SCIENCE

EARTH AND
LIFE SCIENCE
CORE SUBJECT DESCRIPTION
This learning area is designed to provide a
general background for the understanding of
Earth Science and Biology. It presents the
history of the Earth through geologic time. It
discusses the Earth’s structure, composition,
and processes. Issues, concerns, and problems
pertaining to natural hazards are also included.
It also deals with the basic principles and
processes in the study of biology. It covers life
processes and interactions at the cellular,
organism, population, and ecosystem levels.
FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE
Cosmology- the understanding

of the origin. evolution, structure
and fate of the universe.
(THEORIES)
 BIG BANG THEORY
 Prevailing cosmological model for the early
development of the universe.
 Perceived as massive explosion around
13.7 billion years ago (age of the universe).
 After the explosion, the surroundings were
at a high temperature of about 10 billion °F
(5.5 billion °C)
 Aggregates of fundamental particles such
as neutrons, electrons, and protons.
(THEORIES)
 STEADY STATE THEORY
 Sir James Jeans (1877-1946) in 1920
 Fred Hoyle (1915 -2001) –revised
 Hermann Bondi (1919-2005) & Thomas
Gold (1920-2004)- alternative to the BBT.
 States that the universe is always
expanding in a constant average density.
 Matter continuously created to form
cosmic or celestial bodies.
(THEORIES)
 STEADY STATE THEORY
 Toward 1960s- contradict the steadiness
 Discovery of quasars and radio galaxies
that are at far distance only, disproved that
the universe is evolving not steady.
(THEORIES)
 COSMIC INFLATION THEORY
 Alan Guth (1947-present) & Andrei Linde
(1948-present) in the 1980s.
 The universe is rapidly expanding bubble of
pure vacuum energy.
 After expansion and cooling arising from this
inflation, the potential energy converted into
kinetic energy of matter and radiation.
(THEORIES)
 COSMIC INFLATION THEORY
 Observations:
Homogeneity of objects in space that use
to be in contact got farther away from one

another.
Appearance of flatness of smoothness.
Formation of stars and star system .

FORMATION OF STAR SYSTEM
(THEORIES)
 NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
 Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) & Pierre-Simon
Laplace (17-49-1877) in the 18th century.
 Rotating gas cloud or nebula of extremely
hot gas.
 Cooled gas , the nebula start to shrink,
became smaller, rotated faster, forming a
dislike shape.
(THEORIES)
 NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
 Angular momentum for nebula’s rotation and
the gravitational force from the mass of the
nebula formed the rings of gas outside.
 Nebula continued to shrink, rings condensed
into various densities of planets and
satellites.
 The remaining part of the nebula, which had
most mass, formed the sun.
(THEORIES)
 THE PLANETESIMAL TIDAL THEORIES
 Viktor S. Safronov (1917-1999) in 1941
 Thomas Chamberlin(1843-1928) & Forest
Moulton (1872-1952) – 20th century.
 James Jean (1877-1946) & Harold Jeffreys
(1891-1989)- in 1918
 The gravity of the space bodies attracted
space objects until the effect of their gravity
was reduced due to the accretion which also
increased the size of the planetesimals.
(THEORIES)
 TIDAL THEORIES
 Developed by James Jean and Sir Harold
Jeffreys in 1917.
 A star passed close to the sun where the
tidal force or the secondary effect of
gravitational pull between the passing star
and the sun drew large amount of matter out
of the sun and the passing star.
ADVANCEMENTS AND DISCOVERIES ON
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 In 2006 pluto was observed to belong to

a different region, the Kuiper belt (outer
region of the solar system, composed of
frozen volatiles, comets, and asteroids).
 Pluto was reclassified by
IAU(International Astronomical Union) as
dwarf planet instead of being the 9th
planet of the solar system.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 Mars may have had prehistoric living
forms.
 NASA ( National Astronautics and Space
Administration)- obtains data through
space rovers.
 Dry lakebed on sedimentary rocks
(fossilized) shape by microbes that are
found on earth.
 Presence of elements such as carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus, and
organic compounds.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 The expansion of the universe is accelerating.
 1998, two independent projects the Supernova
Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova
Search Team.
 Observed that the expansion of the universe
is not slowing down or even constant, but is
inexplicably accelerating at an increasing
rate.
 Using advanced telescope, the distance of
Milky Way to the nearby galaxies was
measured and result proved it unexpectedly
expanded in the last few years.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 The farthest intersellar travel is outside

