SOIL MECHANICS

1. Introduction

A. Foundation Engineering and Soil Mechanics

1. Soil is defined an uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed organic matter
(solid particles) with liquid and gas in the empty spaces between the solid particles, and it supports
structural foundations.
2. Soil Mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the study of the physical
properties of soil and the behavior of soil masses subjected to various types of forces.
3. Soils Engineering is the application of the principles of soil mechanics to practical
problems.
4. Geotechnical Engineering is defined as sub discipline of civil engineering that involves
natural materials found close to the surface of the earth. It includes the application of the principles of
soil mechanics and rock mechanics to the design of foundations, retaining structures and earth
structures.
5. Foundation Engineering is the branch of engineering which deals with design,
construction and maintenance of shallow footings and deep foundations and other structural
members which comprise foundation of buildings and other engineering structures. It also includes
investigation of sites for foundation purposes.
6. Karl Terzaghi is known as the “Father of Soil Mechanics.”

B. Definition of Soil and Rock

1.Rock Cycle and the Origin of Soil

Soil is defined as a natural aggregate of mineral grains, loose or moderately cohesive, inorganic in
nature, that have the capacity of being separated by means of simple mechanical process, e.g. by
agitation in water. This definition is not the same by the agriculturist or the geologist. To the agriculturist
loose mantle at the surface of the earth which is capable of supporting plant life consists of soil; and
similarly to the geologist, the soil is that material found in the relatively thin surface zone with in which
roots occur.
Rock is defined as hard and compact natural aggregates of mineral grains cemented by strong and
more or less permanent bonds.

2. Soil Formation and Rock

Soils are formed from the physical and chemical weathering of rocks. Physical weathering involves
reduction of size without any change in the original composition of the parent rock. The main agents
responsible for this process are exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing, and thawing. Chemical
weathering causes both reduction in size and chemical alteration of the original parent rock. The main
agents responsible for chemical weathering are hydration, carbonation, and oxidation. Often, chemical
and physical weathering takes place in concert. Soils that remain at the site of weathering are called
residual soils or transported soils.
A civil engineer is concerned mainly with 10 meter to 15 meter top mantle of soil in dealing with
small and medium sized projects.
All soils are derived from igneous, secondary or metamorphic rocks. The rocks are weathered
because of process of mechanical disintegration, chemical decomposition and solution. The process of
rock weathering is affected by climatic and other conditions surrounding the rock undergoing alteration.
Soil may also vary from large size boulders to small crystals of clay minerals.
The sands (coarse particles), silts and clays (fine particles) resulting from the disintegration of rock
may stay at the place of their formation. These are known as residual soils. If these soils are carried away
by forces of gravity, water, wind and ice deposited at another location, they are known as transported
soils.
Three (3) Basic Types of Rocks

a. Igneous rocks are formed by solidification of molten magma ejected from deep within the earth’s
mantle.
b. Sedimentary rocks are deposits of gravel, sand, silt and clay formed by weathering may become
compacted by overburden pressure and cemented by agents like iron oxide, calcite, dolomite and
quartz.
c. Metamorphic rocks are either igneous or sedimentary rocks that have undergone considerable in
their constitution, in their shape, structure and sometimes even in their mineral composition.

Rock Cycle Process

Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks by mechanical and chemical processes into
smaller pieces.
1
 Two types of Weathering

a. Mechanical weatheringmay be caused by the expansion and contraction of rocks

from the continuous gain and loss of heat, which results in ultimate disintegration.
b. Chemicalweathering, the original rock minerals are transformed into new minerals
by chemical reaction.
Products of Weathering or Residual Soils

a. Glacial soils – formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers.

b. Alluvial soils or Fluvial soils– transported by running water and deposited along streams.

c. Lacustrine soils– formed by deposition in quiet lakes.

d. Marine soils –formed by deposition in the seas.

e. Aeolian soils – transported and deposited by wind

2
 .
f. Colluvial soils – formed by movement of soil from its original place by gravity, such as during
landslides.

Metamorphism is the process of changing the composition and texture of rocks, without melting by
heat and pressure.

Mechanical analysis of soil is the determination of the range of particles present in a soil,
expressed as a percentage of the total dry weight.

Soil refers to all solid particles with or without organic constituents which are produced by the
disintegration of rocks found overlying the solid rock crust of the earth.

In general soil is composed of solid, liquid and gaseous matter.

a. Solid phase maybe mineral organic or both.

b. Liquid phase is usually the soil water that fills part or all of the open spaces between the solid
particles.
c. Gaseous phase usually air, occupies part of the space between particles not filled with water.

Major Division of Soil

a. A soil is considered as coarse grained if its individual particle is visible to unaided eyes.
b. A soil is said to be fine grained if its individual particle is not visible to unaided eyes.
c. Organic soils are those which contain an amount of decayed animals and/ or plant matter.

Principal Types of Soil, Description, and Average Grain Sizes According to Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS)

Particle Size Description Average Grain Size (mm) U.S. U.S.

Classification Standard Standard
Sieve Sieve
3
 Passing Retained
Rounded and/or
Coarse: 75mm-19mm
Gravel angular bulky #8 #10
Fine: 19mm-4mm
rock
Rounded and/or Coarse: 4mm-1.7 mm
Sand angular bulky Medium:1.7mm-0.380mm #10 #200
hard rock Fine: 0. 380mm-0. 075mm
Particles smaller
than 0.075 mm,
Separated
Silt exhibit little or 0. 075mm-0. 002mm Can’t be
by sized
no strength
when dried.
Particles smaller
than 0.002 mm
exhibit
Sieving by Determine
Clay significant < 0.002 mm
wet by analysis
strength when
dried, water
reduces strength

A soil is called gravel if its particles are bigger than 2 mm; the upper limiting diameter is usually 8
inches or 203 mm standard. But in highway engineering it is only 3 inches. All particles smaller than 0.005
mm is called clay those smaller than 0.001 mm is called colloids.

The following are the simple visual and manual tests used for the identification of fine
grained soils in the field.

1. Dry strength
The wet soil sample is molded to any convenient shape and allowed to dry in the air or by
heating. A small fragment of the dried sample is obtained and passed between the thumb and
forefingers.
2. Plasticity
If a sample of moist soil can be molded and rolled into threads without breaking or crumbling the
soil. A thin thread of clay or foot or more can supports its own weight or will not break when held.
3. Water mobility
A soil sample is mixed with water to the consistency of a thick paste, then it placed and shaken in
palm of the hand.
4. Dispersion
A small quantity of soil is dispersed with water in a glass cylinder or tests tube and allowed to
settle. The coarse particle will fall and the finer particles will remain in suspension, sand will settle 3
inches in about 10 seconds.

Significant Properties of Soils

The properties of soils are important for a project depend upon the nature of the project. The
following properties are important for different types of engineering projects.

1. Permeability is a measure of the ability of soil to let water pass through its pores. This property
is of importance in earth dams and drainage problems.
2. Consolidation and compressibility deal with changes in volume of pores in a soil under load.
This property is made use of computing settlement of structures.
3. Shear strength is a measure of the ability of soil to sustain stresses without failure. This
property is of interest in computation of stability under load, stability of fills behind earth retaining
structures and stability of earthen embankments.

Other simple physical properties are Atterberg limits, moisture content, void ratio, relative density,
grain size and sensitivity.

Base Exchange is the property of the soil to bind exchangeable base from a solution onto its
surface. This property is exhibited by some clay minerals.

C. Mineralogical Composition and Structure of Soils

The structure of soils means arrangements of soil particles and the electrical forces acting between
adjacent particles.
Two (2) Methods of particle Size Distribution

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 The distribution of particle sizes or average grain diameter of coarse grained soils – gravels and
sands – is obtained by screening a known weight of the soil through a stack of sieves of progressively
finer mesh size.

1. Sieve analysis consists of shaking the soil sample through a set of sieves that have progressing
smaller openings.
2. Hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of sedimentation in water.
The particle shape can generally be divided into three major categories.
a. Bulky particles are mostly formed by mechanical weathering of rocks and minerals.
Shapes: Angular, sub angular, rounded and sub rounded.
b. Flaky particles have very low sphericity – usually 0.01 or less. These particles are
predominantly clay minerals.
c. Needle – shape particles are much less common than the other two particle types.
Examples of soils containing needle-shaped particles are some coral deposits and attapulgite
clays.

❑s−❑w 2
Stokes’s Law: v= D
18

Where:  = velocity
s = unit weight of soil particles
w= unit weight of water
 = viscosity of water
D = diameter of soil particles

Soil Types

1. Sand and gravel are cohesive soils. These may be angular, sub - angular, sub-rounded, rounded
and well-rounded in shape and are composed of usually unaltered mineral grains.
2. Silt is a fine grained soil with little or no plasticity. The non-plastic variety consists usually
equidimensional grains of quartz; it is sometimes called rock flour. The plastic variety of silt is
composed of appreciable percentage of flakes taped particles.
3. Organic silt is a fine grained, more or less plastic soil. It contains an admixture of finely divided
particles of organic matter. Particles of partly decayed vegetable matter and shells may also be
present.
4. Clay is composed of microscopic and sub-microscopic particles of weathered rocks.
5. Organic clay contains some finely divided organic particles and is highly compressible when
saturated and their dry strength is very high. The color is usually gray or black and it may have a
characteristics odor.
6. Bentonite is clay with high percentage of clay mineral. Most of the bentonite is derived from
chemical alteration of volcanic ash.
7. Black cotton soils are inorganic in nature. These soils exhibit high compressibility and shrinkage
and extremely high swelling characteristics under low loads. They are dark gray or black in color.
8. Peat is composed of fibrous particles of decayed vegetable matter. It is light brown to dark in
color. Peat is so compressible soil and is considered entirely to support any type of foundation.
9. Varved clay is a particular type of lacustrine deposit consisting of alternating layers of medium
gray inorganic silt and darker silty clay. The clay fractions being fine remain larger in suspension and
settle during winter. The thickness of each is centimeter.
10. Hard pan is any stratum of hard and cohesive soil which offers exceptional resistance to
penetration by normal drilling tools used in practice.
11. Glacial till is composed of material deposited by glacier and is a soil that consists mainly of
coarse particles. The water did not have an opportunity to transport and sort out the material and it is
a heterogeneous mixture of soil and rock particles.
12. Boulder soils are mixture of boulders, large or small in size and matrix of soil. Depending upon
the percentage of matrix (rock – main substance is crystal) in a boulder soil and its properties are
affected.
13. Calcareous soil contains calcium carbonate and effervesces when treated with hydrochloric
acid.
14. Caliche consists of gravel, sand and clay cemented together by calcium carbonate.
15. Expansive soils are clays that undergo large volume changes from cycles of wetting and drying.
16. Glacial soils are mixed soils consisting of rock debris, sand, silt, clays and boulders.
17. Glacial clays are soils that were deposited in ancient lakes and subsequently frozen. The
thawing of these lakes reveals a soil profile of neatly stratified silt and clay, sometimes called varved
clay. The silt layer is light in color and was deposited during summer periods while the thinner, dark
clay layer was deposited during winter periods.
18. Gypsum is calcium sulphate formed under heat and pressure from sediments in ocean brine.

5
19. Laterite soilsare residual soils that are cemented with iron oxides and are found in tropical
regions.
20. Loamis a mixture of sand, silt and clay that may contain organic material.
21. Loessis a windblown, uniform fine-grained soil.
22. Mudis clay and silt mixed with water into a viscous fluid.

Essentials points:

1. Soils are derived from weathering of rocks and are commonly described by textural terms such as
gravels, sands, silts, and clays.
2. Particle size is used to distinguish various soil textures.
3. Clays are composed of three main types of mineral – kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite.
4. The clay minerals consist of silica and alumina sheets that are combined to form layers. The
bonds between layers play a very important role in the mechanical behavior of clays. The bond
between the layers in montmorillonite is very weak compared with kaolinite and illite. Water can easily
enter between the layers in montmorillonite, causing swelling.
5. A thin layer of water is bonded to the mineral surfaces of soils and significantly influences the
physical and mechanical characteristics of fine-grained soils.
6. Fine-grained soils have much larger surface areas than coarse-grained soils and are responsible
for the major physical and mechanical differences between coarse-grained and fine-grained soils.
7. The engineering properties of fine-grained soils depend mainly on mineralogical factors.

D. WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS, PLASTICITY, AND STRUCTURE OF SOIL

Weight-Volume Relationships

The soil mass consists of solids and voids. The voids may be partially or wholly filled with water or air.
Although the solids and voids in a sample of soil do not occupy separate volumes.

