheres of development. Both primary and secondary data are used for the

study. The data are reviewed for relevant theories, key concepts, thoughts,

opinions and other facts bearing on the subject. The data are both qualitative

and quantitative, based on content analysis. The study is supported by

6
empirical examples and statistics of studies conducted in different societies

and at different times.

Preview and Plan of Presentation

20. Media are crucial in national development. They influence public

opinion; promote democracy and good governance; influence people’s

behaviour; and support people-oriented policies. The media are therefore

vanguard for political, economic and social development.

21. Media role can be negative for the society if they are selective, bias,

sensational, and inclined to propaganda and media vices (pornography,

violence etc). For the media to effectively play their role in national

development, they must be free and independent. Free press is a crucial

factor in the performance of the media.

22. This study is organized into six Chapters as follows:

(a) Chapter 1: Introduction.

(b) Chapter 2: The Role of Media in Society.

(c) Chapter 3: Media and National Development.

(d) Chapter 4: Media and Nation Building.

(e) Chapter 5: Factors Influencing Media Role in National

Development.

(f) Chapter 6: Conclusion and Recommendations.

7
 CHAPTER 2

THE ROLE OF MEDIA IN SOCIETY

23. The role of media in society is central to this study. There is no doubt

that the media have an important role to play in society, but how the role is

pursued and carried out is a matter of critical importance. Where the media

pursue the role in the face of professionalism, truth, fairness and justice, then

the society immensely benefits, but where the media become selfish in

pursuance of mainly profits and personal gains, then the society is at a

disadvantage. According to Davis:

The operation of a modern industrial democracy requires that

those who purvey information provide information that is, in
fact, not a judgmental distortion of reality and fact, but as
accurate as humanly possible – or else a society can quickly,
with the permissiveness of modern media, be thrown off
balance.10

24. For the media to successfully contribute to national development,

there are certain roles expected of them. These roles include providing

checks and balances in democracy (Fourth Estate), setting public agenda,

gate-keeping, watchdog, and force multiplying. These roles will be

examined in some detail.

10
William G. Davis, “The Media’s Role in Society: A Statesman’s View,” The Empire
Club of Canada Speeches 1993-1994, Toronto, Canada, The Empire Club Foundation,
1994, pp. 380-390.

8
25. Media as the Fourth Estate. The Fourth Estate is a phrase which

refers to the profession of Journalism. The phrase was attributed to Burke

when he said that:

…there were Three Estates in Parliament; but, in the Reporters’

Gallery yonder, there sat a Fourth Estate more important than
they all…11

It was therefore derived from the old English idea of three Estates: the Lords

Spiritual, the Lords Temporal and the House of Commons. The notion that

the media is the Fourth Estate rests on the idea that the media’s function is to

act as a guardian of public interest, and as a watchdog on the activities of

government. The media are therefore important components of the checks

and balances that form part of modern democracy. According to Nash:

There are all kinds of power centre in any democracy: the

judiciary, the government mandarins, the elected
representatives, the establishment, the business community, the
unions. But…what binds it all together is the media. Only
through the media can the governing communicate with the
governed in any mass sense.12

26. In their role of the Fourth Estate, the media guarantee the

accountability of government officials and defend public interests. In

11
T. Carlyle, On Heroes: Hero Worship and the Heroic in History, London, H.R.
Allenson, 1905, pp. 349-350.
12
Knowlton Nash, “The Media’s Role in Society: The Media Viewpoint,” The Empire
Club of Canada Speeches 1993-1994, Toronto, Canada, The Empire Club Foundation,
1994, pp. 402-411.

9
modern interpretation of the Fourth Estate, the media are seen as the fourth

“power” which checks and counterbalances the “powers” of executive,

legislature and judiciary.

27. Media as Agenda Setter. Agenda setting is one of the most

important roles of the media. It is defined as the process whereby the media

determine what we think and worry about.13 Lippmann, who first observed

this function in the 1920s, pointed out that the public reacts not to actual

events, but to the pictures in our head.14 The effect of agenda-setting is

epitomized in the famous Cohen’s quote that the press “may not be

successful much of the time in telling people what to think, bit it is

stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.”15

28. Rogers and Dearing identified two levels of agenda setting. The first

level enacts the common subjects that are most important, while the second,

decides what parts of the subject are important. According to them, “the

media agenda affects public agenda, and the public agenda affects the policy

13
James R. Wilson and Roy S. Wilson, Mass Media, Mass Culture, Boston, McGraw
Hill, 2001.
14
Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, New York, Macmillan, 1922.
15
Bernard Cohen, The Press and Foreign Policy, Princeton, University Press, 1963.

10
agenda.”16 McCombs and Shaw point out that there is abundant evidence

that editors and broadcasters play an important role as they go through their

tasks in deciding and publicizing news. 17

29. The concept of agenda setting is for the press to selectively choose

what we see or hear in the media. According to Ghorpade, “agenda setting is

a relational concept that specifies a transfer of salience from agenda primers

(media) to agenda adopters (consumers).”18 The power of the news media to

set a nation’s agenda, to focus public attention on few key public issues, is

an immense and well-documented influence. To summarize the extent of

agenda-setting influence, researchers calculate the correlation between the

ranking of issues on the media agenda and the ranking accorded the same

issues on the public agenda. To reflect substantial degree of influence of the

media as agenda setter, comparisons between how the issues are ranked on

the media agenda and how the public ranks their importance should yield

correlations of +.50 or better, as in the following cases:

16
E.M. Rogers and J.W. Dearing, “Agenda-Setting Research: Where Has It Been? Where
Is It Going?” in J.A. Anderson, ed., Communication Yearbook II, Newbury Park, Sage,
1997.
17
Maxwell E. McCombs and Donald L. Shaw, The Emergence of American Political
Issues, New York, West Publishing Co., 1977, p. 5.
18
Shailendra Ghorpade, “Agenda Setting: A Test of Advertising Neglected Function,”
Journal of Advertising Research, Aug/Sep, 1986, p. 23.

11
 (a) US Presidential Election (1968). McCombs and Shaw

empirically tested the theory in which they asked the Chapel Hill

voters of North Carolina to name the most important issues of the day,

their responses closely reflected the pattern of news coverage during

the previous month in newspapers, television and magazines.19

(b) Elections in Spain (1995). In Spain, unemployment and

urban congestion were the major issues of Pamplona residents in

1995. Comparison of six major public agendas with local news

coverage showed high correlation.20

(c) Japanese Mayoral Election (1986). In the Japanese mayoral

election in 1986, voters in Machida City regarded welfare policies,

urban facilities, and local taxes as the most important issues in the

election. Comparison of the public agenda with the news coverage of

four newspapers yielded a modest, but positive, correlation.21

19
Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw, “The Agenda- Setting Function of Mass
Media,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 1972, pp. 176-185.
20
Maria Jose Camel et al. “The first level agenda setting effect on local information: the
‘most important problems’ of the city of Pamplona,” Comunicacion y Sociedad, Vol. 9,
No. 1&2, 1996, pp. 17-38.
21
Toshio Takeshita, “Agenda-setting effects of the press in a Japanese local election,”
Studies of Broadcasting, Vol. 29, 1993, pp. 193-216.

12
 (d) Argentina Legislative Elections (1997). In Argentina,

agenda-setting effects were found in the 1997 legislative elections in

Buenos Aires. The result was a high correlation between the public

agenda and the combined issue agenda of five newspapers.22

(e) Britain (1990-2000). In Britain, there was a significant

correlation (+.54) between public concern about international issues

and the pattern of international coverage in The Times.23

30. So what are the likely effects of agenda setting? A survey was

conducted on The New York Times web site for 30 days on the frequency of

articles, and within those days there were 583 articles on anthrax, an average

of 20 articles daily. As a consequence, such a situation is likely to provoke

fear on the minds of people.24 Other effects may include misleading

headlines, such as an article in The Collegian, in which the headline read

“Source of Anthrax that killed a NY Woman,” however the article never

stated a credible reason for the woman’s death. Although it was about

22
Federico Rey Lennon, “The 1997 Argentina election. The national dailies and the
electoral campaign,” Report by the Freedom Forum and Austral University, 1998.
23
Stuart Soroka, “Media, public opinion and foreign policy,” Harvard International
Journal of Press and Politics, vol 8, No 1, 2003.
24
“Tales of terror: US Print Media Coverage of America’s New War,”
http://english.pravda.ru/usa/2001/10/12/17966.html

13
anthrax, there was no connection in the article between anthrax and the

woman’s death.25

31. Media as Gatekeeper. Gatekeeping has been defined as the

controlling of a strategic portion of a channel, so as to have the power of

decision over whether whatever is flowing through that channel will enter

the group or not.26 In other words, it involves a series of checkpoints that the

news has to pass through before it gets to the public. Through this process

many people have to decide whether or not the news is to be seen or heard.

Gatekeepers of the media are message filters, and they include reporters,

writers, editors, producers and even government officials. The concept

involves every aspect of message selection, handling and control.27

32. Media as Watchdog. Closely linked to the gatekeeping role of the

media is their watchdog role. The media are traditionally the watchdog of

democracy, which is also linked to their status as the fourth estate. The key

assumption of the media as watchdog is that they speak for the people,

represent the interests of the people, and serve as checks on the government.

25
The Collegian, New York, Oct 18, 2001.
26
E. Katz and P. Lazarsfeld, Personal Influence – The Part Played by People in the Flow
of Mass Communication, Glencoe, IL, The Free Press, 1995.
27
P.J. Shoemaker, Gatekeeping, Newbury Park, Sage Publications, 1991.

14
Analysing the role of media, Schuepp identifies the responsibilities of a

watchdog, thus:28

(a) A watchdog has to protect his owner, give him security and

react to possible outside interference with the rights of his owner.

(b) The watchdog has to know his loyalties therefore the media

have to be loyal to the society, because they are the watchdog of

society and not of government.

(c) Anybody who threatens democracy, freedom of speech, the

basic rights of the people, should be attacked by the watchdog.

33. According to Kovach, watchdog journalism at its best helps alert a

community to changing circumstances affecting their lives.29 He further

notes that the watchdog role goes beyond a simple journalism of witness:

…embedded in each watchdog story are the elements of

disclosure and judgment, which often point to victims and
wrongdoers. By probing below and beyond surface information,
by challenging assumptions and assertions, the reporting invites
a civic judgment.30

28
Chris Schuepp, “The Role of the Media in Civil Society,” Paper presented at the
Comprehensive Development Framework (CDF) Conference, Bishkek, Kyrgyz Republic,
July 6, 2000.
29
Bill Kovach, “The Daily Work of the Media,” Nieman Reports, The Nieman
Foundation for Journalism, Harvard University, Vol. 52, No. 2, Summer 1998.
30
Ibid.

15
34. How effective and consistent is the watchdog role of the media? To

answer this question, some survey statistics will be examined accordingly.

The findings of a Bangkok based media and research specialist,

MediaHubAsia, reveal that the majority of newspaper readers in Thailand

believe that freedom of expression in the media is essential, but fewer than

half of the 227 residents interviewed in the survey believe that Thai media

take on a strong role as a public watchdog.31 On perceptions of the media as

a public watchdog, 44% considered the role to be very strong, but 46%

found it “mediocre”, while the remaining 10% said a watchdog role was

“non-existent”.32

35. In a 1985 study commissioned by the American Society of Newspaper

Editors (ASNE), which surveyed 1600 adults on attitudes toward news

coverage by the media, many aspects of the credibility problem with the

media stem from the public perception that the news gatherers exploit people

rather than serve as the public watchdog.33 The biggest gap between the

people and the press, according to Kohut, is over the ways news media play

31
“Freedom of expression is essential, say newspaper readers,” Press Release,
MediaHubAsia, Bangkok, 01 Jan 2002. http://mediahub-
asia.com/Pages/PressReleases/PR-4.html
32
Ibid.
33
Steven R. Van Hook, “Public Perception and Expectations of the News Media,” March
7, 1986. http://www.west.net/~wwmr/mediapap.htm

16
their watchdog role.34 The conclusion of a survey in 1999 was that many

Americans saw an ill-mannered watchdog that barks too often, one that is

driven by its own interests rather than by a desire to protect the public

interests.35

36. A national survey of public attitudes toward the media was

administered on 3000 randomly selected adult Americans in November

1996.36 When asked what roles the media should perform, New Emphasis

Index highlights the public’s (43% of the sample) desire for the media to act

as their watchdog against powerful interests (see Figure 1). Although

Americans want the press to serve as their watchdog, many see journalists as

powerful elite who are out of touch with the public they claim to serve. A

majority (52%) believe that the press abuses its constitutional freedoms

rather than using them responsibly, while 47% think that most journalists’

beliefs and values are different from their own.37

34
Andrew Kohut, “Public Support for the Watchdog is Fading,” Columbia Journalism
Review, Mar/Apr 2003.
35
Ibid.
36
“What Do the People Want from the Press?” Media Monitor, Vol. XI, No. 2, May/June
1997.
37
Ibid.

17
Figure 1: News Emphasis Index

Source: Media Monitor, Volume XI, Number 2, May/June 1997.

37. Media as Force Multiplier. The media have force multiplying

effects, especially during war. It means a force that adds to the combat

effectiveness of military commanders.38 Since information is power, the

media can be a potent force multiplier by their ability to mould national and

international opinion. In wartime, the media serve a variety of roles, and

according to Hali the media can:

(a) Convey a sense of the fighting to a public divorced from its

actual horrors.

38
Jerry Broeckert, “How the Military Uses the Media Today,” The Rake, April 2003.
http://www.rakemag.com/printable.asp?catID=46&itemID=2136&pg=all

18
 (b) Provide a sense of relief or escape to a public more directly

involved such as a blockade or bombing campaign.

(c) Serve as agents of propaganda and disinformation.

(d) Contribute to making history.39

38. Media coverage not only develops public awareness and the support

of the military in operations, they also have the benefit of enhancing the

morale of troops by informing their families and friends of their activities. If

the media are used prudently therefore, they build public opinion as force

multiplier. There is a popular belief in India, for example, that the media

coverage on the Kargil war served as a force multiplier, “leading to a

national upsurge of giant proportions and a feeling of oneness with

…courageous jawans.”40 Accordingly:

The world and domestic media covered the Kargil…in an

unprecedented manner…The extensive media coverage…was
to a great extent responsible for the success of India’s
diplomatic efforts to force a Pakistani pullback…[and] for
bringing the war to the average Indian home.41

39
Sultan M. Hali, “The Role of Media in War,” Defence Journal, Aug 2000.
http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/aug/role-media-war.htm
40
A.K. Chakraborty, “Kargil War Brings into Sharp Focus India’s Comitment to Peace,”
Press Information Bureau, Government of India, Jul 2000.
http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr2000/fjul2000/f210720001.html
41
SAPRA INDIA http://www.subcontinent.com/sapra/html

19
39. According to General V.P. Malik, the then Chief of Army Staff, the

media contributed “…not only to the war effort but also for generating

national resurgence.”42 Media force multiplication can be used to generate

positive change; control the damage of negative things; and help achieve

military and political objectives.43

40. While the media can be used effectively as offensive weapon against

the enemy, especially in the context of information warfare, there exist

clashes of interests between the media and the military. For security and

operational reasons, for example, the military controls the flow of

information, while on the other hand, the media wants total access to

information. There are two types of media-related impediments according to

Livingston. The first relates to the effects of emotional coverage, a factor

that gave birth to “Vietnam Syndrome”44, a concern that media coverage in

war has the potential to undermine public support for operations and erode

42
Indian Express, http://www.indianexpress.com/ie/daily/19990714/iex14073p.html
(4/15/2003)
43
Broeckert, op cit.
44
According to Marshall McLuhan (1975), “Television brought the brutality of war into
the comfort of the living room. Vietnam was lost in the living rooms of America – not on
the battlefields of Vietnam.”

20
troops’ morale, a factor which gave birth to “embedded” journalism in war

situation, such as the recent “War in Iraq”.45

41. The pictures of a dead American soldier being dragged through the

streets of Mogadishu, Somalia in 1993 revived some of the fears and

concerns evoked by Vietnam. It is therefore not surprising that at the heart of

the military’s concern is the capacity of the media to undermine public and

political support for any operation involving casualties.

42. The second impediment is related to threat to operational security.

Livingston concludes that “the fact remains that some operations are

extremely sensitive to media exposure,” therefore, “maintaining operational

security during conventional war and tactical operations…is essential,”

moreover that the “…media have the technological capacity to hinder some

types of operations simply by exposing them.”46 The general perception is

that in the process of covering an operation, the media may reveal

information, though inadvertently, that leads to unnecessary casualties and

even the possible failure of a mission. While the media can be a force

multiplier, indeed a “strategic enabler”, according to Belknap, there can be

45
Steven Livingston, “Clarifying the CNN Effect: An Examination of Media Effects
According to Type of Military Intervention,” Research Paper R-18, The Joan Shorenstein
Center, Harvard University, June 1977.
46
Ibid.

21
operational risk.47 By dishing out so much information through media

broadcasts the enemy would know so much, therefore the commander may

fail to achieve surprise. On the other hand, the media can be a strategic

enabler in a number of ways, some of which are:

(a) To communicate the objective and end-state to both domestic

and global audiences.

(b) To execute effective psychological operations (PSYOPS).

(c) To play a major role in deception of the enemy.

(d) To supplement intelligence collection efforts.48

47
Margaret Belknap, “The CNN Effect: Strategic Enabler or Operational Risk?”
Parameters, Autumn 2002, pp. 100-114.
48
Ibid.

22
 CHAPTER 3

MEDIA AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

43. Media’s role in national development can be analysed from political,

economic and social perspectives. In the political sphere, media’s role can be

found in the areas of democracy and good governance, political

transparency, foreign policy, human rights, war on terrorism, and public

relations. In the economic sphere, media can play their role in the areas of

economic policy and growth, economic empowerment, advertisements and

tourism, business and investment, etc. In the social sphere, media’s role

cover social issues, such as corruption, criminal violence, communal

conflicts, prostitution, war on drugs, population control, education, food

security, and public health (especially on Acquired Immune Deficiency

Syndrome (AIDS) and Severe Acute Respiration Syndrome (SARS)). Some

of these areas will be examined accordingly.