Va Air Wa

Vv
V Vw Water Water Ww W

Vs Ws
Solid

Where: V = total volume of soil e = void ratio

Va = volume of air n = porosity
Vw = volume of water S = degree of saturation
Vs = volume of solids  = moisture content or water content
Vv = volume of voids = unit weight of soil
W = total weight of soil d = dry unit weight of soil
Wa = weight of air Gs= specific gravity of soil
Ww = weight of water w = unit weight of water
Ws= weight of solids sat = saturated unit weight of soil
sub = submerged unit weight of soil

Note:w = 9. 81 kN/m3 = 9, 810 N/m3 = 1, 000kg/m3 = 1 g/cc = 62. 4 lb/ft3

1. Void ratio (e) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids.
vv
e=
Vs
n
If n is given, e=
1−n
2. Porosity (n) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume.
Vv
n=
V
e
If e is given, n=
1+ e
e−G s
Where: Air void ratio=
1+e
3. Degree of saturation (S) is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of voids.
Vw
S= x 100 %
Vv
6
 Gs
If , Gs and e are given, S=
e
For fully saturated soil where S = 100%, e = Gs
4. Moisture content or water content () is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of
solids in a given volume of soil.
Ww
¿ x 100 %
Ws
5. Unit weight or Bulk unit weight () is the weight of soil per unit volume.
W
¿
V
6. Dry unit weight (d) is defined as weight of soil solids per unit volume.
Ws
❑d =
V
7. Density of soil (ρ) is defined as the mass of soil per unit volume.
m
¿
V
8. Dry density of soil (ρd) is defined as mass of soil solids per unit volume.
ms
❑d =
V
9. Specific gravity (Gs)is defined as the unit weight soil per unit weight of water.
❑s
Gs =
❑w
10. Effective unit weight or Buoyant unit weight (’)is the weight of a saturated soil, surrounded by
water, per unit volume of soil or is the weight of soil solids in a submerged soil per unit volume.
❑' =❑sat −❑w
' ( Gs−1 ) ❑w
❑=
1+e
[ G s – 1−e (1−S ) ] ❑w
❑' =
1+e

11. Specific volume (V’) is the volume of soil per unit volume of solids.
V
V '=
Vs
'
V =1+e
12. Saturated unit weight (sat) is the weight of a saturated soil per unit volume.
W sat
❑sat =
V
13. Various forms of relationships

a. Moist unit weight ()

Given Relationship
, Gs, e ¿¿
(G s + Se)❑w
S, Gs, e
1+ e
, Gs, S ¿¿
, Gs, n Gs ❑w (1−n)¿
S, Gs, n G s ❑w ( 1−n ) + nS❑w

b. Dry unit weight (d)

Given Relationship
❑
, 
1+ ¿ ¿
Gs ❑w
Gs, e
1+e
Gs, n Gs ❑w (1−n)

7
 Gs ❑w
Gs, , S Gs
1+
S
e S❑w
S, e, 
( 1+ e )
e❑w
sat,, e ❑sat –
1+e
sat,, n ❑sat −n ❑w
(❑sat −❑w )Gs
sat, Gs
Gs−1

c. Saturated unit weight (sat)

Given Relationship
(Gs + e)❑w
Gs, e
1+e
Gs, n ([ 1−n ) G s+ n ] ❑w
( 1+❑sat ) Gs ❑w
Gs, sat
( 1+❑sat G s )
( e ) ( 1+❑ sat ) (❑w )
sat, e
(❑sat ) (1+e )
( 1+❑sat ) n❑w
sat, n
❑sat
e ❑w
d, e ❑d +
1+e
d, n ❑d +n ❑w
1
d, S ( 1−
Gs d)
❑ +❑w

d, sat ❑d (1+❑sat )

Typical Values of unit weight for Soils

Soil Type sat ( kN/m3 ) d ( kN/m3 )

Gravel 20 – 22 15 – 17
Sand 18 – 20 13 – 16
Silt 18 – 20 14 – 18
Clay 16 – 22 14 – 21

14. Relative density is commonly used to indicate the in situ denseness or looseness of granular soil or
is an index that quantifies the degree of packing between the loosest and densest possible state of
coarse-grained soils as determined by experiments.

e max−e
Dr =
emax −e min

Where: Dr= relative density, usually given as a percentage

e = in situ void ratio of the soil
emax = void ratio of the soil in the loosest state
❑min
G s−
❑w
e max =
❑min
−1
❑w
emin = void ratio of the soil in the densest state
❑min
G s−
❑w
e min =
❑max
−1
❑w
8
 n max nmin
e max = e min=
1−nmax 1−nmin
( 1−nmin ) (n max−n)
Dr =
( nmax −nmin ) (1−n)
❑d −❑d (min) ❑d ( max )
Dr = [ ❑d (max) −❑d (min) ][ ❑d ]
1 1
−
❑d (min ) ❑d
Dr =
1 1
−
❑d (min ) ❑d (max )

Where: d = in situ dry unit weight (at a void ratio of e)

d(max) = dry unit weight in the densest condition (at a void ratio e min)
d(min) = dry unit weight in the loosest condition (at a void ratio of e max)

Qualitative Description of Granular Soil

Relative Density % Description of Soil Deposit

0-15 Very loose
15-50 Loose
50-70 Medium
70-85 Dense
85-100 Very dense

15. Consistency of Soil

Consistency is the term used to describe the degree of firmness (e.g., soft, medium, firm, or
hard) of a soil. The consistency of a cohesive soil is greatly affected by the water content of the soil. A
gradual increase of the water content may transform a dry soil from solid state, into a liquid state to a
semisolid state, to a plastic state, and after further moisture increase in to a liquid state. The water
content at the corresponding junction points of these states are known as the shrinkage limit, the
plastic limit, and the liquid limit respectively.

a. Liquid Limit (LL) is defined as the moisture content corresponding to the transition from liquid to
plastic state.

b. Plastic limit (PL) is defined as the moisture content at which the soil crumbles, when rolled into
threads of 1/8 in. 93.2 mm) in diameter and it is the lower limit of the plastic stage of soil.

c. Plasticity index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit of a soil.

PI =¿−PL
d. Shrinkage limit (SL) is the moisture content corresponding to the final transition.
( M 1 −M 2) (100) ( V 1−V 2 ) ( ρ w ) ( 100 )
SL= −
M2 M2
Where: M1 = mass of the wet soil pat in the dish at the beginning of the test
M2 = mass of the dry soil in the pat
V1 = initial volume of the wet soil pat
V2 = volume of the oven-dried soil pat
w= density of water

e. Shrinkage ratio
M2
SR=
( ρ1 )( V )
w 2
f. Specific gravity of solids
1
Gs =
1 SL
−
SR 100
g. Liquidity index (LI) is the ratio of the relative consistency of a cohesive soil in the natural state.
−PL
LI =
¿−PL
h. Consistency index (CI)
9
 CI =¿− ¿ ¿
¿−PI
i. Shrinkage index is the difference between the plastic limit and the shrinkage limit of a soil.
SI =PL−SL
j. Activity of clay. Ac =
PI
❑
Where: = percent of soil finer than 0.002 mm (clay size).

Activity Classification

Ac< 0. 7 Inactive

0. 7 < Ac> 1. 2 Normal clay

Ac > 1. 2 Active clay

Soil Indices

Index Correlation
Plasticity Strength, compressibility, compressibility
Liquidity Compressibility and stress rate
Shrinkage Shrinkage potential
Activity of clay Swell potential, and so forth.

Description of Soil Based on Liquidity Index

LI < 0 Semisolid state – high strength, brittle (sudden) fracture is exposed

0 < LI < 1 Plastic state – intermediate strength, soil deforms like a plastic material
LI > 1 Liquid state – low strength, soil deforms like a viscous fluid

Description of Soil Based on Plasticity Index

PI Description
0 Nonplastic
1 -5 Slightly plastic
5 – 10 Low plasticity
10 – 20 Medium plasticity
20 – 40 High plasticity
>40 Very high plasticity

Atterberg’s limits are also used to assess the potential swell of a given soil.

LL PI Potential Swell
Classification
<50 <25 Low
50 – 60 25 – 35 Medium
>60 >35 High

Problems

1. Prove the following relationships:

a. Given: S, Gs, n
¿ Gs ❑w ( 1−n ) +nS ❑w

b. Given: Gs, ,S

G s ❑w
❑d =
Gs
1+
S
c. Given: Gs, n

10
 ❑sat =[ ( 1−n ) G s +n ] ❑w

2. The moist unit weight of a soil is 19.2 kN/m3. Given that Gs = 2. 69 and ω =9.8%, determine
a. Dry unit weight
b. Void ratio
c. Porosity
d. Degree of saturation

3. The unit weight of a soil is 96 lb/ft 3. The moisture content of this soil is 17% when the degree of
saturation is 60%. Determine
a. Void ratio
b. Specific gravity of solids
c. Saturated unit weight

4. For a moist soil, the following are given: V = 0.25 ft 3, W = 30.75 lb, ω = 9.8%, and Gs = 2.66.
Determine
a. Unit weight
b. Dry unit weight
c. Void ratio
d. Porosity
e. Degree of saturation
f. Volume occupied by water

5. For a sandy soil, emax = 0.72, emin = 0.46, and Gs = 2.68. What is the moist unit weight of compaction
(kN/m3) in the field if Dr= 78% and ω = 9%?

6. A saturated soil has the following characteristics: initial volume = 19.65 cm 3, final volume = 13.5 cm 3,
mass of wet soil is 36 g and mass of dry soil = 25 g. Determine shrinkage limit and shrinkage ratio.

II. Stresses in Soil

A. Normal and Shear Stresses on a Plane

σy
𝜏xy
D C N
F
F σn F
σx𝜏n
𝜏xyσx
θθ𝜏xy
A B B
E T E𝜏xy
σy
(a) Soil element with normal and shear stresses acting on it(b) Free body diagram

1. Normal stress; σn
σ y +σ x σ y −σ x
σ n= + cos 2θ+ τ xy sin 2 θ
2 2
2. Shear stress; 𝜏n
σ y −σ x
τ n= sin 2 θ−τ xy cos 2 θ
2
3. Major principal stress; σ1
2
σ +σ
σ1= y x +
2 √[ ( σ y −σ x )

4. Minor principal stress; σ3

2 ] + τ 2xy

2
σ +σ
σ3= y x −
2 √[ (

B. Effective Stress Concepts

σ y −σ x
2
)
] + τ 2xy

In a given volume of soil, the solid particles are distributed randomly with void spaces between.
The void spaces are continuous and are occupied by water and/ or air. To analyze problems such as
compressibility of soils, bearing capacity of foundations, stability of embankments and lateral pressure on
earth-retaining structures, we need to know the nature of the distribution of stress along a given cross
section of the soil profile. We can begin the analysis by considering a saturated soil with no seepage.

11
1. Intergranular stress or effective stress (σ ‘) is the stress resulting from particle-to-particle contact
of soil.
σ ' =σ T −u
2. Pore water pressure or neutral pressure (u) is the stress induced by water-pressures.
u=❑w hw
3. Total stress (σT) is the sum of the effective and neutral stresses.
σ T =σ ' +u
Key terms:

1. Stress or intensity of loading is the load per unit area. The fundamental definition of stress is
the ratio of the force S to the area of the plane S when S tends to zero;  denotes a small
quantity.
2. Effective stress (’) is the stress carried by the soil particles.
3. Total stress ( T ) is the stress carried by the soil particles and the liquids and gasses in the
voids.
4. Strain or intensity of deformation is the ratio of the change in a dimension to the original
dimension or the ratio of change in length to the original length.
5. Stress (strain) state at a point is a set of stress (strain) vectors corresponding to all planes
passing through that point. Mohr’s circle is used to graphically represent stress (strain) state for two-
dimensional bodies.
6. Mean stress, p, is the average stress on a body or the average of the orthogonal stresses in
three dimensions.
7. Deviatoric stress, q, is the shear or distortional stress or stress difference on a body.
8. Pore water pressure, u, is the pressure of the water held in the soil pores.
9. Stress path is a graphical representation of the locus in all directions and also the same loading
in all directions.
10. Anisotropic means the same material properties are different in different directions and also the
loadings are different in different directions.
11. Elastic materials are materials that return to their original configuration on unloading and obey
Hooke’s law.

Essential points:

1. A normal stress is the load per unit area on a plane normal to the direction of the load.
2. A shear stress is the load per unit area on a plane parallel to the direction of the shear
force.
3. Normal stresses compresses or elongates a material; shear stresses distort a material.
4. A normal strain is the change in displacement divided by the original length in the
direction of the displacement.
5. Principal stresses are normal stresses on planes of zero shear stress.
6. Soils can only sustain compressive stresses.
7. An elastic material recovers its original configuration on unloading; an elastoplastic
material undergoes both elastic (recoverable) and plastic (permanent) deformation during loading.
8. Soils are elastoplastic materials.
9. At small strains, soils behave like an elastic material and thereafter like an elastoplastic
material.
10. The locus of the stresses at which a soil yields is called a yield surface. Stress below the
yield stress cause the soil to respond elastically; stresses beyond the yield stress cause the soil
respond elastoplastically.

C. Critical Hydraulic Gradient

icr = critical hydraulic gradient

i cr = ❑
❑w

❑sat −❑w
i cr = (Boiling or quick condition)
❑w

( Gs + e ) ❑w
❑sat =
1+e
Note: For moist soil icr varies from 0.9 to 1.1 with an average of 1.

D. Ratio of Horizontal Stress and Vertical Stress

12
 σh = Koσv
σh= horizontal stress
σv= vertical stress
Ko = constant

Typical values of Ko(Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Foundations by David F. McCarthy)

Type Ko
Granular loose soil 0.5 to 0.6
Granular dense soil 0.3 to 0.5
Clay, soft soil 0.9 to 1.1 (undrained)
Clay, hard 0.8 to 0.9 (undrained)

Ground Surface
σv = soil h
σh = Koσv h soil
A

Essential points:

1. The effective stress represents the average stress carried by the soil solids and is the difference
between the total stress and the pore water pressure.
2. The effective stress principle applies only to normal stresses and not to shear stress.
3. Deformations of soils are due to effective not total stress.
4. Soils, especially silts and fine sands, can be affected by capillary action.
5. Capillary action results in negative pore water pressures and increases the effective stresses.
6. Downward seepage increases the resultant effective stress; upward seepage decreases the
resultant effective stress.
Problems

1. A soil element is shown. The magnitudes of stresses are σ x = 120 kN/m2, 𝜏 = 40 kN/m2, σy = 300
kN/m2 and θ = 20o. Determine
a. Magnitudes of the principal stresses
b. Normal and shear stresses on plane AB.
σy
𝜏

σxσx

A θ

𝜏
σy
2. Refer to the figure shown below

Details of Soil Layer

Problem
I II III
H1 = 2 ft H2 = 4 ft H3 = 6 ft
A
d = 115 lb/ft3 sat = 118 lb/ft3 sat = 130 lb/ft3
H1 = 4 m H2 = 1. 5 m H3 = 9 m
B
d = 16. 2 kN/m3 sat = 18. 4 kN/m3 sat= 18. 91 kN/m3
H1 = 3 m H2 = 2. 5 m H3 = 2 m
C e = 0. 52 e = 0. 52  = 45%
Gs = 2. 65 Gs = 2. 65 e = 1. 22

Layer 1 (Dry Sand)

H1
Groundwater table

H2 Layer 2 (Sand)

Layer13
3 (Clay)
Rock
 H3

a. Calculate the variation of σ, u and σ’.

b. If the water table rises to the top of the ground surface, what is the change in the effective stress
at the bottom of the clay layer? Refer to problem C.
c. How many meter must the ground water table rise to increase the effective stress by 100 kPa at
the bottom of the clay layer? Refer to problem C.