44. Media and Political Development. The media can affect politics

and culture, supporting institutional change and development.

Communication is not only a tool for the expression of ideas and opinions,

but very often acts as catalyst for development of the society. The exercise

of free expression allows all sectors to debate and construct solutions for

23
political problems. Some of the areas in which political solutions are sought

through the role of the media are discussed below:

(a) Democracy and Good Governance. The mass media form an

important and influential bridge, a crucial channel, between

government and people. The right to democratic governance is a

fundamental human right to be exercised by people through free and

fair elections. Accountability of political leaders to the people;

transparency in political, economic and social affairs; recognition of

the views and opinions of the public in the formulation of policies;

and providing citizens the opportunities to discuss, without fear of

intimidation, policies and issues, constitute the measure of good

governance.49 Free, fair and accurate media is essential to a healthy,

functioning democracy. Media are required to enable the public make

informed electoral choices; have effective input into public affairs;

ensure that the rule of law is upheld; and that the mechanisms

designed to check abuses of power can function properly. Overall, the

49
“Strengthening Democracy and Good Governance through Development of the Media
in Indonesia,” Interdisciplinary Projects. http://www.un.or.id/prog/people/pre-pro1.htm

24
 media therefore act as “facilitators to check dictators, arrogant leaders

and political elites that think they can get away with their actions.”50

(b) Political Transparency. Transparency refers to the political

values of openness and democratic accountability.51 According to

Balkin, it encompasses three political virtues; informational,

participatory and accountability. The media can make the political

system more transparent by helping people understand the operations

of government, participate in political decisions, and hold government

officials accountable. It is however worthy of note that the media can

be manipulated by politicians by diverting audience attention, and

“supplement politics with new realities that crowd out and eventually

displace other political realities and political issues.”52

(c) Foreign Policy. “National policy,” observed Schlesinger, “is

determined by the plight of the Kurds or starvation in Somalia, as it

50
Veronique Edwards, “The Role of the Media,” Center for Conflict Resolution,
Validation Workshop, Entebbe, Uganda, Jun 27-Jul 01, 2000.
51
J.M. Balkin, “How Mass Media Simulate Political Transparency,” Yale, Yale
University Press, 1998. Writings Online:
http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/jbalkin/articles/media01.htm
52
Ibid.

25
 appears on the screen.”53 Dubbed the “CNN Effect,” it refers to the

media’s ability to affect the conduct of US diplomacy and foreign

policy. A commonly cited example is the Clinton administration’s

response to the mortar attack on a Sarajevo market in Bosnia in 1994.

Natsios however points to the shortcomings of the “CNN Effect”

theory. According to him, if one examines the record of US policy

involvement in overseas humanitarian crises, it may be concluded that

“the so-called CNN Effect has taken on more than it deserves as an

explanation for responses emanating from the policymaking

process…”54 Rather, media attention follows official actions.

Appendix ‘A’ (1) shows that the White House announcement (D) to

send relief supplies precipitated the first wave of US news media

attention in Somalia which jumped fivefold overnight. The

announcement of planned troops deployment (H) caused a second

expansion of coverage. The conclusion was that CNN coverage of

Somalia prior to the announcement of emergency relief was sporadic

or non-existent an in Appendix ‘A’ (2). In general, the literature on

media’s ability to affect foreign policy process suggests three

53
James Schlesinger, “Quest for a Post-Cold War Foreign Policy,” Foreign Affairs,
Winter 1992.

26
 conceptually distinct and analytically useful understandings of

media’s effect as policy accelerants, impediments and agenda-setting

agents, to the achievement of policy objectives (Appendix ‘A’ (3)).

(d) Human Rights. Human rights are the rights which every

human being is entitled to enjoy and to have protected. The media can

defend these rights as enshrined in national constitutions and

recognised by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).

Such rights include the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of

association, and the right to a fair hearing. By giving voice and

information to the people, the media automatically protects the

freedom of speech. Media attention can prevent or deter the abuses of

human rights by despotic regimes, as was the case of apartheid South

Africa, former Yugoslavia and Idi Amin’s Uganda, not always by

changing the character of such regimes, but more by focusing

international condemnation of their actions.

45. Media and Economic Development. Media can boost economic

development by promoting good governance and empowering citizens, so

that economies can function better. The Georgia Economic Developers

54
Andrew Natsios, “Illusions of Influence: The CNN Effect in Complex Emergencies,”
in R.I. Rotberg and T.G. Weiss, eds. From Massacres to Genocide: The Media, Public
Policy, and Humanitarian Crises, The Brookings Institution, 1996, p. 150.

27
Association (GEDA) defines economic development as a sustainable process

of creating economic opportunity for all citizens; stimulating business

investment; diversifying the public revenue base; and enhancing quality of

life.55 Economic development, according to the US Department of

Commerce, is fundamentally about enhancing the factors of productive

capacity of a national economy.56 It is about economic growth, increase in

competitiveness, sustainable development, reduction of poverty and

inequality, increasing wages and benefits, and industrial policy.57 The key

areas associated with media contribution to economic development are:

(a) Business and Investment Environment. For economy to

grow, it requires the enabling environment for businesses and

investments to flourish. The media can provide atmosphere for

healthy trade; foster business climate of transparency and

accountability; and ensure that accurate financial information is

available to potential investors. Global and foreign media report on

international economic issues, currency markets and international

55
“Defining Economic Developement,” GEDA, Feb 1999.
http://www.geda.org/misc/definition.htm.
56
“What is Economic Development?”, US Department of Commerce.
http://www.osec.doc.gov/eda/html/2a1_whatised.htm
57
Ibid.

28
trade. The media can however make or mar the enabling environment.

Publications on threats to the national security environment, such as

wars, civil unrests, epidemics (AIDS, SARS, etc), violent crimes,

corruption etc., are known to have scared away investors. The

consequence could be capital flight, disinvestment, and decline in

production and services. Freedom of expression as a fundamental

right, must go with corresponding media responsibility. It should be

noted that the media, though committed to getting the story right, are

also in the business of reporting exciting news to sell. If not well

balanced, by taking congnisance of national interest, such news can

have a devastating effect on national economy.

(b) Economic Empowerment. The poor and women are

usually the economically disadvantaged groups in most societies. The

media enhances the ability of poor and disenfranchised members of

society to make their voices heard. They have the duty to expose the

living conditions of the poor and the oppressed, so that the leadership

would feel some pressure to act. The media can also help in

sensitizing government programmes on poverty alleviation and

economic empowerment, so that public services are made more

responsive to the poor. On women, empirical studies show that

29
 women’s access to the media is associated with better income and

education, in addition to better health and fertility outcomes.58

(c) Economic Growth. The use of media all over the world

has not only reduced the gap of information, but has also contributed

to the economic growth of nations. Communication, has contributed

to the rapid economic development of countries like Taiwan and

South Korea, while the “Satellite Instructional Television

Experiment” in India contributed to the agricultural production and

enrollment of children in schools.59

46. Media and Social Development. The World Bank defines social

development as development that is equitable, socially inclusive and

therefore sustainable.60 Social development promotes various institutions at

all levels that are responsive, accountable and inclusive. It empowers the

poor and vulnerable people to participate effectively in development

processes. To play a role in social development, the media assist the society

58
Duncan Thomas, John Strauss and Maria-Helena Henriques, “How Does Mother’s
Education Affect Child Height?” Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 26, No. 2, 1991, pp.
183-211.
59
Robert C. Hornick, Development Communication, New York, Longman, 1988.
60
“Media’s Role in Agriculture Sector Highlighted,” DAWN , Dec 03, 1999, Internet edn.

30
in tackling problems of corruption, criminal violence, communal conflicts,

public health and related issues.

(a) Corruption. Corruption has been defined as the abuse of

public power for personal gain or for the benefit of a group to which

one owes allegiance.61 Corruption is said to distort economic and

social development. It does so by “engendering wrong choices and by

encouraging competition in bribery rather than in the quality and price

of goods and services…”62 The media can expose corruption in both

the government and corporate sector. According to Stapenhurst, media

can act as a force against corruption in ways that are both tangible and

intangible.63 For Ogosoo, it is the media’s key role to educate society

about corruption, and secondly, as watchdog, to expose the acts of

corruption.64 Media reports can affect the reputation of key

individuals. Since people care about their reputation, media attention

can provide strong incentives for changing behaviour, therefore

61
Rick Stapenhurst, “The Media’s Role in Curbing Corruption,” World Bank Institute,
2000. http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance/pdf/media.pdf
62
Petter J.P. Langseth and Rick Stapenhurst, “The Role of National Integrity System in
Fighting Corruption,” Washington, D.C., 1997.
63
Stapenhurst, op cit.
64
Opolot E Ogosoo, “Issues in Anti-Corruption,” Development FORUM, 17 Nov 1999.
http://www2.worldbank.org/hm/anticorrupt/0030.html

31
reputational penalties and rewards can be powerful in ensuring

accountability toward constituents. There are ample examples

(Appendix ‘B’) in which the media contributed to ousting of corrupt

leaders, such as Presidents Bucaram in Ecuador, Perez in Venezuela,

Collar in Brazil, Estrada in Philippines and Nixon in US.