3. A cut is made in stiff, saturated clay that is underlain by a layer of sand as shown in the figure. What
should be the height of the water, h, in the cut so that the stability of the saturated clay is not lost?

Saturated clay
sat= 19kN/m3
5m
7m
h h 4.5m

Sand; sat = 18kN/m3

4. A borehole at a site reveals the soil profile shown. Assume G s = 2. 70 for all soil types.
a. What is the unit weight of the soil in layer 1 in kN/m 3?
b. What is the effective stress at a depth of 2 m below the ground surface, in kPa?
c. What is the effective stress at a depth of 20. 6 m below the ground surface, in kPa?

Elevation (m)
0 Very fine wet sand with silt
Layer 1  = 5%, S = 40%
2.0
Layer 2 Fine sand saturated by capillary action
3.0
Layer 3 Fine sand,  = 12%
5.4

Layer 4 Soft blue clay,  = 28%

20.6

5. The soil shown in the figure has a void ratio of 0. 50, G s = 2. 70, h1 = 1. 5m and h2 = 3m.
a. What is the effective unit weight of sand in kN/m3?
b. What is the effective stress at a point A in kPa?
c. What is the critical hydraulic gradient of sand (for quick condition)?

Water h1

h2

Sand A

14
6. Compute the horizontal stress that acts on loose sand at a depth of 6 m below the ground surface
having a void ratio of 0. 40 and specific gravity of 2. 65. Coefficient of lateral earth pressure for loose
sand is 0. 50.

7. A deep basement for a building is constructed in a dense granular soil whose unit weight is 20. 4
kN/m3. For a distance 3 m below the ground surface, determine the increase in total lateral pressure
that results by having the water table change from a location below the basement level to the ground
surface. Value of Ko for dense granular soil is 0. 50.

III. Stress Distribution in Soil

A. Vertical Stress Increase due to Point Loading Q Q

3Q
∆ σv =
2 5
Boussinesq Equation: r
2
2 z 1+
z[ ( )] 2

Z∆σv
Q Ib
∆ σv = (Using Table)
Z2 r A

Q
∆ σv =
2 3
WestergaardEquation : r
2
Z 1+2
z [ ( )] 2

Q Iw
∆ σv = (Using Table)
Z2
B. Subsurface Stresses Using 60oApproximation Method

P
P

1 w
2 h h

B
h/2 B h/2

B+h
B+h

w+h

P
Stress at depth h:σ =
( B+h )( W + h )

C. Vertical Stress at A

σv = cσ
z
c = a constant taken from table using values of ratio and
H
15
 E1
K=
E2

2R
σ

H E1 z

E2 x
A

Essential points:

1. The increase in stresses below a surface load is found by assuming the soil is an elastic, semi-infinite
mass.
2. Various equations are available for the increases in stresses from surface loading.
3. The stress increase at any depth depends on the shape and distribution of the surface load.
4. A stress applied at the surface of a soil mass by a loaded area decreases with depth and lateral
distance away from the center of the loaded area.
5. The vertical stress increases are generally less than 10% of the surface stress when the depth to
width ratio is greater than 2.

Problems

1. A 3m x 4. 5 m rectangular area carrying a vertical load 3, 340 kN is distributed to the ground surface.
Compute the vertical stress due to this load at a depth of 6 m below the ground surface. Use the 60 o
approximate method.

2. A concentrated load of 2, 230 kN is applied to the ground surface. Determine the vertical stress
increment due to this load at a depth of 6 m below the ground surface and a horizontal distance of
4. 8 m from the line of the concentrated load.

3. Compute the stress increase resulting 4 m below the ground surface of a 6 m square foundation
supporting a load of 8, 600 kN when the 60o approximation is assumed.

4. The outside dimensions of the basement of a proposed building are 6 m x 6 m in plan. The total
downward load of the building will be 10, 800 kN. The bottom of the basement is to be placed in sand
over the site. The sand is under laid with a layer of soft clay, on which the allowable soil load is 100
kN/m2. Determine the thickness of sand layer required to keep the loading on the clay below the
allowable value. Use the 60o approximate method.

IV. Compressibility of Soil

A. Introduction

When a load is applied to soil mass, deformation may result from (1) immediate elastic and
inelastic deformation of the soil structure, (2) pore water drained from the soil mass, (3) continuous time
dependent or viscous flow under shear stress resulting in reorientation of the of the soil particles, and (4)
a combination of all the above, which in most cases occurs simultaneously. However, it will depend upon
soil types, properties, drainage conditions, stress history and environmental conditions.
A stress increase caused by the construction of foundations or other loads compresses all layers.
The compression is caused by (1) deformation of soil particles, (2) relocations of soil particles, and (3)
expulsion of water or air from the void spaces. Consolidation processes tend to control the engineering
properties of compressible soils, have a dominating influence on their strength, and govern the rate and
magnitude of settlement that occurs when such deposits are subjected to load. There are three general
types of consolidation phenomena in clay deposits existing in the natural location namely (a) normally

16
consolidation, (b) overconsolidation, and (c) underconsolidation. In most cases the soil deposit is normally
consolidated. Anoverconsolidated soil deposit has a complex failure mechanism but is generally desirable
from a construction perspective.
Consolidation settlement, also called compression settlement or long – term settlement is caused
mainly by a reduction in the void ratio of compressible soils below the foundation and it is based on
Terzaghi’s consolidation theory.

Soil settlement may be divided into three categories:

1. Initial or immediate consolidation settlement, which is caused by the elastic deformation of dry soil
and of moist soils without any change in the moisture content. Immediate settlement calculations are
generally based on equations derived from the theory of elasticity.
Initial consolidation is defined as a comparatively sudden reduction in volume of soil mass under
an applied load due to principally to expulsion and compression of gas in the soil’s voids preceding
primary consolidation. This term also is referred to as initial compression.
2. Primary consolidation settlement, which is the result of a volume change in saturated cohesive
soils because of expulsion of the water that occupies the void spaces.
Primary consolidation is the reduction in volume of a soil mass caused by the application of a
sustained load to the mass and due principally to a squeezing out of water from the void spaces of
the mass and accompanied by a transfer of the load from the soil – water to the soil solids. This term
is also referred to as primary compression or called primary time effect.
3. Secondary consolidation settlement, which is observed in saturated cohesive soils and is the
result of the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. It is an additional form of compression that occurs at
constant effective stress.
Secondary consolidation is defined by ASCE (1958) as the reduction in volume of a soil mass
caused by the application of a sustained load to the mass and due principally to the adjustment of the
internal structure of the soil mass after most of the load has been transferred from soil – water to soil
– solids. This term is also referred to a secondary compression or called secondary time effect.
Leonards and Ramiah (1959) reported further observations of the consolidation process, both in the
field and in the laboratory which demonstrated that volume changes continue to occur after excess
hydrostatic pressure had essentially dissipated. This process has been termed secondary or secular
consolidation.

B. One-Dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test

The one-dimensional consolidation testing laboratory was first suggested by Terzaghi and this
test is performed by a consolidometer or sometimes referred to as an oedometer.

1. Initial compression, which is mostly caused by preloading.

2. Primary consolidation, during which excess pore water pressure is gradually transferred into
effective stress because of expulsion of pore water.
3. Secondary consolidation, which occurs after complete dissipation of the excess pore water
pressure, when some deformation of the specimen takes place because of plastic readjustment of
soil fabric.

C. Normally Consolidated, Overconsolidated Clays and Underconsolidated Soils

1. Normally consolidated, whose present effective overburden pressure is the maximum pressure that
the soil was subjected to in the past.
2. Overconsolidated, whose present effective overburden pressure is less than that which the soil
experienced in the past. The maximum effective past pressure is called the preconsolidation
pressure.
a. Definition of Overconsolidated Soils: If the maximum past intergranular pressure, P c, is larger
than the present overburden pressure, P o, (P > Po), then this intergranular pressure is called
preconsolidation pressure, Pc, (P = Pc) or past pressure. The ratio between preconsolidation
pressure, Pc, and overburden pressure, Po, is called overburden ratio (OCR):
Pc
OCR=
Po
Where: OCR = overconsolidated ratio
Pc = preconsolidated pressure
Po = overburden pressure
Note:
 If OCR = 1, then the soil deposit is called normally consolidated
 If OCR > 1, then it is called overconsolidated
 If OCR < 1, it is called underconsolidated
b. Identification of Overconsolidated Clay Deposits: By visual observation, there is no difference
between normally consolidated and overconsolidated clay deposits. However, it can be identified
by standard laboratory consolidated test results on void ratio versus logarithmic pressure curve. It
also can be identified by simple relationships of the following equation. A liquidity index, LI, value
less than 0. 4 may also imply that the clay deposit is overconsolidated (Fang 1997).
17
 LI < 0. 40 is overconsolidated
c. Classification of Degree of Overconsolidation: The degree of overconsolidation can be classified
bases OCR such as:
 Lightly overconsolidated clay: 1 < OCR < 2. 5
 Heavily overconsolidated clay: 8 < OCR
Note: OCR values can be used to indicate the stress history of a given soil deposit.
d. Causes of Preconsolidation Pressure
There are numerous reason and factors causing preconsolidation, including geological
features, changes in pore pressures, changes in soil structure, and changes in environmental
conditions. A list of such factors causing the preconsolidation pressure may be dichotomized
according to mechanical or multimedia energy causes:

Caused by mechanical  Structural loading

energy  Surcharge loading
 Pore – waterpressure
 Ion exchange reaction
Caused by multimedia
 Freezing – thawing process
energy
 Wet – dry, hot – cold cycles
 Pollution intrusion

e. Engineering Problems of Overconsolidated Deposit

Overconsolidated soils tend to have reduced settlement and greater strength than soils
which are normally consolidated, which is desirable. However, overconsolidated soils are more
complicated than normally consolidated soils due to (a) the variable causes of preconsolidated
pressure, (b) mechanisms of failure are not clearly understood; and (c) the difficulty in predicting
the failure, especially with respect to slope stability.
3. Underconsolidated Soils
In addition to normally and overconsolidated soils, there are Underconsolidated soils as well.
Underconsolidated soils are those in which less than the calculated are those in which a stratum of
clay deposit is found to exhibit a preconsolidation pressure less than calculated existing overburden
pressure. This is the case where a given deposit is undergoing consolidation from a previously
applied load. The deposit has not yet reached an equilibrium condition under the applied overburden
stresses. This situation occurs in areas of newly established landfill. When analyzing the settlement in
an Underconsolidateddeposit, both the previous and current load applications must be considered.

D. Settlement from One - Dimensional Primary Consolidation

1. Basic Settlement Formula

∆e
S=H
1+ e o
Where: S = settlement
∆e = eo – e1
H = thickness of stratum or clay
eo = void ratio before the vertical load is applied
e1 = void ratio after the vertical load is applied

2. Primary Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Fine-Grained Soils

Cc H P o+ ∆ P
S=
1+e o
log (Po )
Where: S = settlement
H = thickness of stratum or clay
Cc = compression index
eo = initial void ratio
Po = initial vertical effective soil stress at midheight of clay
∆P = increase of vertical pressure for soil stress

3. Primary Consolidation Settlement of Overconsolidated Fine-Grained Soils

a. When (Po + ∆P) <Pc

Cs H P o+ ∆ P
S=
1+e o
log (Po )
b. When (Po + ∆P) > Pc
Cs H Pc Cc H Po +∆ P
S=
1+e o
log ( )
+
P o 1+ eo
log
Pc ( )
Where: Cs = swell index
18
 Pc = preconsolidation pressure

4. Overconsolidation Ratio, OCR

Pc
OCR=
Po

Where: Pc = preconsolidation stress (past maximum vertical effective stress)

Po = overburden effective stress (current vertical effective stress) at midheight of the clay

Note: If OCR = 1, the soil is normally consolidated soil

5. Compression Index, Cc:

Compression index, Cc, is the slope of the linear portion of the pressure – void ratio curve on a semi
– logarithmic plot. This index is used to indicate the degree of compressibility of clays. For normally
consolidated clay, this index can be estimated strongly from liquid limit, or initial moisture content, and
initial void ratio.

a. Terzaghi and Peck (1987)

For remolded clay: C c =0.007 ( ¿−10 )
For undisturbed clay: C c =0.009(¿−10)
b. Skempton (1944)
For remolded clay: C c =0.007 ( ¿−7 )
For undisturbed clay: C c =0.009 ( ¿−10 )
c. Rendon-Herreo (1983)
2.38
1+ eo
C c =0.141G 1.2
s ( )
Gs
e1 −e 2
C c=
P 2 (Using e-log p curve)
log
( )
P1
d. Nishida (1956)
All clays: C c =1.15 ( e o−0.27 )
e. Nagaraj and Murty (1985)
¿ ( %)
C c =0.2343 [ ]
100
Gs
6. Swell Index, Cs:

The swell index is appreciably smaller in magnitude than the compression index and can be
1 1
generally determined from laboratory tests. In most cases C s= ¿ C c
5 10
a. Nagaraj and Murty (1985)
¿ (%)
C s=0.0463 [ ]
100
Gs

Problems

1. A laboratory consolidation test on a normally consolidated clay showed the following

Pressure Void ratio at the end of consolidation

(kPa)
P1 = 140 e1 = 0. 92
P2 = 212 e2 = 0. 86

1
Compute the value of swell index by using the value of compression index.
6
2. A concrete wall is to be constructed on a clay layer that overlies impervious rock; thickness of clay
layer is 6 m. A laboratory test that simulated the field conditions shows the void ratio of the soil before
and after application of the load are 0. 91 and 0. 89 respectively. Compute the settlement of the
structure.

3. In a consolidation test on a normally consolidated clay shows that a clay layer 2. 8 m thick and
drained on both sides is subjected to average pressure increase as shown:
19
 Pressure Void Ratio
(kPa)
Po = 140 0. 92
Po + ∆P = 212 0. 86

Compression index is 0. 333

Determine the maximum consolidation.