(b) Communal Conflicts. Racial violence in urban America and

Europe; widespread ethnic rivalry and religious intolerance in parts of

Africa, Asia and the Middle East; and widespread prejudice and

discrimination against national minorities, are all part of the global

landscape of daily news reporting. The outbreak of conflict in the

Balkans (1992), genocide in Rwanda (1994), and the simmering

conflicts based on religious rivalry and ethnic differences in Liberia,

Sierra Leone, Nigeria, India, Indonesia, and the Middle East, are

recent examples. The most important question therefore is how should

the media foster balance over bias, communication over confrontation,

insight over ignorance, when reporting events on conflicts? This is an

important challenge to the media. Free from bias in reporting, the

media can play the role of enhancing political stability and national

integration, especially in multi-ethnic, multi-religious heterogeneous

32
 societies like India and Nigeria. The media must therefore “have their

fingers on the pulse of the people,” because they have “a pious

obligation not to jeopardize or harm the welfare of the society.”65

(c) Disasters. The electronic and print media provide extensive

coverage of disasters, particularly those with strong visual impact.

Radio and television could broadcast early warnings, evacuation

information and increase public awareness about risks and responses

(see Appendix ‘C’).66 For example, massive losses from the periodic

cyclones in Bangladesh could be significantly reduced by media-

related action. Likewise, exposure to risk due to floods in Brazil can

be reduced through early warning and information on evacuation plan.

As a medium, one of the most basic applications of the television lies

in its ability to portray the devastation of disasters, both as they occur

and in their aftermath. Fry identifies major categories of disasters:

natural, such as earthquake, floods, hurricanes and drought;

technological, such as plane crashes, oil spills and nuclear reactor

65
K.J. Reddy, “Present Turmoil Godhra and After: Role of Media,” Inaugural function of
Indian First Foundation, April 6, 2002.
66
Stephen Rattien, “The Role of the Media In Hazard Mitigation and Disaster
Management,” http://www.annenberg.nwu.edu/pubs/disas/disas7.htm

33
 failure, such as Chernobyl (1986).67 A study in India compared state

government allocations of relief spending and public food distribution

during natural disasters. Distribution of relief was greater in states

with higher newspaper circulation.68 In another study, comparison was

made of India cyclone (1999) and Mozambique flood (2000). As

indicated in Appendix ‘D’, TV coverage of Mozambique floods was

more than five times the coverage of Indian cyclone. A similar pattern

was found in media coverage of the same emergencies in 23 popular

newspapers in Europe and US. It was found that there was correlation

between media coverage and the amount of funds that flow into

disaster areas.69 When disasters occur, the media play multiple roles:

(i) Purvey information on incidents.

(ii) They can impact news of impending disaster, convey the

effects of events that have taken place or are unfolding.

(iii) Natural disaster coverage can lead to political action.

67
Kathryn Fry, “Disasters and Television,”
http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/D/htmlD/disastersand/disastersand.htm
68
Timothy Besley and Robin Burgess, “The Political Economy of Government
Responsiveness: Theory and Evidence from India,” Working Paper, London School of
Economics, Nov 2000.
69
Gorm R. Olsen et al. “Humanitarian Crises: What Determines the Level of Emergency
Assistance?” DISASTERS, Vol. 27, No. 2, 2003, pp. 109-126.

34
 (iv) Disaster stories may evoke sympathy, community

solidarity, and national action.

(d) Public Health Campaigns. Media are very important for

public health campaign, especially against epidemics and other fast-

spreading diseases, such as AIDS, SARS, and Ebola. Media can

improve public health efforts as demonstrated by successful AIDS

education campaigns in Thailand and Uganda. The recent media

campaign on leprosy in Brazil which has the second highest number

of cases in the world, for example, employed the nation’s 13 major

television stations and 2300 radio stations, resulting in a remarkable

response of 600 telephone calls daily on the national helpline.70

Likewise, an integrated media campaign was successful in India and

Nepal, resulting in 200,000 people seeking treatment of leprosy as

well as helping to dispel misconceptions about it.71 With an estimated

four million cases in 2001, India has the second highest number of

AIDS in the world after South Africa.72 Media campaign in India

involves more than 1000 broadcasts aimed at more than half the

70
BBC World Service Trust.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/us/trust/030410_brazilleprosy.shtml
71
Ibid. http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/us/trust/020705_hivlaunch.shtml
72
BBC World Service Trust, op cit.

35
 population, and more than 3500 video screenings of the programmes

planned for villages. The programme involved drama (Jasoos Vijay),

‘reality’ youth show (Haath se Haath Milaa), radio phone-in on

personal health (Chat Chowk), and advertising spots.73 According to

Quraishi, the media campaign will “head off the threat of AIDS to our

country’s social and economic development.”74 In 1978, the WHO,

United Nations International Children Educational Fund (UNICEF),

and United States Agency for International Development (USAID)

embarked on a crusade, through media campaigns, to combat infant

mortality in the developing world, which averaged 200 per 1000 live

births, as a result of preventable diseases such as diarrhoeal

dehydration, measles, small pox, and respiratory infections. After a

year of the media campaign, a sample data from 750 randomly

selected families from more than 20 communities in Hunduras

showed significant results in both disseminating health information

and in fostering specific changes in behaviour related to treating infant

73
Ibid.
74
S.Y. Quraishi, Director General, Doordarshan, India.

36
 diarrhoea. The mortality rates for children under five years between

1981/82 had decreased from 47.5% to 25%.75

75
Social marketing Institute, http://www.social-marketing.org/success/cs-
massmedia.html

37
 CHAPTER 4

MEDIA AND NATION BUILDING

47. Post-colonial societies recovering from the impact of colonialism,

particularly the multi-ethnic and multi-religious ones in Africa and Asia,

usually end up with crises resulting in civil wars and political instability.

Other societies experience conflicts for different reasons, and the recent

examples include Afghanistan, Kosovo, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Liberia,

Rwanda and Iraq. There was also the unique case of post-apartheid South

Africa in which the African indigenous majority population suffered

injustice in the hands of the white, minority settlers during the apartheid

regime. Still, there is the case of the transitional countries in Central Asia,

the so-called breakaway Republics of former Soviet Union. What all these

societies require in the aftermath of their experiences, is nation-building.

48. Of course, while some of these societies respond to the concept of

nation-building, others categorized as “failed states”, have not, and such

states no longer perform basic functions of governance and security.

Somalia, Liberia and Rwanda are only recent examples. The result is the:

…collapse of state institutions, especially the police and

judiciary, with resulting paralysis of governance, a breakdown
of law and order, and general banditry and chaos. Not only are
the functions of government suspended, but its assets are

38
 destroyed or looted and experienced officials are killed or flee
the country…76

49. Failed states are obviously dangerous to international peace and

security therefore, it is inevitable for the international community to embark

on peace-building efforts in countries battered by conflicts. In the context of

this study, to what extent can the media contribute to nation-building? In

other words, how can the media play the role of nation and peace builder for

the reconciliation, reconstruction and rehabilitation of post-conflict

societies? The Timor-Leste President Gusmão identified post-conflict

challenges to include building and sustaining democratic institutions, and

development of human resources; reconciliation; and capacity building.77

According to him, the priorities in such situation are reconciliation at all

levels, justice, access to education and basic health, freedom of speech amd

movement, media development and poverty eradication.78

50. In the aftermath of conflicts, a number of consequences are expected

as a general rule. Among the consequences are the problems of refugees and

internally displaced persons (IDPs), ex-combatants and demobilization,

76
Daniel Thürer, “The ‘failed state’ and international law,” International Review of the
Red Cross, No. 836, 31 Dec 1999, pp. 731-761.
77
CHOICES, Dec 2002.
78
Ibid.

39
psychological and emotional feelings of bitterness and vengeance, fear and

trauma of victims, and the circulation of small arms. Other matters which

require attention include the issues of poverty, education and health,

democratic elections, establishment of free, independent media, and capacity

building. The role media play in addressing these issues is a matter of great

importance, therefore should not be underestimated.

51. The media are a potent force, sometimes referred to as the “central

nervous system” or the “Fourth Estate” of democratic societies. They have

the capacity to build or destroy, thus they can either be a potent force in

fuelling divisiveness and violence or positive instrument of peace.

According to Kurspahic, the media played a major role in propagating ethnic

tensions in the Balkans.79 The use of government controlled Radio-

Television Libre de Mille Collines to foment genocidal impulses in Rwanda

80
in 1994 is another appalling contemporary example. However, when

encouraged, the media have proven equally effective for inter-ethnic

reconciliation. There is the need to examine a few of the post-conflict

79
Kemal Kurspahic, “Part Time Crime: Balkan Media in War and Peace, US Institute of
Peace, Apr 7, 2003.
80
A journalist Bemeriki of Radio Mille Collines used it as “Hate” radio to encourage the
genocide of 800,000 Tutsis with her words “Do not kill iyenzi (cockroaches) with a bullet
– cut them to pieces with machete.” See Ross Howard, “The Media’s Role in War and
Peace-Building,” Paper presented at a Conference held in Budapest 6-9 February 2003,
Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF).

40
activities affecting the media in their effort in peace-building and nation-

building.