4. A soil profile is shown in the figure. If a uniformly distributed load, ∆P, is applied at the ground
surface, what is the settlement of the clay layer caused by primary consolidation if
a. The clay is normally consolidated
b. The preconsolidation pressure (Pc) is 190 kPa
c. The preconsolidation pressure (Pc) is 170 kPa

P = 50 kPa

3m Sand dry = 16 kN/m3

Ground water

6m Sand sat = 18. 5 kN/m3

Clay
6m sat = 19 kN/m3, e = 0.95
LL = 50
Bedrock

E. Settlement from Secondary Consolidation

Secondary consolidation can be calculated as:

t2
'
Ss =C α H log ()t1

Where: Ss = settlement due to secondary consolidation

Cα = secondary compression index
t1 = time for completion of primary settlement
t2 = time after completion of primary settlement, where settlement us required
ep = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation
eo = void ratio
∆e = change in void ratio
H = thickness of clay layer

'
1. Coefficient of Secondary Consolidation; C α :

Cα
C 'α =
1+ e p
2. Secondary Compression Index; Cα:
∆e
C α=
t2
log
()
t1
Where:
e p=eo −∆e

Po + ∆ P
∆ e =C c log ( Po )
3. Coefficient of Compressibility; av:
e o−e 1
a v=
P 1−Po

Where: eo = initial void ratio

e1 = final void ratio
P1 = final pressure
20
 Po = initial pressure

4. Coefficient of Volume Compressibility; mv:

( eo −e1 )
mv =
( 1+e o ) ( P1−Po )
av
mv =
1+e o

5. Coefficient of Consolidation; Cv
K
C v=
m v ❑w

Where: K = coefficient of permeability

w = unit weight of water
mv = coefficient of volume of compressibility

F. Immediate Settlement or Elastic Settlement or Initial Settlement or Contact Settlement or

Shear Strain Settlement

Immediate, or elastic, settlement of foundations occurs directly after the application of a load,
without change in the moisture content. The magnitude of the contact settlement will depend on the
flexibility of the foundation and the type of the material on which it is resting.
It is primarily due to change in shape (distortion) of the soil elements underneath the foundation.

( 1−❑2 )
Si= pB Ip
E

1+ √ m21 +1
1
[ (
I p= m1 ln
❑ m1 )
+ ln ( m1+ √ m21 +1 )
]
Where: m1 = length of the foundation or width of the foundation
Si = elastic settlement
p = net pressure applied
B = width of the foundation or diameter of circular foundation
 = Poisson’s ratio
E = modulus of elasticity of soil
Ip = nondimensional influence factor

G. Settlement due to Volume Changes caused by Lateral Yielding or Shear Strain that occurs in
the Soil

4 Q B2
S=
K v ( B+1 )2
2
2Q 2B
S=
N 1+B [ ]
Where: S = settlement
Q = pressure imposed by the foundation
Kv = modulus of sub grade reaction
B = width of the foundation
N = lowest SPT corrected value

Values of Modulus of Elasticity of Soil (E)

E
Type of Soil
Psi kPa
Soft Clay 250 – 500 1, 725 – 3, 450
Hard Clay 850 – 2, 000 5, 865 – 13, 800
Loose Sand 1, 500 – 4, 000 10, 350 – 27, 600
Dense Sand 5, 000 – 10, 000 34, 500 – 69, 000

Values of Poisson’s Ratio ()

21
 Type of Soil Poisson’s Ratio
Loose Sand 0. 2 – 0. 4
Medium Sand 0. 25 – 0. 4
Dense Sand 0. 3 – 0. 45
Silty Sand 0. 2 – 0. 4
Soft Clay 0. 15 – 0. 25
Medium Clay 0. 2 – 0. 5

Problems

1. For a normally consolidated clay layer in the field, the following are given:

Thickness of clay layer = 8. 5 ft

Void ratio (eo) = 0. 80
Compression index (Cc) = 0. 28
Average effective pressure on the clay layer (Po) = 2, 650 lb/ft2
∆P = 970 lb/ft2
Secondary compression index (Cα) = 0. 02

What is the total settlement of the clay layer five years after the completion of primary consolidation?
(Note: Time for completion of primary settlement = 1. 5 years)

2. A normally consolidated clay layer, 3 m thick, has the following properties:

Initial void ratio, eo = 0. 75

Compression index, Cc = 0. 25
Average effective pressure, Po = 125 kPa
Expected pressure increase, ∆P = 45 kPa
Secondary compression index, Cα = 0. 02
Time for completion of primary settlement = 2 years

What is the total settlement of the clay layer six years after the completion of primary consolidation
settlement?

3. In a laboratory compression test, the void ratio of the test sample changes from 1. 55 to 1. 36 as the
loading increases from 96 kPa to 192 kPa. Compute the value of the coefficient of compressibility and
compression index for this loading range.

4. Compute the value of coefficient of volume compressibility if in a laboratory compression test, the
void ratio changes from 1. 46 to 1. 27 as the loading increases from 80 kPa to 160 kPa.

5. A square footing 10 ft x 10 ft is carrying a load of 280 tons is to be constructed on dry sand. Standard
penetration test (SPT) was conducted on the site and the corrected SPT values that is the lowest
average N value was 31. Compute the maximum settlement of the footing.

6. A rectangular concrete foundation of length of 30 m and width 20 m is to be designed to transmit a

uniform contact pressure of 210 kPa at a depth of 2. 4 m. Laboratory tests have provided the
following soil properties:

Modulus of elasticity (E) = 55 MPa

Poisson’s ratio = 0. 50
Bulk density = 19 kN/m3
Influence factor (Ip) = 1. 358

Calculate the immediate elastic settlement expected at the center of the footing

H. Calculation of Consolidation Settlement Under a Foundation

To estimate the one-dimensional settlement of a foundation, we can use the primary

consolidation settlement of normally consolidated fine-grained soils. However, the increase of stress, ∆P,
in these equations should be the average increase in the pressure below the center of the foundation.

h1 Sand, 1

L 22
 1
H/2 ∆Pt2 Clay, 2
Cc, e
H
∆Pm
H/2

∆Pb

Cc H P o+ ∆ P
S=
1+e o
log ( Po )
∆ P t +4 ∆ Pm +∆ Pb
∆ P=
6
Where: S = settlement
H = thickness of stratum or clay
Cc = compression index
eo = initial void ratio
Po = initial vertical effective soil stress at midheight of clay
∆P = average increase in the pressure below the center of the clay foundation
∆Pt = increase in pressure at the top of clay layer
∆Pm = increase in pressure at the middle of clay layer
∆Pb = increase in pressure at the bottom of clay layer

I. Total Settlement of Foundation

ST =S+ S s+ S i

Problem:Compute the settlement of the footing foundation shown due to consolidation if the net soil
pressure at the bottom of the footing is equal to 160 kPa. The footing has a dimension of 2 m x 2 m.

1m

Sand, 1 = 16. 5 kN/m3

1.5m
Ground water table
0.6m Sand, 2 = 17. 5 kN/m3
Normally Consolidated Clay

3m 3 = 16 kN/m3, LL = 50%, e = 0. 80

23
V. Shear Strength of Soils

A. Introduction

The safety of geotechnical structure is dependent on the strength of soil. If the soil fails, a
structure founded on it can collapse, endangering lives and causing economic damage. The strength of
soils is therefore of paramount importance to geotechnical engineers. The word strength is used loosely
to mean shear strength, which is the internal frictional resistance of a soil to shearing forces. Shear
strength is required to make estimates of the load bearing capacity of soils, stability of geotechnical
structures, and in analyzing the stress-strain characteristics of soils.

The shear strength of soil may be attributed to three basic components:

1. Frictional resistance to sliding between solid particles.

2. Cohesion and adhesion between particles.
3. Interlocking, and bridging of solid particles to resist deformation.

B. Definitions of Key Terms

1. Shear strength of a soil (f) is the maximum internal resistance to applied shearing forces.
2. Effective friction angle (∅’) is a measure of the shear strength of soils.
3. Cohesion (Co) is a measure of the forces that cement particles of soil.
4. Undrained shear strength (u) is the shear strength of a soil when sheared at constant volume.
5. Critical state is a stress reached in a soil when continuous shearing occurs at a constant shear
stress and constant volume.
6. Dilation is a measure of the change in volume of a soil when it is distorted by shearing.

C. Shear Capacity of Soil

Shear Stress x
τ
Ø
c

σ
Normal Stress

24
 x
tan ∅=
σ

x=σ tan ∅

τ =c + x
D. Direct Shear Test

1. Directed Shear Test for Normally Consolidated Clay

Failure envelope

3

2
Shear Stress
1
∅

1 2 3
Normal Stress

Shear Force at Shear Stress at

Normal Force Normal Stress
Failure Failure
P1 σ1 = P1/A F1 τ1 = F1/A
P2 σ2 = P2/A F2 τ2 = F2/A
P3 σ3= P3/A F3 τ3= F3/A

A = area of cross-section of a specimen

Where: tan ∅ = τ1/σ1 = τ2/σ2 = τ3/σ3

2. Direct Shear Test (Overconsolidated Clay)

tan∅= τ1 – c = τ2 – c = τ3 - c
σ1 σ2 σ3

3

2

Shear Stress 1 3 - c
2 - c
∅ 1 - c

1 2 3
Normal Stress
E. Tri-Axial Test
Normal stress on A.
the failure plane 1

Shear Stress θ
( σ 1−σ 3 ) σ3
r=
2
2θ
Ø

σ3 σ1 - σ3
Shear failure on
( σ 1 +σ 3 ) the failure plane
2
25
 σ1
Normal Stress
Ø
o
Where: θ=45 +
2
1. Consolidated – Drained Test

σ3 = cell stress, chamber confining pressure, minor principal stress

σ1 = major principal stress at failure
Δd = deviator stress
∅ = angle of friction or angle of shear resistance
θ = angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal stress

a. Normally Consolidated – Drained Test ; c = 0 (cohesionless)

Where: ( σ 1−σ 3 )
r=
2
( σ 1 −σ 3 )
sin Ø=
( σ 1+ σ 3 )
b. Normally consolidated – drained test when there are two observations of σ 1 and σ3

S
h
e
a
r
r2
S Ø r1
t c h
Ø
r
e
s d σ3A y
s
σ’3A
1
x

1’

When: c = 0 ( cohesionless )
σ1 = σ3 tan2( 45o + ∅ /2 ) + 2c tan ( 45o + ∅/2 )

c. Consolidated – drained test with three observations of σ 3 and σ1

d. Over consolidated – drained test
σ1 = σ3 tan2( 45o + ∅/2 ) + 2c tan ( 45o + ∅/2 )
e. Over consolidated – drained test with two observations of σ 3 and σ1
σ1 = σ3 tan ( 45o + ∅/2 ) + 2c tan ( 45o + ∅/2 )

2. Consolidated – Undrained Tri-axial Test

a. For Normally Consolidated Clay

f = tan∅cu
Total stress
Failure envelope
f =  tan∅ ∅
Effective stress cu
Failure envelope

’33’1 1

( Ud )f

c = 0, Pore stress is positive

Δd = deviators stress
26
 Δu = pore stress if positive
σ3 = chamber confining pressure, cell stress
∅ = drained angle of friction
∅cu = undrained angle of friction
c = 0, pore stress is negative
∅cu = undrained angle of friction
∅ = drained angle of friction
∅cu = undrained angle of friction
∅= drained angle of friction
Cu = undrained angle cohesion
C = drained cohesion

b. Unconsolidated – Undrained test

Cu = qu/2
∅ = 0 ( angle of friction )
Cu = undrained shear strength
qu = unconfined compression strength
∅ = 0 (angle of friction)

3. Unconfined Compression Test

σ1 ∅ = 0

Cu r

rr
σ3= 0σ1
σ1
σ 1 =2r
σ1
r=
2
σ1
C u=
2
qu
C u=
2
q u=Unconfined compression strength
Essential points:

a. Type I soils – loose sands and normally consolidated and lightly over-consolidated clays-strain
harden to a critical state shear stress and compress toward a critical void ratio.
b. Type II soils – dense sands and over-consolidated clays-reach a peak shear stress, strain soften
to a critical shear stress and expand toward a critical void ratio after a n initial compression at low
shear strains.
c. The peak shear stress of Type II soils is suppresses and the volume expansion decreases when
the normal effective stress is large.
d. All soils reach a critical state, irrespective of their initial state, at which continuous shearing
occurs without changes in shear stress and volume.
e. At large strains, the particles of some over-consolidated clays become oriented parallel to the
direction of shear bands and the final shear stress attained is lower than the critical state stress.
f. The critical state shear stress and the critical void ratio depend on the normal effective stress.
Higher normal effective stresses result in higher critical state shear stresses and lower critical void
ratios.
g. Higher over-consolidation ratios result in higher peak stresses and greater volume expansions.

Problems

1. The angle of friction of compacted dry sand is 37 o. In a direct shear test on the sand, a normal stress
of 150 kN/m2 was applied. The size of the specimen was 50 mm x 50 mm x 30 mm. What shear force
will cause shear failure?

2. The size of sand specimen in a direct shear test was 50 mm x 50 mm x 30 mm. It is known that for
0.65
the sand, tan ∅= , where e = void ratio specific gravity of solids is 2. 65. During the test, a
e
27
 normal stress of 138 kPa was applied. Failure occurred at a shear force of 104 kPa. What is the
weight of the sand specimen?

3. Direct shear tests were performed on a dry sandy soil. The specimen is 50 mm in diameter and 25
mm in height. Test results were as follows:

Test No. Normal Force, N Shear Force, N

1 243 124
2 268 137
3 352 179
4 412 210

Determine the cohesion and angle of internal friction.

4. The following results were recorded during a shear box test on a cohesive soil. If the specimen size
was 60 mm x 60 mm, determine the apparent cohesion and angle of shearing resistance.

Normal Load, kN Shear Load, kN

0.073 0.109
0.191 0.139
0.309 0.170
0.427 0.197
0.545 0.227

5. A sample of moist sand was subjected to a series of triaxial tests. The soil fails under the following
stresses:
Sample Cell pressure, σ3 Plunger stress, σ1
1 14 kPa 34 kPa
2 25 kPa 56 kPa

What is the cohesion angle of internal friction of the soil in degrees?

6. The relationship between the relative density, Dr, and the angle of fiction, ∅, of a sand can be given
as ∅ = 25 + 0. 18 Dr, where Dr in %. A drained triaxial test on the same sand was conducted with a
chamber confining pressure of 104 kPa. The relative density of compaction was 45%. Calculate the
major principal stress at failure.

7. The results of two drained triaxial tests on a saturated clay are given as follows:

Specimen A:
Chamber confining pressure = 69 kPa
Deviator stress at failure = 213 kPa

Specimen B:
Chamber confining pressure = 120 kPa
Deviator stress at failure = 258. 7 kPa

Compute the angle of internal friction and cohesion of the clay.

28
VI. Lateral Earth Pressure

A. Introduction

Retaining structures such as retaining walls, basement walls, and bulkheads are commonly
encountered in foundation engineering, and they may support slopes of earth masses. Proper design and
construction of these structures require thorough knowledge of lateral forces that act between the
retaining structures and the soil masses being retained. These lateral forces are caused by lateral earth
pressure.
Lateral earth pressure is the force exerted by the soil mass upon an earth – retaining structure
such as a retaining wall.
The magnitude and distribution of the lateral pressure acting on retaining structures or
foundations are important for the design of excavation bracing, retaining walls, waterfront, and near shore
structures. There are two general types of lateral earth pressure or force, the earth pressure and
environmental force. Earth pressure is the major contribution to overall lateral pressure, and it can be
divided into three scenarios such as follows: active earth pressure, passive earth pressure, and earth
pressure at rest. The stages of earth pressure and their applications are (a) active earth pressure
including all types of retaining walls; (b) active – passive earth pressure including sheet piling and deep
excavation; (c) passive earth pressure including basement wall, underwater down slope, and roadway
sign; and (d) earth pressure at rest including pile foundation and bridge pier. Environmental forces such
as wind, wave, current, and earthquakes are closely related to the stability of geotechnical engineering
structures.

B. Characteristics of Lateral earth Pressure

1. Earth pressure at rest

The rigid wall may have two directions of motion, into the bank or away from the bank. The soil
first undergoes first elastic deformation, then elastic plastic deformation, and finally uncontained
plastic flow. In simple terms, if no wall movement occurs, the lateral earth pressure is referred to as
earth pressure at rest.
2. Active earth pressure
The soil exerts a push against a wall by virtue of its tendency to slip laterally and seek its natural
slope or angle of repose, this making the wall to move slightly away from the backfill soil mass. This
kind of pressure is known as the “active earth pressure” of the soil.
3. Passive earth pressure
The retaining wall or the earth – retaining structure is the actuating element and soil provides the
resistance with soil develops in response to the movement of the structure toward it is called the
“passive earth pressure”, or more appropriately “passive earth resistance” which may be very much
greater than the active earth pressure. The surface over which the sheared – off soil wedge tends to
slide is referred to as the surface of “sliding” or “rupture”.

C. Earth Pressures Coefficient

The coefficient of earth pressure is the principal stress ratio at a point in a soil mass. The
characteristics of the coefficient of earth pressures are given in terms of three types: active, passive, and
at rest.

1. Active earth pressure coefficient (K a) is the ratio between the lateral and vertical principal
effective stresses when an earth retaining structure moves away (by a small amount) from the
retained soil.
2. Passive earth coefficient (Kp) is the ratio between the lateral and vertical principal effective
stresses when an earth retaining structure is force against a soil mass.
3. Coefficient of earth pressure at rest (K o) is the ratio of the minor principal stress to the major
principal stress. This is applicable when the soil mass is in natural state without having been
permitted to yield or without having been compressed.

D. Methods for Analysis of Lateral Earth Pressure

There are two basic approaches for estimating lateral earth pressures, the theoretical and
empirical approaches.

1. Theoretical approaches
Theoretical approaches for estimation of lateral earth pressure include (a) Coulumb’s earth
pressure theory, (b) Rankine earth’s theory, (c) limit analysis, and (d) elasticity theory.

29
2. Empirical approaches
Empirical approaches are for the design of indeterminate foundation structures such as bracing
excavation and anchored bulkhead.

E. Retaining Walls

A retaining wall may be defined as a structure whose primary purpose is to prevent lateral
movement of earth or some other material. For some special cases, as in basement walls or bridge
abutments, a retaining wall may also have function of supporting vertical loads.

Types of Retaining Walls

1. Gravity retaining wall is a massive concrete wall relying on its mass to resist the lateral forces from
the retained soil mass.
2. Semi – gravity wall is in essence of gravity wall that has been given a wider base (a toe or heel or
both) to increase its stability. Some reinforcement is usually necessary for this type of wall.
3. Flexible retaining wall or a sheet pile wallis a long slender wall relying on passive resistance and
anchors or props for its stability.
4. Mechanical stabilized earth is a gravity type retaining wall in which the soil is reinforced by thin
reinforcing elements (steel, fabric, fibers, etc.).
5. T – Shaped wall is perhaps the most common cantilever wall. For this type of wall, the weight of the
earth in the back of the stem (the backfill) contributes to its stability.
6. L – Shaped wallis frequently used when properly line restrictions forbid the use of T – Shaped wall.
On the other hand, when it is not feasible (due to construction limitation) to excavate for a heel, a
reversed L – Shape may serve the need.
7. Counterfort retaining wallconsists of three main components: base, stemand intermittent vertical
ribs called counterforts, which tie the base and the stem together. These ribs, which act as tension
ties, transform the stem and heel into continuous slabs supported on three sides – at two adjacent
counterforts and at the base stem.
8. Buttressed wall is constructed by placing the ribs on the front face of the stem where they act in
compression.
9. Bridge abutment is a retaining wall, generally short and typically accompanied by wing walls.

F. Basic Concepts on Lateral Earth Pressures

1. The earth retaining wall is vertical.

2. The interface between the wall and soil is frictionless.
3. The soil surface is horizontal and no shear acts on horizontal and vertical boundaries.
4. The wall is rigid and extends to an infinite depth in a dry, homogenous, isotropic soil mass.
5. The soil is loose and initially in an at-rest state.

G. Earth Pressure at Rest

If a retaining structure does not moveeither to the right or to the left of its initial position, the soil
mass will be in a state of elastic equilibrium, meaning, the horizontal strain is zero. The ratio of the
horizontal stress to the vertical stress is called the coefficient of earth pressure at rest, K o.

σh
Ko= =1−sin ∅
σv

Where ∅ is the drained friction angle

1. For dense sand backfill:

❑d
K o =( 1−sin ∅ ) +
[ ❑dmin ]
−1 5.5

Where: d = actual compacted dry unit weight of the sand behind the wall
dmin = dry unit weight of the sand in the loosest state

2. For fine – grained normally consolidated soils:

K o =0.44+ 0.42 ( PI100% )

3. For Overconsolidated clays:

K o (overconsolidated)=K o(normally consolidated ) √ OCR

30
 Preconsolidated pressure
OCR=
Present effective overburden pressure
H. RankineEarth Pressure Theory

Principles and Assumptions

Rankine in 1857 proposed a procedure for cohesionless soils based on the Coulumb’s method for
horizontal ground surface, dry cohesionless soils, and smooth walls. The assumptions for Rankine’s
theory are virtually the same as those noted in Coulumb’s theory with the exception that wall friction is
neglected. As such, the resultant of the normal and shear forces are assumed to act parallel to the ground
surface. The theory was later extended by Resal (1910) and Bell (1915) to be applicable to cohesive
soils.

The followings are the important assumptions in Rankine’s theory

a. The soil mass is semi – infinite, homogeneous, dry and cohesionless.

b. The ground surface is a plane which may be horizontal or inclined.
c. The face of the wall in contact with the backfill is vertical and smooth. In other words, the friction
between the wall and the backfill is neglected (this amount to ignoring the presence of the wall).
d. The wall yields about the base sufficiently for the active pressure conditions to develop; if it is the
passive case that is under consideration, the wall is taken to be pushed sufficiently towards the fill for
the passive resistances to be fully mobilized. (Alternatively, it is taken that the soil mass is stretched
or gets compressed adequately for attaining these states, respectively. Friction between the wall and
fill is supposed to reduce the active earth pressure on the wall and increase the passive resistance of
the soil. Similar is the effect of cohesion of the fill soil).

Thus it is seen that, by neglecting wall friction as also cohesion of the backfill, the geotechnical
engineer errs on the safe side in the computation of both the active pressure and passive resistance.
Also, the fill is usually of cohesionless soil, wherever possible, from the point of view of providing proper
drainage.

1. Vertical Face and Inclined Backfill

α α

h
Fa

h/3 Fp h/3

Active case Passive case

a. Coefficient of Active Pressure

cos α − √ cos 2 α −cos 2 ∅

K a =cos α
cosα + √ cos 2 α −cos 2 ∅
Where: α = angle that the backfill makes with the horizontal
∅ = angle of friction of soil

b. Coefficient of passive Pressure

cos α + √ cos2 α −cos 2 ∅

K p =cos α
cosα−√ cos 2 α −cos 2 ∅

2. Vertical Face and Horizontal backfill

h
Fa Fp
h/3 h/3
31
 Active case Passive case

a. Coefficient of Active Pressure

1−sin ∅
Ka=
1+ sin ∅
b. Coefficient of Passive Pressure
1+sin ∅
K p=
1−sin ∅
I. Coulomb’s Earth Pressure Theory or Wedge Theory

Principles and Assumptions

The earliest analytical solution was the Coulumb method developed in 1776. It is also called the wedge
theory. Assumptions of the wedge theory include (a) backfill material is cohesionless soil, (b) the failure
surface and applied pressure surface are planes, (c) friction exists between the wall and the soil, (d) the
failure wedge may be treated as a rigid body, (e) failure is two – dimensional, and (f) the soil is isotropic
and homogeneous.

α α

Fa Fp
h

Fp h/3 h/3
 

Wall sloping face (Active case) Wall sloping face (Passive case)

1. Active pressure coefficient

K a =cos2 ¿ ¿
2. Passive pressure coefficient
K p =cos2 ¿ ¿
Where:  = angle at the back face inclined with the horizontal
δ = wall friction angle
∅ = angle of internal friction

J. Factors of Safety

The structural elements of the wall should be so proportioned that the following safety factors are
realized:

1. Factor of safety against sliding:

Resisting forces
FS s=
Active forces
For granular backfill, FSs≥1. 5
For cohesive backfill, FSs≥ 2. 0

2. Factor of safety against overturning about the toe:

Stabilizing moments
FSo =
Overturning moments
For granular backfill, FSo≥ 1. 5
For cohesive backfill, FSo≥ 2. 0

The horizontal components of the lateral forces tend to force the wall to slide along its base. The
resisting force is provided by the horizontal forces composed of friction and adhesion, and by passive
resistance of soil in front of the wall. The passive resistance is not to be counted on if there is a chance
that the soil in front of the wall may be eroded or excavated during the life of the wall.

Problems

1. A vertical retaining wall having a height of 6 m supporting a horizontal ground level at the top and the
soil beneath the ground surface has a unit weight of 15. 74 kN/m 3 and an angle of internal friction of
30o. Compute the Rankine active force acting on the wall.

32
2. A retaining wall having a smooth vertical back is to retain a drained cohesion less soil with a
horizontal surface to a depth of 9 m. The soil has an angle of internal friction of 30 o and a unit weight
of 19. 8 kN/m3. Determine the total active thrust acting on the wall when there is a uniform surcharge
on the soil surface of 50 kN/m2.

3. Determine the active pressure at the bottom of the wall 4 m high which retains soil having an angle of
internal friction of 30oand cohesion of 4 kN/m2. Unit weight of soil is 18 kN/m 3. Assume no tension
cracks occur in the soil.

4. A vertical retaining wall has a height of 5 m and supports a horizontal backfill on level with the top of
the wall. The water table is located 2. 5 m below the top of the wall. The unit weight of soil above the
water table is 16. 5 kN/m3 with an angle of internal friction of 30 o. The saturated unit weight of soil
below the water table is 19. 3 kN/m 3 and an angle of internal friction of 30 o. Compute the lateral earth
pressure at rest acting perpendicular to the wall.

5. A retaining wall is required to retain a soil mass having a depth of 10 m. Determine the Rankineactive
force on the wall. Angle of internal friction of dry sand is 30 o. Ground water table is located 4 m below
the ground level surface. Dry unit weight of soil is 15. 60 kN/m 3, the angle of internal friction for the
layer sand below the water table is 35o with a saturated unit weight of 17. 4 kN/m 3.

6. A vertical retaining wall with a horizontal backfill has a height of 6 m and backfill having a unit weight
of 17. 5 kN/m3, an angle of internal friction of 35 o, angle of wall friction is 10 o. Determine the passive
force on the wall using Coulomb’s theory.

7. A 6m cantilever wall retains soil that has the following properties: angle of internal friction 30 o and soil
weighs 19. 2 kN/m3. The ground surface behind the wall is inclined at a slope of 3 horizontal to 1
vertical and the wall has moved sufficiently to develop the active condition. Determine the normal
force acting on the wall using Rankine’s theory.

VII. Soil Bearing Capacity

A. Introduction

The bearing capacity of soil is its ability to withstand an applied loading condition. If the
supporting power of ground is greater than the structural load, then the condition is safe. This supporting
power used in geotechnical engineering is referred to as the bearing capacity or the ultimate bearing
capacity of ground soil. The characteristics of the soil bearing capacity of soil belongs to the multimedia
energy field, because it is not only controlled by the load applied, but also is influenced by local
environmental conditions such as soil types, location of ground water table, frost penetration depth, and
characteristics of pollution intrusion. Current practice assesses the bearing capacity in terms of the load
or pressure which develops under a foundation, relative to the maximum allowed. Bearing capacity may
be considered in terms of either shallow or deep foundations. The shallow foundation is defined as the
foundation width, B, being larger than the depth of the foundation, D, such as footings and mat
foundations. Deep foundations may be defined as elements in which the depth is larger than the width,
such as caissons and pile foundations.

The subject of bearing capacity is perhaps the most important of all the aspects of geotechnical
engineering, loads from buildings are transmitted to the foundation by columns, by load – bearing walls or
by such other load – bearing components of the structures. Sometimes the material on which the
foundation rests is ledge, very hard soil or bed – rock, which is known to be much stronger than is
necessary to transmit the loads from the structure such as a ledge, or rock, or other stiff material may not
be available at reasonable depth and it becomes invariably necessary to allow the structure to bear
directly on soil, which will furnish a satisfactory foundation, if the bearing members are properly designed.