52. Post-Conflict Media Development. The restoration of a free,

independent media should be a crucial step towards the reconstruction of

democratic institutions immediately a conflict ends. The promotion of free

expression immediately after hostilities, means returning voice to the law

and to the people. In emerging democracies, free and accountable media that

monitor rights and abuses, and promote divergent opinions can help to deter

a return to violence. It must be realized that open and responsible media are

a condition for good governance, respect for human rights and democratic

development. Once established, the media could then embark on conflict

prevention and peace-building; support elections so as to build democracy;

help in reconciliation, reconstruction, and rehabilitation; assist in tackling

the issues of refugees, IDPs and the demobilization of ex-combatants; and

campaign against spread of small arms.

53. Reconciliation and Reconstruction. What opportunities exist for the

media during post-conflict reconciliation and reconstruction? The media are

“the institutions…in which ideas, information and attitudes, are transmitted

41
and received”81, therefore they must facilitate communication. The media

can create societal conversation; help “turn collective storytelling into public

acts of healing”; and can assist in the releases of shame and humiliation on

victims, so that the story becomes one of dignity and virtue.82 Accordingly:

People need opportunity and space to express to and with one

another the trauma of loss and their grief at that loss, the anger
that accompany the memory of injustice experienced.
Acknowledgment is decisive in the reconciliation dynamic. It is
one thing to know; it is a very different social phenomenon to
acknowledge. Acknowledgment through hearing one another’s
stories validates experience and feelings and represents the first
step toward restoration of the person and relationship.83

54. The South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission established

after the fall the apartheid regime offers the best example of post-conflict

reconciliation efforts. It was widely televised and covered by other media to

help heal the wounds of apartheid and facilitate the restoration of the society.

The media gave the Commission the support in facilitating transitional

justice and building a more peaceful community by:

(a) Showing that justice is achieved not by retribution, but by

the restoration of the community.

81
“Post-Conflict Reconstruction and the Media,” Media Diversity Institute,
http://www.media-diversity.org/articles_publications/Post-
Conflict%20Reconstruction.htm
82
Ibid.
83
Ibid.

42
 (b) Aiding victims in such matters as securing pensions and

education for their children.

(c) Giving opportunities for victims of violence to tell the public of

their ordeal, thereby bring recognition to them.

(d) Making it possible for the public to understand the truth,

encourage forgiveness, acceptance and trust.84

55. Demobilisation and Resettlement of Ex-Combatants. The media

play a crucial role in post-conflict demobilization. The key to stabilization is

curbing the ability and desire of ex-combatants to renew the violence, and

creating a national capacity to transform the war-instigated structures into

peace-building institutions.85 This involves the backing of the media towards

evolving credible legal and political system, re-establishing public

confidence in state institutions, and shifting from the culture of violent

opposition. If the experiences of El-Salvado and Nicaragua are considered,

to successfully demobilize ex-combatants, the media must promote:

(a) Popular support for disarmament, including commitments by all

parties involved.

84
Tanya Glaser, “Truth and Reconciliation Commission: South Africa,”
http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/example/glas7505.htm
85
Ali A. Jalali, “Demobilizing the War Machines: Making Peace Last,”
http://www.un.org/dpi/ngosection/jalali.pdf

43
 (b) The integration of ex-combatants into civil society as incentive.

(c) The participation of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in

disarmament process.

(d) The mobilization of ex-combatants for peace-building.86

56. Media and Peace-Building. Peace-building means strengthening

the prospects for peace and weakening the chances of renewed violence in

war-torn countries.87 The goal of peace-building is to enhance the capacity

of a society to manage its own conflicts without violence. The media are a

force to reckon with in peace-building situation. They must clear the way for

the enforcement of human rights which are likely to be abused in times of

emergency, and these would include protection of women and children

against abuse; health and control of epidemics; law and order, specifically

exposing and preventing arbitrary arrests, torture and inhuman treatment,

etc. Furthermore, the media’s role includes the creation of conducive

environment for free and fair elections through voter education.

86
Ibid.

44
 CHAPTER 5

FACTORS INFLUENCING MEDIA ROLE

IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

57. As indicated in the integrated model of Figure 2, the media are

influenced by several factors. Media owners define the overall editorial

policy; economic factors determine the extent of investigative journalism

and cultural production; sponsors influence sponsored cultural and sport

events.

Figure 2: Integrated Model Showing the Role of the Media in Democratic Society

Source: Agner Fog, “The Supposed and the Real Role of Mass media in Modern
Democracy,” www.agner.org

87
“Media and Peacebuilding,” IMPACS, 2001,
http://www.impacs.ca/index.cfm?Group_ID=2683

45
58. Further, editors and journalists influence through their personal

engagement as well as their professional, ideological and ethical principles;

technology determines the number of channels available and the formats

possible; and government regulation may impose additional ethical

principles.88

59. Specific to national development, certain factors are inimical to the

role of media. These factors include sensationalism, propaganda, selective

and bias coverage, media freedom, ownership and, pornography and

violence. These factors are analysed accordingly.

60. Sensationalism. Communication is both dynamic and very

powerful in its strong influence on the definition of that reality. News

sensationalism shows that what we watch or read casually may indeed have

very significant impact within our views of reality.89 Sensationalism may

prevent the public from being knowledgeable participants in policy

discussions. Let us take the case of Nigerian media as an example.

Researches conducted showed that there are numerous unethical practices by

Nigerian journalists bordering on “over-simplification, exaggeration and

outright sensationalism, suppression or outright distortion of facts, political

88
Agner Fog, op cit
89
D. Ransohoff and R. Ransohoff, “Sensationalism in the Media: When Scientists and
Journalists May Be Complicit Collaborators,” Effective Clinical Practice, Jul/Aug 2001.

46
partisanship and bias, ethnicism and religious insensitivity.”90 Such actions

not only make the media lose credibility, but also serve as avenue for

increasing conflicts. The recent ThisDay publication on the controversial

Miss World beauty contest in Nigeria, in which a reporter made derogatory

remarks on the Prophet of Islam, is a case in point. The publication led to

riots resulting in the destruction of lives and properties.91 The motivation,

according to the research, is huge financial consideration and an

appeasement of narrow and parochial interest.92 The unbridled

sensationalism is usually reflected in headlines, photographs, and editorials.

61. Propaganda. Propaganda is the systematic effort to manipulate

other people’s beliefs, attitudes or actions by means of symbols.93 According

to Doob, “propaganda can be as blatant as a swastika or as subtle as a

joke.”94 Propagandists influence rational thought by agitating emotions,

exploiting insecurities, capitalizing on the ambiguity of language, and

bending the rules of logic. The common techniques used by the media are

90
Media Rights Monitor, Sep 2000.
91
ThisDay, Lagos, 16 Nov 2002.
92
Ibid.
93
New Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. 15, London, 1974, p. 36.

47
word games (name-calling, glittering generalities and euphemisms); false

connection (transfer and testimonial); and special appeals (plain folks,

bandwagon and fear).95 “Name-calling” is a common technique used by

Western media, using words or phrases like “Islamic fundamentalist,”

“muslim fanatics or terrorist,” “fascist,” “dictatorship,” “axis of evil,” etc.

The reverse is “glittering generalities”, using words such as “democracy,”

“good governance,” “Christianity,” “freedom,” “western civilization,”

“patriotism,” “family values” etc.96 Among audiovisual media, television

may be the most powerful tool for propaganda. While propaganda can serve

to rally people behind a cause, it is often used to exaggerate, misrepresent or

even lie about important issues.

62. The recent invasion of Iraq by US and Britain witnessed a lot of

propaganda in the American cable network, the CNN, although Al-Jazeera,

the Arab News Cable Network attempted to give the other side of the story.

As observed by The East African, “…the war in Iraq was not simply a

military campaign but a disinformation and propaganda campaign that began

94
Leonard Doob, Propaganda: Its Psychology and Technique, New York, Henry Holt
and Company, 1935.
95
Institute for Propaganda Analysis, Propaganda Analysis, New York, Columbia
University Press, 1938.
96
Ibid.

48
months before the first bombs were dropped on Baghdad.”97 Other

propaganda efforts include the false accusation that Saddam was negotiating

to buy huge quantities of uranium from Niger Republic for nuclear

programme, news that was disputed by the International Atomic Energy

Agency (IAEA), and recently admitted by the British and US intelligence

agencies, while denounced by investigating US officials. The daily news

briefing in Qatar focused on military achievements, not on the casualties of

war. The Iraqis also waged their own disinformation and propaganda war

such as showing Saddam walking through the streets of Baghdad surrounded

by adoring citizens at the height of the war. Propaganda may result in bad

feelings, deception, insecurity, suspicion and the feeling of double standard

within the national and international community.

63. Selective and Bias Presentations. The media have the tendency

for selective and bias presentations. An example was when the Soviets blew

a Korean passenger jet, the New York Times editorial (2/9/83) was

unequivocal in condemning the action headlined “Murder in the Air,” but

when the Americans shot down Iranian passenger jet five years later killing

290 people, the New York Times (5/7/88) editorial saw it as an accident and

even blamed the civilian aircraft for not “avoiding combat zone”. This media

97
East African, Mar 31-April 6, 2003.

49
attitude affects their overall effectiveness in contributing to national

development. Let us examine other examples of selective and bias media

presentations, in which the sources of stories are usually “official”; there is

apparent lack of diversity; the voice is one-sided (politicians or corporate

executives); there are double standards; stereotypes skew the coverage; there

are unchallenged assumptions; language is often loaded; stories are out of

context; headlines and stories do not match, etc.