33
 The lowest part of a structure is generally referred to as the foundation. Its function is to transfer
the load of the structure to the soil on which it is resting. A properly designed foundation transfers the load
throughout the soil without overstressing the soil. Overstressing the soil can result in either excessive
settlement or shear failure of the soil, both of which cause damage to the structure. Thus geotechnical
and structural engineers who design foundations must evaluate the bearing capacity of soils.

B. Definition of Terms:

1. Foundation is a structure that transmits loads to the underlying soils.

2. Foundation soil or bed is the soil or bed to which loads are transmitted from the base of the
structure.
3. Footing is a foundation consisting of a small slab for transmitting the structural load to under lying
soil.
4. Shallow foundation is one in which the ratio of the embedment depth to the minimumplan
dimension, which is usually the width, is (Df/B)< 2. 5.
5. Embedment depth (Df) is the depth below the ground surface where the base of the foundation
rests.
6. Bearing capacity is the load carrying capacity of foundation soil or rock which enables it to bear and
transmit loads from a structure.
7. Ultimate bearing capacity is the maximum pressure that the soil can support or is the maximum
pressure which a foundation can withstand without the occurrence of shear failure of the foundation.
8. Ultimate net bearing capacity (q ult) is the maximum pressure that the soil can support above its
current overburden pressure.
9. Gross bearing capacity is the bearing capacity inclusive of the pressure exerted by the weight of the
soil standing on the foundation, or the “surcharge” pressure, as it is sometimes called.
10. Net bearing capacity is gross bearing capacity minus the original overburden pressure or surcharge
pressure at the foundation level; obviously, this will be the same as the gross capacity when the
depth of foundation is zero, i. e., the structure is founded at ground level.
11. Allowable bearing capacity orSafe bearing capacity (q a)is the ultimate bearing capacity divided by
the factor of safety. The factor of safety in foundation may range from 2 to 5, depending upon the
importance of the structure, and the soil profile at the site. This factor of safety should be applied to
the net ultimate bearing capacity and the surcharge pressure due to depth of the foundation should
then be added to get the safe bearing capacity or is the working pressure that would ensure a margin
of safety against collapse of the structure from shear failure. The allowable bearing capacity is usually
a fraction of the ultimate net bearing capacity.
It is thus the maximum intensity of loading which can be transmitted to the soil without the risk of
shear failure, irrespective of the settlement that may occur.
12. Factor of safety or safety factor (FS) is the ratio of the ultimate net bearing capacity to the
allowable bearing capacity or to the applied maximum vertical stress. In the geotechnical engineering,
a factor of safety between 1. 5 and 5 is used to calculate the allowable bearing capacity.
13. Ultimate limit state defines a limiting shear stress that should not be exceeded by any conceivable
or anticipated loading during the design life of a foundation or any geotechnical system
14. Serviceability limit state defines a limiting deformation or settlement of a foundation, which, if
exceeded, will impair the function of the structure that it supports.

C. Bearing Capacity

The conventional design of a foundation is based on the concept of bearing capacity or allowable
bearing pressure.
Criteria for the Determination of Bearing Capacity

The criteria for the determination of bearing capacity of a foundation are based on the
requirements for the stability of the foundation. These are stated as follows:

1. Shear failure of the foundation or bearing capacity failure, as it is sometimes called, shall not occur.
(This is associated with plastic flow of the soil material underneath the foundation and lateral
expulsion of the soil from underneath the footing of the foundation); and
2. The probable settlements, differential or well as total, of the foundation must be limited to safe,
tolerable or acceptable magnitudes.

In other words, the anticipated settlement under the applied pressure on the foundation should
not be detrimental to the stability of the structure.

These two criteria are known as the shear strength criterion, and settlement criterion,
respectively. These are independent criteria and hence require independent investigation. The design
value of the safe bearing capacity, obviously, would be the smaller of the two values, obtained from these
two criteria. This has already been defined as the allowable bearing pressure.

D. Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity

34
 Bearing capacity is governed by a number of factors. The following are some of the more
important ones which affect bearing capacity.

1. Nature of soil and its physical and engineering properties.

2. Nature of the foundation and other details such as size, shape, depth below the ground surface and
rigidity of the structure.
3. Total and differential settlements that the structure can withstand without functional failure.
4. Location of the ground water table relative to the level of the foundation; and
5. Initial stresses, if any.

In view of the wide variety of factors that affect bearing capacity, a systematic study of the factors
involved in a logical sequence is necessary for proper understanding.

E. Methods of Determining Bearing Capacity

The following methods are available for the determination of bearing capacity of a foundation:

1. Bearing capacity tables in various building codes

Bearing capacity tables have been evolved by certain agencies and incorporated in building
codes. They are mostly based on past experience and some investigations.

2. Analytical methods

A number of analytical approaches, based on the work of Rankine, Fellenius, Housel, Prandtl,
Terzaghi, Meyerhof, Skempton, Hansen and Bella may be used. Some of these would be dealt with in
later sections.

3. Plate bearing tests

Plate bearing tests are load tests conducted in the field on a plate. These involve effort and
expense. There are also certain limitations to their use.

4. Penetration tests

Penetration tests are conducted with devices known as “Penetrometers”, which measure the
resistance of soil to penetration. This is correlated to bearing capacity.

5. Model tests and prototype tests

Model and prototype tests are very cumbersome and costly and are not usually practicable.
Housel’s approach is based on model tests.

6. Laboratory tests

Laboratory tests which are simple may be useful in arriving at bearing capacity, especially of
pureclays.

Safe Bearing Capacity (IS: 1904 – 1986 Revised)

Safe Bearing
Types of Rock or Soil Capacity Remarks
kN/m2(t/m2)
I. Rocks

1. Rocks without laminations and 3240 (330)

defects – e.g., granite, trap, diorite

2. Laminated rocks, e.g., sand – 1620 (165)

stone and limestone, in sound
condition
880 (90)
3. Residual deposits of shattered and
broken bed rock and hard shale,
cemented material
440 (45)
4. Soft rock

II. Cohesionless Soils

35
 5. Gravel, sand and gravel, compact 440 (45) See note 2
and offering high resistance to
penetration when excavated by
tools

6. Coarse sand, compact and dry 440 (45) Dry means that the GWL is at a depth
not less than width of the foundation
below the base of the foundation.
7. Medium sand, compact and dry 245 (25)

8. Fine sand, silt (dry lumps easily 150 (15)

pulverized by fingers)

9. Loose gravel or sand – gravel 245 (25) See note 2

mixture; loose coarse to medium
sand, dry

10. Fine sand, loose and dry 100 (10)

III. Cohesive Soils

11. Soft shale, hard or stiff clay, dry 440 (45) Susceptible to long – term
consolidation settlement
12. Medium clay, readily indented with 245 (25)
a thumb nail

13. Moist clay and sand – clay mixture 150 (15)

which can be indented with strong
thumb pressure

14. Soft – clay indented with moderate 100 (10)

thumb pressure

15. Very soft clay which can be 50 (5)

penetrated easily with the thumb

16. Black cotton soil or other - See note 3. To be determined after

shrinkable or expansive clay in dry investigation
condition (50% saturation)
IV. Peat

17. Peat - See note 3 and note 4. To be

determined after investigation
V. Made – Up Ground

18. Fills or made – up ground - See note 2 and note 4. To be

determined after investigation

Note 1: Values listed in the table are from shear consideration only.

Note 2: Values are very much rough for the following reasons:
a. Effect of characteristics of foundations (that is, effect of depth, width, shape, roughness,
etc…) has not been considered.
b. Effect of range of soil properties (that is, angle of internal friction, cohesion, water table,
density, etc.) has not been considered.
c. Effect of eccentricity and inclination of loads has not been considered.

Note 3:For non – cohesive soils, the values listed in the table shall be reduced by 50%, if the water
table is above or near the base of footing.

Note 4: Compactness or looseness of non – cohesive soils may be determined by driving the cone of
65 mm diameter and 60o apex angle by a hammer of 65 kg falling from 75 cm. If corrected number of
blows (N) for 30 cm penetration is less than 10, the soil is called loose, if N lies between 10 and 30, it
is medium, if more than 30, and the soil is called dense.

F. Limitations of Bearing Capacity Values for Building Codes

The following are the limitations of the bearing capacity values specified in building codes:

1. By specifying a value or a range for bearing capacity, the concept is unduly oversimplified.
2. The codes tacitly assume that the allowable bearing capacity is dependent only on the soil type.
3. The effects of many soil characteristics which are likely to influence the bearing capacity are ignored.
36
4. The codes do not indicate the method used to obtain the bearing capacity values.
5. The codes assume that the bearing capacity is dependent of the size, shape and depth of foundation.
All these factors are known to have significant bearing on the values.
6. Building codes are usually not – up – to date.

However, the values given in codes are used in preliminary design foundations.

G. Analytical Methods of Determining Bearing Capacity

The following analytical approaches are available:

1. The theory of elasticity – Schleicher’s Method

2. The classified earth pressure theory – Rankine’s Method, Pauker’s Method and Bell’s Method
3. The theory of plasticity – Fellenius’ Method, Prandtl’s Method, Terzaghi’s Method, Meyerhof’s
Method, Skempton’s Method, Hansen’s Method and Bella’s Method

Types of Footings

A footing is that part of a structure which serves to transmit the weight of the structure to the
natural deposits.

1. Isolated footing or Spread footing is a footing that supports a single column.

2. Combine footing is the one that supports a group of columns.
3. Continuous or Strip footing is the one that supports a wall.
4. Mat foundation is an entire structure over a concrete pad.
5. Pile and drilled shaft foundations are used for heavier structures when great depth is required for
supporting the load.

Spread footings and mat foundations are generally shallow foundations, whereas pile and drilled
shaft foundations are classified deep foundations.

(a) Spread Footing (b) Mat Foundation

(c) Pile Foundation (d) Drilled Shaft Foundation

H. Terzaghi’s bearing Capacity Equations

Considering the effects of unit weight of soil, cohesion and surcharge

1. General Shear Failure

B N❑
q u=C N c +q N q+
2
where :qu = ultimate bearing capacity of soil
Nc, Nq and Nγ = bearing capacity factors
γ = unit weight of soil
q = surcharge
c = cohension

a. For square footing

37
q u=1.3 C N c +q N q + 0.40 B N ❑
B = width of footing

b. For circular footing

q u=1.3 C N c +q N q + 0.30 B N ❑
B = diameter of footing

2. For Local Shear Failure

' ' ' ' B N '❑
q u=C N c +q N q +
2
2C
C '=
3

2 tan ∅
tan ∅' =
3

a. Square footing
q =1.3 C' N 'c + q N 'q +0.40 B N ❑'
'
u

b. circular footing
q =1.3 C' N 'c + q N 'q +0.30 B N ❑'
'
u

3. Effect of Ground Water Table

Case I: If the groundwater table is located at a distance D above the bottom of the foundation, the
magnitude q in the second term of the bearing capacity should be calculated as

Df Groundwater table
D
B

q=( D f −D ) + (❑sat −❑w ) D ; q=Df

q=( D f −D ) +❑' D

Case II: If the groundwater table coincides with the bottom of the foundation, the magnitude of q is equal
to γDf. However, the unit weight, γ, in the third term of the bearing capacity equations should be replaced
by γ’.

Df Groundwater table

Case III: When the groundwater table is at a depth D below the bottom of the foundation,q = γ Df. The
magnitude of γ in the third term of the bearing capacity equations should be replaced by γ av.

Df
B D Groundwater table

[ D+❑' ( B−D ) ]
❑ AV = ( for D ≤ B )
B
❑ AV =( for D> B )
Note :q u=C N c +q N q + (❑sat −❑w ) B N❑

4. Allowable Bearing Capacity

38
 qu
q allow =
F .S.

W DL + W F +W s
q allow =
A
5. Net Allowable Bearing Capacity
q u (net )=q u−q
q=Df
qu −q
q allow (net )=
F .S.

6. Allowable Bearing Capacity for friction angle ∅d

B N❑
q allow =C d N c + q N q +
2

where :Nc, Nq and Ny are bearing capacity factors for friction ∅d

tan ∅
t an ∅ d= ; ∅ =developed angle of friction soil
F.S . d
7. Ultimate Bearing capacity of Actual Footing using results of field load test

a. For clays
q u(footing)=q u( plate)

b. For sandy soils

( q u( plate) ) ( B footing )
q u(footing)=
B plate
8. Settlement of footing

a. For clays
[ S ( plate ) ][ B( footing ) ]
S( footing )=
B( plate )
b. For sandy soil
2
[ S ( plate ) ][ 2 B( footing) ]
S( footing )= 2
[ B (footing ) + B( plate ) ]
Note: Load carried by a footing of area A and perimeter P that rests on a cohesive soil for a given
settlement.
Q= Aq+ P s
where : Q = load carried by footing
A = area of footing
q = compression stress below the footing
Ps = unit shear stress at the perimeter

9. Bearing capacity factors

a. Reissner Equation
∅
N q =e tan ∅ tan 2 45o +( 2 )
b. Prandt Equation
N c =( N q−1 ) cot ∅
c. Caquot and Kerisel equation
N ❑=2 ( N q +1 ) tan ∅

10. Terzaghi’s Equation

39
 2 ( 34 − ∅2 ) tan ∅
e
a. Nq=
∅
2 cos 2 45o + ( 2 )
cot ∅ e [ ] 2 ( 34 − ∅2 ) tan ∅ −1
b. N c=
∅
2 cos ( ❑ + ) 2
4 2

[ k p −1 ] tan ∅
c. N ❑=
2 cos 2
d. kpy = passive pressure coefficient

11. Modified General Ultimate Bearing Capacity Equation

qu = c λcsλcdλciN + q λqsλqdλqiNq + (1/2) ( λysλydλyi y B Ny)

Where:λcs, λqs and λys = shape factors

λcd, λqd and λyd = depth factors
λci, λqi and λyi= inclination factors

a. Shape factors for rectangular footing

B = width of footings
L = length of footings

λcs = 1 + ( B/L ) ( Nq/ Nc )

λqs = 1 + ( B/L ) tan ∅
λys = 1 – 0.4 ( B/L )

b. Shape factors for square and circular footing

λcs = 1 + ( Nq / Nc )
λqs = 1 + tan ∅
λys = 0.60

c. Depth factors for Df/B < 1

λqd = 1 + 2 tan ∅ ( 1 – sin ∅ ) ( Df / B )

λcd = λqd- 1 - λqd
Nqtan ∅
λyd = 1

d. Depth factors for Df/B > 1

λqd = 1 + 2 tan ∅ ( 1 – sin ∅)2 tan-1 ( Df/ B )

λcd = λqd - ( 1 – λqd )

Nq tan ∅
λyd = 1

e. Depth factor for ∅ = 0; when ( Df /B ) < 1

λcd = 1 + 0.4 tan-1 ( Df / B )

f. Depth factor for ∅ = 1; when ( Df /B ) > 1

λcd = 1 + 0.4 tan-1 ( Df/ B )

g. Inclination factors

λci = ( 1 – θ/90o )2
λqi = ( 1 – θ/90o )2
λyi = ( 1 – θ/90o )2

40
Note: The soil bearing capacity equation for a strip footing can be modified for general use by
incorporating the following factors:

e. Depth factor: to account for the shearing resistance developed along the failure surface in soil above
the base of the footing.
f. Shape factor: to determine the bearing capacity of rectangular and circular footings.
g. Inclination factor: to determine the bearing capacity of a footing on which the direction of load
application is inclined at a certain angle to the vertical.