(a) Western Media on Africa. Western media are mostly

responsible for the dissemination of ideas about Africa as a “dark

continent” of “primeval irrationality, tribal anarchy, hunger/famine,

civil war, managerial ineptitude, political instability, flagrant

corruption and incompetent leadership.”98 Misinformation about

Africa has become a growth industry in the West. During the

apartheid regime in South Africa, for example, it was common for

Western media to use the euphemism to report on “black on black

violence” to describe intra-racial conflicts in the country, but British

journalists would not report on “white on white violence” when

reporting the conflict in Northern Ireland. Bardlan examined the

98
Ama Biney, “The Western Media and Africa: Issues of Information and Images,”
Interstate Online, http://users.aber.ac.uk/scty34/50/Africa.htm

50
 coverage of AIDS by New York Times, Los Angeles Times and USA

Today between 1990 and 1994. Stories featuring sub-Saharan Africa

received 16% of the positive coverage and 80% of the negative

coverage among 14 world regions. Stories about Africa had negative

headlines more than 70% of the time, as well as most negative

photographs and other illustrations.99 The mental images portrayed on

Africa affect people’s interests to invest, trade, and participate in

development of the continent. Views of hopelessness to the extent of

suggestions for re-colonising are not strange, as depicted in the

following editorial:

Africa is so much without hope that it is difficult to believe that it can

help itself. If western countries had the will they could recolonise the
continent which they left in such haste. The Japanese and the Germans
could run Africa, using the British, as professional ex-colonists, as
their official agents.100

Western media reports always fail to inform on the deep-rooted causes

of political and economic problems, the result of centuries of slavery,

colonialism and the role played by Europe in the whole mess of the

continent. The situation has been exacerbated by the coming to power

99
Kritie Alley Swain, “AIDS Coverage in US News Magazines in Light of WHO
Statistics,” Paper presented to the Health Communication Division, International
Communication Association, Montreal, Quebec, May 1997.
100
Independent on Sunday, 31 Mar 1991.

51
 of an African elite colluding with Western governments and

multinational companies to bleed African economies through imposed

neo-liberal economic reforms.101 Sometimes African journalists

contribute to the way of negative reporting by the Western media. In

this regard, Usman observed that:

The international media have become the convenient vehicles for

image projection and propagation of hidden agenda…To achieve their
objectives the foreign media have to work in collaboration with their
counterparts who are not so refined and go about it in a crude
manner.102

What Gautier therefore describes as the “vicious circle of journalism

and India”, is also true of African countries. In it he noted that through

Indian journalists, Western media get their own impression of India: a

nation torn by caste discrimination, poverty, corruption, Hindu

extremism and natural calamities.103

(b) Coverage of Iraq. According to Winston Churchill,

“truth is the first casualty in war.” From the very beginning of the

drumming of war to the actual execution of the war by the coalition

101
Biney, op cit.
102
Bukar Usman, Voices in a Choir: Issues in Democratization and National Stability in
Nigeria, Kaduna, Klamidas Comm. Ltd, 1999, p. 131.
103
Francois Gautier, “Indian Media,” Quest-Francce, 05 April 2002. http://www.media-
watch.org/features/1.html

52
 forces, Western media, particularly, the CNN and BBC, were

apparently biased in their coverage of the events of both wars on Iraq.

This situation was accompanied by censorship on the coverage by

both the White House and Pentagon, of course with the willing

agreement of the corporate-owned media. During the Gulf War, the

CNN aired live video of US cruise missiles reaching Baghdad, while

the resultant carnage below was just covered in passing remarks. The

anchors filled the media frames with their euphemistic jargons about

“airstrikes”, “collateral damage”, “pounding enemy targets”, “targets

of opportunity,” etc. In terms of mobilizing the public opinion, the US

media presented “convincing war images that represent evidence of

both American military superiority and technological advancement,

as well as images that support the claim of humane American

conduct…”104 US government used the media extremely well to

mobilize public opinion in both its operation in Afghanistan and Iraq.

As it is observed, a “few well-placed media messages can cause sea

changes in national opinion…The Bush Administration knows this

104
Richard Kahn, “Making Holes, Not Wholes: Patriotic War Propaganda in Relation to
Global Mass Extinction,” http://getvegan.com/holesnotwholes.htm

53
 media truism all too well…that with the right pressure, public opinion

can be manipulated…”105

64. Media Freedom. Media freedom is the cornerstone of democracy. It

affords the public the opportunity of discovering and forming an opinion of

the ideas and attitudes of their political leaders, thereby check corrupt

leadership as evidence has shown correlation between press freedom and

corruption (see Figure 3). Conversely, it gives political leaders the

opportunity to reflect and comment on the opinion of the general public.

This freedom thus enables everyone to participate in free political debate,

which forms the basis of a democratic society. There are, however instances

in which governments deny media this freedom by deciding what to be

published or broadcast, arresting media practitioners, or outright revocation

of media license, but many countries are opposed to such restrictions

(Appendix ‘E’). Such a situation does not provide the right atmosphere for

development. Without the free expression of ideas and opinions, no society

can develop effectively. However, media freedom must go along with

responsibility. Media practitioners must exercise high standards of

105
Tamara Straus, “The War for Public Opinion,” AlterNet, Dec 10, 2001.
http://www.alternet.org/story.html?StoryID=12050

54
objectivity, professionalism and refrain from undue personal attacks because

of the resources at their disposal.

Figure 3: Correlation Between Corruption and Press Freedom

65. Media Ownership. Ownership is a central factor for media

independence, because it is the owners who control information flow, and

thus influence political, economic and social development. There are people

who argue for the state ownership of the media, asserting firstly, that

information is a public good, and for this reason many countries have made

a case for organizing the media industry as a government-owned monopoly.

Secondly, some argue for public ownership because of consumer protection.

Private ownership is seen to corrupt the industry by serving narrow interests.

Thirdly, others argue that state ownership ensures public exposure to

educational and cultural information. Critics point out that government

55
control of the media could distort and manipulate information, undermine

markets, and preclude voters and consumers from making informed

decisions.

66. World media are controlled by nine corporations,106 who together with

40 smaller players “produce the bulk of the world’s newspapers, magazines,

books, films, television and radio programs.”107 On the balance, it is

observed, the system serves mostly the business interests and those of the

upper-middle classes. By and large, evidence indicates that monopoly

control over information reduces the effectiveness of the media in providing

checks and balances. In the World Bank Report 2002, it is indicated that

state ownership of the largest five newspapers and five television stations in

each of 97 countries world-wide is pervasive (Appendix ‘F’). “On the

average, the state controls about 30% of the newspapers and 60% of the

television stations…The state also owns …72%...of the largest radio

stations.”108 The Report further noted that private ownership is mostly in

family hands, not in widely dispersed shareholdings. Even the privately

106
The super-corporations are Time Warner, Disney, Bertelsmann, Viacom and Seagram,
Viacom, General Electric, Sony, News Corporation and AT&T/Liberty Media.
107
Gumisai Mutume, “Media Juggernaut Rolls Into 21st Century,” Third World Traveler,
World Press Review, March 2000.
http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Media_control_propaganda/Media_Juggernaut.html
108
World Bank Report 2002.

56
owned media are closely related to the state through business, family and

personal associations, therefore the influence of state control is even greater.

Analysis of those 97 countries established that media in countries with high

levels of state ownership are much less free; transmit much less information

to people; and negatively correlate with economic, political and social

development.109 This translates into more corruption, inferior economic

governance, less-developed financial markets, few political rights for

citizens, and poorer social outcomes in education and health.110 The

ownership of media therefore require spread to reduce the monopoly of

governments and few individuals or corporations.

67. Media Pornography and Violence. There are over 300,000

pornographic sites in the internet. Many newspapers, magazines, books, and

television stations make graphic presentations of pornographic and violent

materials for entertainment. Few attempt to restrict access to adults, but in

most cases children get access to such presentations. The question is to what

extent do the media in their presentations of pornographic and violent

materials influence the general behaviour in society, particularly as it relates

109
Simeon Djankov et al., “Who Owns the Media?” World Development Report,
Background Paper, 2001.
110
Ibid.

57
to the youth? Certainly indecency, immorality and violence are negative

factors for national development, yet the media, for reasons mainly of

business, engage in conveying such messages to the society. On how the

media influence children, Steyer concludes that they “shape their

reality…set their expectations…define their values, their behaviour.”111

Accordingly:

Everyday, children are bombarded by messages and images

from the media – messages about how to behave, what choices
to make and what to think. Children even try to emulate what
they learn from television, video games and the Internet.112

68. To what extent is the media’s influence on violence and aggression in

society? According to Steyer, children do emulate the violent behaviour they

see on television, movies and video games. He noted that violent content is

widely used because it is one of the cheapest ways to make programming

more profitable.113 In relation to sex, the media teach children about what is

acceptable, and “in society where sex sells, children cannot escape the

media’s influence…Kids are not equipped with the same capacity for

111
“How the Media Influences Your Child,”
http://www.oprah.com/tows/pasthows/tows_2002/tows_past_20020520_b.jhtml
112
Ibid.
113
Ibid.

58
judgment about sexually inappropriate behaviour so they are particularly

succeptible.”114

69. Leyens et al. conducted a research on physical and verbal aggression

in which the participants were juvenile delinquents at a school in Belgium.115

They lived in four dormitories, two of which had high levels of aggressive

behaviour and the other two had low levels. During a special movie week,

boys in two of the dormitories (one high in aggression and the other low)

watched only violent films, whereas boys in the other two dormitories

watched only nonviolent films. There was an increased level of physical

aggression among the boys who saw the violent films, but not among those

who saw nonviolent films. In a longitudinal study, the amount of television

watched and levels of aggressiveness were assessed in some young

children.116

70. When aggressiveness and the amount of television watched were

reassessed in the same participants several years later, one of the key

114
Ibid.
115
J. Leyens et al., “Effects of Movie Violence on Aggression in a Field Setting as a
Function of Group Dominance and Cohesion,” Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, Vol. 32, 1975, pp. 346-360.
116
L.D. Eron and L.R. Huesmann, “The role of television in the development of prosocial
and antisocial behaviour,” in D. Olwens, J. Bloch and M. Radke-Yarrow eds. The
Development of Antisocial and Prosocial Behaviour: Research, Theories, and Issues,
New York, Academic, 1986.

59
findings was that the amount of television violence watched at young age

predicted the level of later aggressiveness, measured by the number of

criminal convictions by the age of thirty. It is important therefore to control

the transmission or display of pornographic and violent media materials.

60
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Conclusion

71. The media play important roles in society. As the Fourth Estate, they

provide checks and balances on the activities of the three arms of

government; as agenda-setters, they influence the issues on public agenda; as

gatekeepers, they decide what information gets to the public; as watchdog,

they represent the interests of the people against powerful interests; and as

for multipliers, they add to the combat effectiveness of military

commanders.

72. National development covers political, economic and social issues. In

political development, the media particularly contribute in areas of

democracy and good governance, political transparency, foreign policy and

human rights. In economic development, the media provide the enabling

environment for businesses and investments to flourish. In addition, they

assist in empowering economically disadvantaged groups in the society, at

the same time contribute to societal economic growth. In social

development, the media can help fight corruption, prevent communal

conflicts and provide useful information on disasters. The media are

61
particularly useful for public health campaigns, especially against children

diseases, communicable diseases, and in favour of healthy environment.

73. Post-conflict societies which experience colonialism, civil wars,

liberation struggles and political instability, require nation-building else they

become “failed states”. Free and independent media are important for

supporting reconstruction, rehabilitation and reconciliation; demobilization

and resettlement of ex-combatants; and peace-building efforts. The role of

media in addressing the issues of victims, vengeance, small arms trafficking,

poverty, diseases, elections, and capacity building is of utmost importance.

74. For the media to effectively influence national development, they

must be free and independent. Free media provide voice for the people, build

public consensus, and expose corruption in government. Likewise, they

empower the poor, spur development, and ensure that people’s basic social

needs are met. Freedom of the media must go along with responsibility.

Media can abuse the right of freedom of expression through sensationalism,

propaganda, and bias. Other factors relevant to the effectiveness of media in

national development include the question of ownership, and media vices

(pornography, violence etc).

75. Findings. The general and specific findings of this study on The

Role of Media in National Development reveal that:

62
(a) As Fourth Estate, agenda setters, gatekeepers, watchdog and

force multipliers, the media definitely have a role to play in society.

(b) The media facilitate political, economic and social

development in a nation.

(c) Media determine the issues found on the public agenda.

(d) While the media play important roles in society, they are

sometimes driven more by their political and economic interests, than

those of the public.

(e) In military operations, while the media are capable of

building public opinion (eg Kargil), emotional coverage can

undermine public support (eg Vietnam, Somalia).

(f) Media influence the direction of foreign policy (eg US policy

on Bosnia and Somalia).

(g) Media influence economic growth: eg communication

influence on Taiwan and South Korean economy and the influence of

Satellite Instructional Television on agricultural production and

school enrolment in India.

(h) Through the effect they can have on individual reputation, the

media can check the excesses of corrupt leaders (eg Ecuador,

Venezuela, Brazil, Philippines, US).

63
(i) The more intense media coverage is on national disasters,

the more relief materials and funds are made available by donors (eg

India, Mozambique).

(j) In public health, media campaigns immensely contribute in the

reduction of diseases, such as AIDS, SARS, leprosy, and preventable

children diseases as demonstrated in Uganda, Thailand, India, Nepal,

Brazil and Hunduras.

(k) In internal conflict situations, the media as instruments of

peace contribute to nation-building (eg post-Apartheid South Africa),

but as potent force they are capable of fuelling divisiveness and

violence (eg Rwanda).

(l) Ownership, economic factors, technology, government

regulations, etc influence the role of media in democracy.

(m) Sensationalism, propaganda, selectiveness and bias, are

inimical to the role of media in national development.

(n) The lesser the freedom of media in society, the more corruption.

(o) Societies with high levels of state media ownership are much

less free; transmit less information to people; and negatively

correlate with political, economic and social development.

64
 (p) Pornography and violence in the media contribute to

indecency, immorality and violence in society, particularly among

children and youths.

Recommendations

75. It is recommended that:

(a) Media freedom is fundamental in democracy therefore it should

be non-negotiable.

(b) Media must report the truth without undue misrepresentation of

facts, sensationalism, propaganda and bias.

(c) In reporting, the media must take cognisance of national

security and the welfare of the people.

(d) Media practitioners must not be influenced by the interests of

ownership, both government and corporate.

(e) Ownership of the media should be spread to avoid the

monopoly of a few, powerful individuals, corporations or

governments.

(f) Display or transmission of pornographic and violent media

materials should be controlled to reduce negative influence on

societies.

65
(g) More media outfits should be established in rural communities

to facilitate development and provide them more access to

information.

(h) Media Institutes should be established to coordinate the

activities of both domestic and international media in order to reduce

the incident of false or negative reporting.

(i) Media interactions should be a regular feature in military

training institutions.

(j) The African Union should establish African Cable News

Network to transmit real or actual news on the Continent.

(j) To further explore related research on The Role of Media in

National Development, either or both of the following topics

should be included in subsequent NDC Courses:

(i) The Role of Media in Conflict Situations.

(ii) The Impact of Media on Foreign Policy Objectives.

(Total No. of Words: 11,990)

66
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Gautier, Francois, “Indian Media,” Quest-Francce, 05 April 2002. http://www.media-

watch.org/features/1.html (14/4/2003)

Glaser, Tanya, “Truth and Reconciliation Commission: South Africa,”

http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/example/glas7505.htm

Hali, Sultan M., “The Role of Media in War,” Defence Journal, Aug 2000.
http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/aug/role-media-war.htm (2/3/2003)

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Jalali, Ali A., “Demobilizing the War Machines: Making Peace Last,”
http://www.un.org/dpi/ngosection/jalali.pdf

Kahn, Richard, “Making Holes, Not Wholes: Patriotic War Propaganda in Relation to
Global Mass Extinction,” http://getvegan.com/holesnotwholes.htm (13/5/2003)

McChesney, Robert W., “Global Media for Global Control,” Third World Traveler,
http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Media_control_propaganda/GlobalMediaGlobalCo...
(28/2/2003)

Mutume, Gumisai, “Media Juggernaut Rolls Into 21st Century,” Third World Traveler,
World Press Review, March 2000.
http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Media_control_propaganda/Media_Juggernaut.html
(28/2/2003)

Ogoso, Opolot E., “Issues in Anti-Corruption,” Development FORUM, 17 Nov 1999.

http://www2.worldbank.org/hm/anticorrupt/0030.html

Rattien, Stephen, “The Role of the Media In Hazard Mitigation and Disaster
Management,” http://www.annenberg.nwu.edu/pubs/disas/disas7.htm (27/7/2003)

Sachdev, A.K., “Media Related Lessons From Kargil,” Research Fellow, IDSA.
http://www.idsa-india.org/an-jan00-10.html (15/4/2003)

Social marketing Institute, http://www.social-marketing.org/success/cs-massmedia.html

Stapenhurst, Rick, “The Media’s Role in Curbing Corruption,” World Bank Institute,
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 APPENDICES
Appendix ‘A’
(Refers to Para 44 (c) )
ANALYSIS OF CNN EFFECTS

(1) Aggregated Broadcast Network News Coverage of Somalia: Jul-Dec 1992

(2) CNN Daily Coverage of Somalia: Jul-Dec 1992

73
(3) Conceptual Understanding of Media Effects of Foreign Policy

Source: Steven Livingston, “Clarifying the CNN Effect: An Examination of Media

Effects According to Type of Military Intervention,” Research Paper R-18, The Joan
Shorenstein Center, Harvard University, June 1977.

74
 Appendix ‘B’
(Refers to Para 46 (a))

EXAMPLES OF MEDIA’S ROLE

AGAINST CORRUPT LEADERSHIP

1. Latin American Heads of State1

(a) President Bucaram in Ecuador

In Bucaram’s case, an investigative story published

in the daily Hoy showed how the president known
as “El Loco” had diverted money he had raised
during a Christmas telethon to help the poor.
Amid a national uproar, Bucaram was later ousted
by Congress for “mental incapacity.”