I. The bearing capacity of foundation depends on several factors:

1. Subsoil stratification
2. Shear strength parameters of the subsoil
3. Location of the ground water table
4. Environmental factors
5. Building size and weight
6. Depth of excavation
7. Type of structure
Hence, the allowable bearing capacity at a given site must be determined on the basis of the
findings of soil exploration at the site, past experience of foundation construction and fundamentals of
geotechnical engineering theories for bearing capacity.
Excessive settlement usually causes the building to crack, which may ultimately lead to structural failure.
Uniform settlement of a structure does not produce cracking; on the other hand, differential settlement
may produce cracks and damage to building.

Problems

1. A continuous footing is shown. Using Terzaghi’s bearing capacity factors, determine the gross
allowable load per unit area (q all) that the footing can carry. Given:  = 115 lb/ft3, c = 400 lb/ft2, ∅ = 25o,
Df = 2 ft, B = 2. 5 ft and factor of safety = 4. Assume general shear failure. From the table, for ∅ = 25o,
Nc = 25. 13, Nq = 12. 72 and N = 8. 34

Df

2. Refer to problem 1
a. Determine the net allowable bearing capacity with a factor of safety of 4.
b. Determine the gross allowable bearing capacity with a factor of safety of 4 with respect to shear
failure.

3. A square footing is shown. The footing will carry a gross load of 60, 000 lb. Using a factor of safety of
3; determine the size of the footing – that is, the size of B. From the table, for ∅ = 35o, Nc = 57. 75, Nq
= 41. 44 and N = 45. 41.

 = 110 lb/ft3
∅ = 35o
c = 0 Df

4. A square footing is shown. Determine the gross load (factor of safety of 3) that the footing can carry.

 = 16 kN/m3
0.5 m c= 0, ∅ = 32o
Ground water table
41
 sat = 19. 5 kN/m3
0.5 m

1.20 m

VIII. SLOPE STABILITY

A. Introduction

Slopes in soils and rocks are ubiquitous in nature and in man-made structures. Highways, dams,
levees, canals and stockpiles are constructed by sloping the lateral faces of the soil because slopes are
generally less expensive than constructing walls. Natural forces (wind, water, snow, etc) change the
topography on Earth and other planets, often creating unsuitable slopes. Failures of natural slopes
(landslides) and man-made slopes have resulted in much death and destruction. Some failures are
sudden and catastrophic; others are insidious. Some failures are widespread; others are localized.
Geotechnical engineers have to pay particular attention to geology, surface drainage,
groundwater, and the shear strength of soils is assessing slope stability. However, we are handicapped
by the geological variability of soils and methods of obtaining reliable values of shear strength. The
analyses of slope stability are based on simplifying assumptions and the design of a stable slope relies
heavily on experience and careful site investigation.
A few simple methods of analysis from which you should be able to:

2. Estimate the ability of slopes with simple geometry and geological features.
3. Understand the forces and activities that provoke failures.
4. Understand the effects of geology, seepage and pore water pressures on the stability of slopes.

B. Definitions of Key Terms

1. Slip or failure zone is a thin zone of soil that reaches the critical state or residual state and
results in movement of the upper soil mass.
2. Slip plane or failure plane or slip surface or failure surface is the surface of sliding.
3. Sliding mass is the mass of soil within the plane and the ground surface.
4. Slope angle (αs) is the angle of inclination of a slope to the horizontal. The slope angle is
sometimes referred to as a ratio, for example, 2:1 (horizontal: vertical).
5. Pore water pressure ratio (ru) is the ratio of pore water force on a slip surface to the total weight
of the soil and any external loading.

C. Some Type of Slope Failure

Slope failures depend on the soil type, soil stratification, groundwater, seepage, and the slope
geometry. We will introduce a few types of slope failure that are common in soils. Failure of a slope along
a weak zone of soil is called a translational slide. The sliding mass can travel long distances before
coming to rest. Translational slides are common in coarse-grained soils.
A common type of failure in homogeneous fine-grained soils is a rotational slide that has its point
of rotation on an imaginary axis parallel to the slope. Three types of rotational failure often occur. One
type, called a base slide, occurs by an arc engulfing the whole slope. A soft layer resting on a stiff layer of
soil is prone to base failure. The second type of rotational failure is the toe slide, whereby the failure
surface passes through the toe of the slope. The third type of rotational failure is the slope slide, whereby
the failure surface passes the slope.
A flow slide occurs when internal and external conditions force a soil to behave like a viscous fluid
and flow down even shallow slopes, spreading out in several directions. The failure surface is ill defined in
flow slides. Multiple failure surfaces usually occur and change continuously as flow proceeds. Flow slides
can occur in dry and wet soils.
Block or wedge slides occur when a soil mass is shattered along joints, seams, fissures, and
weak zones by forces emanating from adjacent soils. The shattered mass moves as blocks and wedges
down the slope.

D. Some Causes of Slope Failure

Slope failures are caused, in general, by natural forces, human misjudgment and activities, and
burrowing animals. Describe below some of the main factors that provoke slope failures.
1. Erosion
2. Rainfall
3. Earthquakes
4. Geological Features
5. External Loading
6. Construction Activities
a. Excavated Slopes
b. Fill Slopes
42
 7. Rapid Drawdown

Essential Points:

1. Geological features and environmental conditions (e.g., external loads and natural forces) are
responsible for most slope failures.
2. The common modes of slope failure in soils are by translation, rotation, flow, and block movements.

E. Factor of Safety
τf
F s=
τd
Where:
FS = factor of safety with respect to strength
𝜏f = average shear strength of the soil
𝜏d = average shear stress developed along the potential failure surface

C +σtan ∅
F s=
C d +σtan ∅d
Where:
C = cohesion
∅ = angle of friction
σ = normal stress on the potential failure surface

1. Factor of safety with respect to cohesion

C
F c=
Cd
Where:
Fc = factor of safety with cohesion
C = cohesion
Cd = cohesion that develop along the potential failure surface
∅d = angle of friction that develop along the potential failure surface

2. Factor of safety with respect to friction

tan ∅
F ∅=
tan ∅d

Where: Fs = Fc = F∅

F. Stability of infinite Slopes without Seepage

H { Øc
γ

Ro c k
β

C tan ∅
F s= +
❑s H cos tan tan ❑
2

Where:
β = angle the soil makes with the horizontal
μ = coefficient of friction between rock and soil
c = cohesion of soil
γs = unit weight of soil
Ø = angle of internal friction

Maximum height of the slope for which critical equilibrium occurs

43
 C
H cr = 2
cos ( tan −tan ∅ )
G. Stability of Infinite Slopes with Seepage

Ø
H {c
γ

Ro c k
β

C ❑' tan ∅
F s= +
❑sat H cos2 tan ❑sat tan

Where:
γsat = saturated unit weight of soil
’ = effective unit weight of soil

H. Analysis of Finite Soil With Plane Failure Surfaces (Culmann’s Method)

Maximum height of the slope for which critical equilibrium occurs

H 1−cos (−∅d )
C d=
4 [
sin cos ∅ d ]
4 C sin cos ∅
H cr =
[
❑ 1−cos (−∅ ) ]
I. Modes of Failure of Finite Slope

1. Slope failure

When the failure occurs in such a way that the surface of sliding intersects the slope at or above
its toe, it is called a slope failure and the failure circle is referred to as a toe circle if it passes thru the
toe of the slope.

2. Slope failure

The failure circle is called a slope circle

a. Shallow slope failure
b. Base failure
When failure occurs in such a way that the surface of sliding passes at some distance
below the toe of the slope, it is called a base failure and the failure circle is called a mid point.

3. Stability Number
m = Cd / γ s H
where : m = stability number
1/m = ( γs H ) / Cd ( stability factor )

44
4. Critical Height of Slope
When :Fs =1, Cd = Cu
Hcr = Cu / γs m
Where: Cu = undrained shear strength
γs = unit weight of soil

5. For Critical Equilibrium

Fc = FØ = Fs
Cd = C, H = Hcr
Hcr= C / ( γs / m )
Fc = C / Cd ( factor of safety with respect to cohesion )
FØ = ( tanØ / tan Ød ) ( factor of safety with respect to friction )

Problems

1. An infinite slope in shown. The shear strength parameters at the interface of soil and rock are as
follows:  = 1, 900 kg/m3, C = 18 kN/m2 and ∅ = 25o.
a. If H = 8 m and  = 20o, find the factor of safety against sliding on the rock surface.
b. If  = 30o, find the height, H, for which Fs = 1. (Assume no pore water pressure to be zero)

Ø
H {c
γ

Ro c k
β

2. Refer to problem 1.If there were seepage through the soil, and the ground water table coincided with
the ground surface, what would be the value of Fs? Use H = 8 m, sat = 1, 900 kg/m3 and  = 20o.

3. A cut is to be made in a soil that has  = 105 lb/ft3, C = 600 lb/ft2 and ∅ = 15o. The side of the cut slope
will make an angle of 45o with the horizontal. What should be the depth of the cut slope that will have
a factor of safety, Fs, of 3?

IX. SOIL STABILIZATION

A. Introduction

Soil stabilization, in the broadest sense, refers to the procedures employed with a view to altering
one or more properties of a soil so as to improve its engineering performance.
Soil stabilization is only one of several techniques available to the geotechnical engineer and its choice
for any situation should be made only after a comparison with other techniques indicates it to be the best
solution to the problem.

45
 It is a well known fact that, every structure must rest upon soil or be made of soil. It would be
ideal to find a soil at a particular site to be satisfactory for the intended use as it exists in nature, but
unfortunately, such a thing is of rate of occurrence.
The alternatives available to a geotechnical engineer, when an unsatisfactory soil is met with, are
(a) to bypass the bad soil (e.g., use of piles), (b) to remove the bad soil and replace with good one (e. g.,
removal of peat at a site and replacement with selected material), (c) redesign the structure (e. g., floating
foundation on a compressible layer), and (d) to treat the soil to improve its properties.
The last alternative is termed soil stabilization. Although certain techniques of stabilization are of
a relatively recent origin, the art itself is very old. The original objective of soil stabilization was, as the
name implies, to increase the strength or stability of soil. However, techniques have now been developed
to alter the strength and/or to reduce its sensitivity to moisture changes.
The most common application of soil stabilization is the strengthening of the soil components of highway
and airfield pavements.

B. Classification of the Methods of Stabilization

A completely consistent classification of soil stabilization techniques is difficult. Classifications

may be based on the treatment given to soil, on additives used, or on the process involved.
Broadly speaking, soil stabilization procedures may be brought under the following two heads:
Stabilization without additives and Stabilization with additives.
Stabilization without additives may be ‘mechanical” – rearrangement of particles through
compaction or addition or removal of soil particles. It may be by “draining” – drainage may be achieved by
the addition of external load, by pumping, by electro – osmosis, or by application of a thermal gradient –
heating or cooling.
Stabilization with additives may be cement stabilization (that is, soil cement), bitumen
stabilization, or chemical stabilization (with fly ash, lime, calcium or sodium chloride, sodium silicate,
dispersants, physico–chemical alteration involving ion – exchange in clay – minerals or injection
stabilization by grouting with soil, cement or chemicals).
The appropriate method for a given situation must be chosen by the geotechnical engineer based
on his experience and knowledge. Comparative laboratory tests followed by limited field tests should be
used to select the most economical method that will serve the particular problem on hand. Field –
performance data may help in solving similar problems which arise in future.
It must be remembered, however, that soil stabilization is not always the best solution to a
problem.

C. Stabilization of Soil without Additives

Some kind of treatment is given to the soil in this approach; no additives are used. The treatment
may involve a mechanical process like compaction and a change of gradation by addition or removal of
soil particles.

a. Mechanical Stabilization

“Mechanical stabilization” means improving the soil properties by rearrangement of particles and
densification by compaction, or by changing the gradation through addition or removal of soil particles.

a. Rearrangement of particles – compaction

b. Change of gradation – addition or removal of soil particles
c. Mehra’s method of stabilization

b. Stabilization by Drainage

Generally speaking, the strength of soil generally decreases with an increase in pore water and in
the pore water pressure. Addition of water to clay causes a reduction of cohesion by increasing the
electric repulsion between particles. The strength of saturated soil depends directly on the effective or the
intergranularstress. For a given total stress, an increase in pore water pressure results in decrease of
effective stress and consequent decrease in strength.
Thus, drainage of a soil is likely to result in an increase in strength which is one of the primary
objectives of soil stabilization.