(b) President Perez in Venezuela

In Venezuela, two investigative stories in the

Caracas daily El Universal have been credited with
precipitating Perez’s downfall. One, relying on confidential
sources, reported that the president had
misappropriated $17 million in missing discretionary
funds. Other leaked documents from the Central
Bank and Foreign Ministry, Simon reports, indicated
that “Perez and two aides had made millions
by changing Venezuelan currency into dollars just
ahead of (a) devaluation.” After Venezuelan lawmakers
began impeachment proceedings, Perez
was forced to step down.

(c) President Collor in Brazil

1
Joel Simon, “Hot on the Money Trail,” Columbia Journalism Review, Vol. 37, Jan/Feb
1998.

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 In Brazil, investigative pieces published by various
outlets set the stage for Collor’s departure as president.

In early 1991, a Jornal do Brasil reporter used

a computer access code provided by a senator to
examine federal finance ministry files and discovered
that “money distributed to the president’s
wife…and earmarked for charity had gone to her
relatives and family in her hometown.”10 The following
year, after months of cultivating Collor’s
brother as a source, Veja magazine published an
interview in which the brother, Pedro Collor, accused
the president’s campaign treasurer, Paulo
Cesar Farias, of running a multimillion-dollar
influence-peddling ring on Fernando Collor’s behalf.
Congress set up a commission to investigate
the charges. During its hearings, a flurry of hardhitting
insert reports by various outlets—particularly
Isto It magazine and the Folha de São Paulo
and Estado de São Paulo newspapers—drew on a
variety of documents including bank records, cancelled
cheques, telephone records, and even photographs
of Collor’s lavish private residence, as
well as interviews with senior officials and their
aides to reinforce a picture of massive high-level
corruption within the Collor administration. It ultimately
emerged that Farias had extorted more
than $55 million from firms in exchange for favorable
treatment by the government; at least $8
million was passed on directly to Collor. By year’s
end, amid a national uproar, Collor stepped
down—one day before he was to be impeached.

2. Other Politicians2

2
Investigative Journalism Online Resource Center, http://www.ire.org/resources/center

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 (a) Cabinet Ministers in Colombia
In Colombia, two Colombian cabinet ministers
resigned in mid-1977 after the weekly news magazine
Semana published a surreptitiously recorded
cellular phone conversation in which they discussed
then-President Ernesto Samper’s plan to
give half of the government’s radio concessions
to his friends, according to a report in the Columbia
Journalism Review. Other published news
pieces linking Samper himself to the Cali drug
cartel received more widespread international
attention. While Samper ultimately survived an impeachment
attempt and served out his full term,
the stories led to the resignation and arrest of his
defence minister and are widely believed to have
cost him much of his domestic and international
political support.

3. United States—The Case of Dan Rostenkowksi3

In the United States, for example, Dan Rostenkowski,

a former member of the House of Representatives,
lost his congressional seat after the Chicago
Sun-Times published a series of investigative reports
over the course of two and a half years. The
series showed how, as head of the House’s powerful
Ways and Means Committee, Rostenkowski had
wrongfully taken hundreds of thousands of dollars
from his campaign funds and congressional allowances.
This reporting “helped lead to Rostenkowski’s
indictment in May 1994 and his subsequent defeat
in November 1994,” according to Investigative Reporters
and Editors, a U.S. based journalists’ group,
and Rostenkowski pleaded guilty to corruption
charges on April 9, 1996.

3
Ibid.

77
4. Involvement of International Institutions

(a) Kenya: The 1996 scandal4

The independent Kenyan press shed light on the
malaria control-chemicals deal organized by the
Ministry of Health, Mr. Donald Kimutai. The press
reported that non-approved malaria chemicals
were going to be bought through a foreign firm,
Equip Agencies Ltd., at a price far higher than the
price necessary to buy the goods locally. Also, a
side payment of 400,000,000 Kenya Shillings was
made to Equip Agencies Ltd. by the Health Ministry
while no goods were delivered. This scandal
burst out during the visit of an IMF team in Nairobi.
That team put pressure on the government to
clear the scandal. Mr. Kimutai was first transferred
to the position of chairman of the Industry Commerce
Development Corporation (ICDC) and only
in a second stage, under the insistence of the IMF,
he was fired.

5. The News Media As Check on the

Integrity of State Anti-corruption Bodies5

(a) City of Detroit

An example of the way in which the news media
have acted as a check on the integrity of state
anti-corruption bodies—in this case the judiciary
—was in evidence in 1981 in the U.S. city of
Detroit, when a radio station’s investigation of
corruption and irregularities in the local bankruptcy
court was credited with leading to the dismissal
and retirement of several judges, lawyers
and bankruptcy trustees, as well as a change in
the way judges are assigned to cases. The reporting

4
John Githongo, “The Role of Journalists in Combating Corruption in Kenya,” Paper
presented at World Bank Institute Seminar, Cotonou, Benin, Jan 1997.
5
Rod Macdonell, “New Chief Judge of Montreal Municipal Court Gets Mandate to
Improve Work Ethic,” Montreal Gazette, Nov 26, 1993.

78
also prompted investigations by the FBI and a
Federal Grand Jury.

(b) Montreal Municipal Judges

Less dramatically, a Montreal Gazette expose of
lax work ethics among local municipal court
judges, resulting undue delays in the rendering
of judgments—and the undue burden these
delays imposed on the entire justice system—
prompted the provincial minister of justice to
mandate the court’s new chief judge to crack
down on the magistrates with a view to ensuring
greater swiftness in the processing of cases
and the handing down of rulings. The
newspaper’s expose reinforced the judiciary’s
accountability and hence its potential effectiveness
as an instrument against corruption (as well
as other forms of wrongdoing).

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 Appendix ‘C’
(Refers to Para 46 (c))

MEDIA ROLE IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

80
 Appendix ‘D’
(Refers to Para 46 (c))

Comparison of India Cyclone (1999) and Mozambique Floods (2000)

Media Coverage6

1. Media Coverage: Number of TV news spots on Danish national

television (DR-TV & TV2):

(a) India Cyclone (15 Oct 1999 – 15 Jan 2000): 16

(b) Mozambique Floods (1 Feb 2000 – 1 May 2000): 87

2. Media Coverage: Number of articles in 23 newspapers (US &

Western Europe):

(a) India Cyclone (15 Oct 1999 – 15 Jan 2000): 91

(b) Mozambique Floods (1 Feb 2000 – 1 May 2000): 382

3. Total value of received humanitarian assistance in US$:

(a) India Cyclone: 23,097,000

(b) Mozambique Floods: 165,846,000

6
Olsen, op cit. p. 114.

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 Appendix ‘E’
(Refers to Para 64)

CHARTER FOR A FREE PRESS7

1. Censorship, direct or indirect, is unacceptable; thus laws and practices

restricting the right of the news media to freely gather and distribute
information must be abolished, and government authorities, national and
local, must not interfere with the content of print or broadcast news, or
restrict access to any news source.

2. Independent news media, both print and broadcast, must be allowed to

emerge and operate freely in all countries.

3. There must be no discrimination by governments in their treatment,

economic or otherwise, of the news media within a country. In those
countries where government media also exist, the independent media must
have the same free access as the official media have to all material and
facilities necessary to their publishing or broadcasting operations.

4. States must not restrict access to newsprint, printing facilities and

distribution systems, operation of news agencies, and availability of
broadcast frequencies and facilities.

5. Legal, technical and tariff practices by communications authorities which

inhibit the distribution of news and restrict the flow of information are
condemned.

6. Government media must enjoy editorial independence and be open to a

diversity of viewpoints. This should be affirmed in both law and practice.

7
An example of a set of principles to counteract media restrictions set out in this Charter
and approved by 34 countries at the Voices of Freedom World Conference on Censorship
Problems held in London, Jan 16-18, 1987. According to the then UN Secretary General,
Boutros-Ghali, “They (the Charter’s principles) deserve the support of everyone pledged
to advance and protect democratic institutions…to which all free nations aspire.”

82
7. There should be unrestricted access by the print and broadcast media
within a country to outside news and information services, and the public
should enjoy similar freedom to receive foreign publications and foreign
broadcasts without interference.

8. National frontiers must be open to foreign journalists. Quotas must not

apply, and applications for visas, press credentials and other documentation
requisite for their work should be approved promptly. Foreign journalists
should be allowed to travel freely within a country and have access to both
official and unofficial news sources, and be allowed to import and export
freely all necessary professional materials and equipment.

9. Restrictions on the free entry to the field of journalism or over its practice,
through licensing or other certification procedures, must be eliminated.

10. Journalists, like all citizens, must be secure in their persons and be given
full protection of law. Journalists working in war zones are recognized as
civilians enjoying all rights and immunities accorded to other civilians.

83
 Appendix ‘F’
(Refers to Para 66)

GLOBAL MEDIA OWNERSHIP AND EFFECTS

Media Ownership in 97 Countries8

State Media Ownership and Government Effectiveness

8
Djankov et al., op cit.

84
State Ownership and Quality of Regulation

85