The methods used for drainage for this purpose are:

a. Application of external load to the soil mass,

b. Drainage of pore water by gravity and/or pumping, using well – points, sand – drains, etc.
c. Application of an electrical gradient or electro – osmosis; and
d. Application of thermal gradient

D. Stabilization of Soil with Additives

Stabilization of soil with some kind of additive is very common. The mode and degree of
alternation necessary depend on the nature of the soil and its deficiencies. If additional strength is
46
required in the case of cohesionless soil, a cementing or a binding agent may be added and if the soil is
cohesive, the strength can be increased by making it moisture – resistant, altering the absorbed water
films, increasing cohesion with a cement agent and adding internal friction. Compressibility of a clay soil
can be reduced by cementing the grains with a rigid material or by altering the forces of the absorbed
water films on the clay minerals. Swelling and shrinkage may also be reduced by cementing, altering the
water absorbing capacity of the clay mineral and by making it moisture – resistant. Permeability of a
cohesionless soil may be reduced by filling the voids with an impervious material or by preventing
flocculation by altering the structure of the absorbed water on the clay mineral; it may be increased by
removing the fines or modifying the structure to an aggregate one.
A satisfactory additive for soil stabilization must provide the desired qualities and, in addition,
must meet the following requirements: Compressibility with the soil material, permanency, easy handling
and processing, and low cost.
Many additives have been employed but with varying degrees of success. No material has been
found to meet all the requirements, and most of the materials are expensive.

1. Types of Additives Used

The various additives used fall under the following categories;

a. Cementing materials: Increase in strength of the soil achieved by the cementing action of
additive. Portland cement, lime, fly ash and sodium silicate are examples of such additives.
b. Water – proofers: Bituminous materials prevent absorption of moisture. These may be used if
the natural moisture content of the soil is adequate for providing the necessary strength. Some
resins also fall in this category, but are very expensive.
c. Water – retainers:Calcium chloride and sodium chloride are examples of this category.
d. Water – repellents or retarders: Certain organic compounds such as stearates and silicones
tent to get absorbed by the clay particles in preference to water. Thus, they tend to keep off water
from the soil.
e. Modifiers and other miscellaneous agents: Certain additives tend to decrease the plasticity
index and modify the plasticity characteristics. Lignin and lignin – derivatives are used as
dispersing agents for clays.

2. California Bearing Ratio (CBR)

The strength of the sub gradeis an important factor in the determination of the thickness required
for a flexible pavement. It is expressed in terms of its “California Bearing Ratio”, usually abbreviated as
“CBR”.
The CBR test is usually carried out in the laboratory either or undisturbed samples or on
remolded samples, depending upon the condition in which the sub grade soil is likely to be used. Efforts
shall be put in to simulate in the laboratory the pressure and moisture conditions to which the sub grade is
expected to be subjected in the field.

E. Reinforced Earth and Geosynthetics

1. Reinforced Earth: The idea of retaining earth behind a metallic facing element connected to anchor
or tieback elements, which may be a thin metal strips, or strips of wire mesh, is of relatively recent
origin. The resulting structure is known as “reinforced earth”.

2. Geosynthetics

“Geotextile” means a textile used in geotechnical practice and are relatively recent origin. A brief
treatment of the evolution, functions, and applications of Geosynthetics in Civil Engineering practice is
given herein:
Forms of geotextiles have been have been used since time memorial. The Chinese have used
wood, bamboo and straw to strengthen soils; even the Great Wall included reinforced soil structures in
some of its portions. The Dutch, in their old battle with the sea, have extensively used willow fascines to
reinforce dikes and protect them from wave action. The Romans used reed and wood for soil
reinforcement; even animal hides were used in the Middle Ages. Cotton fabrics were tried for
strengthening road pavements in the U.S.A. between 1926 and 1935 A.D.
During the Second World War, the British Army used rolls or fascines or canvas to strengthen the
ground during the invasion of France. The advent of synthetic fibers in the twentieth century spurred
geotextile techniques – the first synthetic fiber, made from Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) in 1913, the advent
of nylon in 1930, polyester fiber in 1949, and polypropylene fiber in 1954 have all contributed to this.
Another major advance was the development in mid – 1960’s of manufacturing process for non-woven
fibers made from continuous synthetic filament (Spun – bonded non – woven fabrics) in France, the U.K.,
and the U.S.A.
The term “Geosynthetics” has been proposed by J. E. Fleut, Jr. in 1983 to encompass all these
synthetics materials, including geomembranes. Systematic applications followed the advent of synthetic
fiber capable of resisting rot. Today geosynthetics are being widely used in a number of applications in
geotechnical practice the world over.

47
 Geosynthetics are classified in the following:

a. Geotextiles: These are permeable textiles – woven or non – woven synthetic polymers. Woven
fabrics consists of two threads (warp and weft) combined systematically by making them cross each
other perpendicularly. Threads could be multi – filaments or thick monofilaments, or tape threads got
by splitting a plastic film. Multi – filament threads are made of polyester and polyamide; polypropylene
and polyethylene are used to make fabrics.
Non – woven fabrics consists of randomly placed short fibers (60 – 150 mm) or continuous filaments.
First, randomly placed fibers from a web with no strength. In the second stage, strength is obtained
by mechanical bonding through needle punching, by chemical bonding, or by thermal bonding.
b. Geogrids: These are relatively stiff net – like materials with large open spaces between the ribs that
make up the structure. They can be used to reinforce aggregate layers in bituminous pavements and
construction for geo – cells improvement of bearing capacity.
c. Geomembranes: A continuous membrane – type liner composed of asphaltic, polymeric materials
with sufficiently low permeability as to control fluid migration.
d. Geocomposites: These are various combinations of geotextiles, Geogrids, geomembranes and/or
other materials to serve all the primary functions with better performance.

Functions of Geosynthetics

Geosynthetics are increasingly being used in many fields of geotechnical engineering. Different
functions or specialized actions of geosynthetics are to be distinguished.

a. Fluid Transmission: A geosynthetics provides fluid transmission when it collects a liquid or a gas
and conveys it towards an outlet within its own plane. Permeability is the key property of
geosynthetics here.
b. Filtration: A geosynthetic acts as a filter when it allows liquid to pass normal to its own plane, while
preventing most soil particles from being away by the liquid current. Permeability and continuity are
the key properties of geosynthetic here.
c. Separation: A geosynthetic acts as a separator when placed between a fine soil and a coarse
material. It prevents the fine soil and the coarse material from mixing under the action of repeated
applied loads. “Continuity” is the key property of geosynthetic here.
d. Protection: A geosynthetic protects a material when it alleviates or distributes stresses and strains
transmitted to the protected material. Two cases may be considered –(a) surface protection – a
geotextile, placed on the soil prevents its surface being damaged by weather, light traffic, etc. (b)
Interface protection – a geotextile, placed between two materials (such as asphalt overlay/cracked
pavement, or geomembranes/stony ground) from being damaged by the large stresses or strains
imposed by the other material. Continuity is the key property of geotextile here.
e. Reinforcement: A geosynthetic can provide tensile strength to a soil through interface shear strength
(i.e., friction, cohesion/adhesion, and/or interlocking between geotextile and the soil). It can also act
as a tensioned membrane when it is placed between two materials, it is tension balancing the
pressure between them; this, in effect, is the reinforcement function of the geosynthetic, the key
property being its tensile strength.
f. Wrapping: Specially fabricated geosynthetics, filled with sand, act as a construction elements using
the soil material at the site. This is the wrapping function, the key property being again the tensile
strength.

Applications of Geosynthetics

The following is a brief list of the broad fields of application

a. Hydraulic Works:Coastal works, bank and shore protection, canal and river works, and earth dams.
b. Earth Works: Dams on poor foundation, erosion control and retaining structures.
c. Traffic Structures: Paved and unpaved roads on poor subgrades, highway embankments, railway
structures, and tunnels.
d. Pollution Control: Pond linings, and solid waste disposal: and
e. Drainage: Agriculture, soil stabilization, and vertical drains.

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X. SOIL EXPLORATION

Soil Investigation

A. Purposes of a Soil Investigation

A soil investigation program is necessary to provide information for design and construction and for
environmental assessment. The purposes of a soil investigation are:

a. To evaluate the general suitability of the site for the proposed project.
b. To enable an adequate and economical design to be made.
c. To disclose and make provision for difficulties that may arise during construction due to ground and
other local conditions.

B. Phases of a Soil Investigation

The scope of a soil investigation depends on the type, size and importance of the structure, the
client, the engineer’s familiarity with the soils at the site, and local building codes. Structures that are
sensitive to settlement such as machine foundations and high-use buildings usually require a thorough
soil investigation compared to foundation of a house. A client may wish to take a greater risk than normal
to save money and set limits on the type and extent of the site investigation. If the geotechnical engineer
is familiar with a site, he/she may undertake a very simple soil investigation to confirm his/ her
experience. Some local building codes have provisions that set out the extent of a site investigation. It is
mandatory that a visit be made to the proposed site.

In the early stages of a project, the available information is often inadequate to allow a detailed
plan to be made. A site investigation must be developed in phases.

Phase I. Collection of available information such as site plan, type, size and importance of the structure,
loading conditions, previous geotechnical reports, topographic maps, air photographs, geologic maps and
newspaper clippings.

Phase II. Preliminary reconnaissance or a site visit to provide a general picture of the topography and
geology of the site. It is necessary that you take with you on the site to visit all the information gathered in
Phase I to compare with the current conditions of the site.

Phase III. Detailed soil exploration. The objectives of a detailed soil exploration are:

1. To determine the geological structure, this should include the thickness, sequence and extent of the
soil strata.
2. To determine the groundwater conditions.
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3. To obtained disturbed and undisturbed samples for laboratory tests.
4. To conduct in situ tests.

Phase IV. Write a report. The report must contain a clear description of the soils at the site; methods of
exploration, soil profile, test methods and results, and the location of the groundwater table. You should
include information and/or explanations of any unusual soil, water-bearing stratum, and soil and
groundwater condition that may be troublesome during construction.

C. Soil Exploration Program

A soil exploration program usually involves test pits and/or soil borings (bore-holes). During the
site visit (Phase II), you should work out most of the soil exploration consists of:

1. Preliminary location of each borehole and/or test pits.

2. Numbering of the boreholes or test pits.
3. Planned depth of each borehole or test pit.
4. Methods and procedures for advancing the boreholes.
5. Sampling instructions for at least the first borehole. The sampling instructions must include the
number of samples and possible locations. Changes in the sampling instructions often occur after the
first borehole.
6. Requirements for groundwater observations.

D. Soil exploration Methods

Access to the soil may be obtained by the following methods:

1. Trial pits or test pits

2. Hand or powered augers
3. Wash boring
4. Rotary rigs
Advantages and Disadvantages of Soil Exploration Methods

Method Advantages Disadvantages

1. Test pits
A pit is dug either by hand a. Cost effective a. Depth limited to about 6m
or by a back hole. b. Provide detailed information of b. Peep pits uneconomical
stratigraphy c. Excavation below groundwater
c. Large quantities of disturbed soils and into rock difficult and
are available for testing costly.
d. Large blocks of undisturbed d. Too many pits may scar site
samples can be carved out from and require backfill soils
the pits
e. Field tests can be conducted at
the bottom of the pit.
2. Hand augers
The auger is rotated by a. Cost effective a. Depth limited to about 6m
turning and pushing down b. Not dependent on terrain b. Labor intensive
on the handlebar. c. Low headroom required c. Undisturbed samples can be
d. Portable taken only for soft clay deposit
e. Low headroom required d. Cannot be used in rock, stiff
f. Used in uncased holes clays, dry sand or caliche soils
g. Groundwater location can easily
be identified and measured
3. Power augers
Truck mounted and a. Quick a. Depth limited to about 15m. At
equipped with continuous b. Used in uncased holes greater depth drilling becomes
flight augers that bore a c. Undisturbed samples can be difficult and expensive
hole 100 to 250 mm in a obtained quite easily b. Site must be accessible to
diameter. Augers can have d. Drilling mud not used motorized vehicle
a solid or hollow stem. e. Groundwater location can easily
be identified

4. Wash boring
Water is pumped to bottom a. Can be used in difficult terrain a. Depth limited to about 30m
of borehole and soil b. Low equipment costs b. Slow drilling through stiff clays
washings are returned to c. Used in uncased holes and gravels
surface. A drill bit is rotated c. Difficulty in obtaining accurate
and dropped to produce a location of groundwater level
chapping d. Undisturbed soil samples
cannot be obtained
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5. Rotary drills
A drill bit is pushed by the a. Quick a. Expensive equipment
weight of the drilling b. Can drill through any type of soil b. Terrain must be accessible to
equipment and rotated by a or rock motorized vehicle
motor. c. Can drill to depths of 7500 m c. Difficulty in obtaining location
d. Undisturbed samples can easily of groundwater level
be recovered d. Additional time required for
setup and cleanup

E. Soil Identification in the Field

In the field, the predominant soil types based on texture are identified by inspection. Gravels and
sands are gritty and the individual particles are visible. Silts easily crumble and water migrates to the
surface on application of pressure. Clays fail this water migration test since water flows very slowly
through clays. Clays feel smooth, greasy and sticky to the touch when wet but are very hard and strong
when dry.

F. Depth of Boreholes

In compressible soils such as clays, the borings should penetrate either 1. 5 to 2 times the least
dimension of the foundation or until the stress increment due to the foundation loads is less than 10%,
whichever is greater. Borings should penetrate at least 1 m into rock. In very stiff clays, borings should
penetrate 5m to 7m to prove that the thickness of the strata is adequate.

G. Soil Sampling

The objective of the soil sampling is to obtain soils of satisfactory size with minimum disturbance
for observations and laboratory tests. Soil samples are usually obtained by attaching an open-ended thin-
wall tube-called a Shelby tube or, simply, a sampling tube-to drill rods and forcing it down into the soil.

H. Boring Log

During soil exploration all pertinent details are recorded and presented in a boring log. Additional
information consisting mainly of laboratory and field test results is added to complete the boring log.

Essential points:

1. A site investigation is necessary to determine the nature of the soils at a proposed site for design and
construction.
2. A soil investigation needs careful planning and is usually done are phases.
3. A number of tools are available for soil exploration. You need to use judgment as to the type
appropriate for a given project.

References:

1. Geotechnical Engineering (Revised Third Edition) by C. Venkatramaiah

2. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (Fourth Edition) by Braja M. Das
3. Soil Mechanics and Foundations by Muni Budhu

Prepared by:

Engr. Renato S. David, MSCE

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