the solar system.
 Voyager 1 was launched in 1977- been in
the space traveling for nearly 35 years.
 In 2012, NASA announced that Voyager 1
has already left the solar system, and have
reached the farthest realms of space.
 Voyager 1 mission has enabled humans to
take samples and images of various celestial
bodies.
REFLECT UPON
Do you think there are other life-
forms exploring the universe aside
from humans? Has Earth been
explored already by other life-forms?
WHAT HAVE I LEARNED SO FAR?
1. Explain what could have come before the
formation of the universe, according to the
cosmic inflation theory?
2. How do the inner planets differ from the outer

planets in terms of composition, size and
formation?
3. How will the continuous expansion of the

universe affects the Earth?
WHAT HAVE I LEARNED SO FAR?
1. Compare and contrast the formation of
the universe and formation of the star
system.
2. How did Earth form after the formation of

the sun?
3. How do the inner planets differ from the

outer planets in terms of composition,
size, and formation?
EARTH SYSTEM
 Refers to earth’s interlacing physical,
chemical and biological changes.
 Gaia Hypothesis- states that organism
interact with their inorganic surrounding and
establish a self-regulating complex system
that helps maintain the conditions necessary
for life on the planet.
 Presumed that it evolved into four
subsystem
 Geosphere
 Hydrosphere
 Atmosphere
 Biosphere
GEOSPHERE
 Solid portion of the earth that includes the
interior structure, rocks and minerals,
landforms, all the continents, ocean floors ,
down to the deep depth of the core, and the
processes that shape earth’s surface.
 Lithosphere- covers only the crustal part
and upper mantle of earth.
 Geologist-scientists that study this part of
the earth.
EARTH SYSTEM
 Geosphere’sInternal Structure and
Surface Features
 Has three main layers, the crust, mantle
and core.
 Different layers change in density, mineral
composition, and thickness with depth.
 Two types of waves:
 p-waves- travels fast through both solid
and liquids.
 s-waves- travels slower through solid
alone.
CRUST
 Great variety of igneous, metamorphic
and sedimentary rocks.
 Composed of oxygen, silicon,
aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium,
potassium & magnesium.
 Oceanic crust
 5 to 10km thick
 Composed primarily of basalt, diabase,
and gabbro.
CRUST
 Continental crust
 30 to 50km thick
 Composed of less dense rocks, such as
granite.
Mohorovicic Discontinuity- the velocity of
the seismic waves behaved differently as
they traveled through the layer before the
mantle.
CRUST
 Mohorovicic Discontinuity
 Andrija Mohorovicic (1857-1936)
croation seismologist who discovered
the moho discontinuity in 1909.
 Recognized as the transitional boundary
that divides the crust from the mantle.
POST IT!
MANTLE
 84% of the earth’s volume.
 Consist of olivines, pyroxenes and
garnet.
Higher portion of iron &
magnesium.
Smaller portion of silicon &
aluminum.
MANTLE
 Anthenosphere
 Lies on the upper part of the mantle
and is directly below the crust.
 Occurrence of earthquakes and
seismic activities.
 Extreme temperature and pressure
causes rocks to become ductile.
MANTLE
 Gutenburg Discontinuity
 Beno Gutenburg (1889-1960)
discovered in 1913.
 Transitional boundary between the
lower mantle and outer core.
 Heat in the mantle dissipates, the
molten core gradually solidifies and
shrink, moving this boundary deeper
in the core.
CORE
 Iron in the outer core is in liquid form,
and inner core is in solid form.
 Flowing iron and nickel in the outer core
resulted to the formation of the magnetic
field that further protects the earth.
CORE
 Lehmann Discontinuity
 Inge Lehmann (1888-1993) Danish
seismologist, discovered in 1929.
 Shock waves travels some distance in to
the core and then bounced off some kind
of boundary.
 Lehmann believed that there indeed lies a
unique layer that separates the liquid inner
core from the solid outer core.
EXTEND YOUR
KNOWLEDGE!
HYDROSPHERE
 Encompasses all the water found on
earth.
 Covers 70% on earth’s surface.
 Includes the permanently frozen parts
called cryosphere.
HYDROSPHERE
 Importance of water
 Water can be in liquid form, not just solid
or gas.
 Water has a neutral pH.
 Water is a good conductor of heat and
energy.
 Water has specific heat.
 Water is a universal solvent.
HYDROSPHERE
 Distributionof Water on Earth
 Surface Water
Fresh water- lower salt content,
best for drinking water, accounts

only 2% of world’s water.
Marine Water- higher salt content,
accounts 98% of world’s water.
HYDROSPHERE
 Distribution
of Water on Earth
 Underground Water
Aquifer- acts as reservoir for
groundwater and may contain large
amounts of minerals such as
magnesium, calcium etc..
REFLECT UPON
ATMOSPHERE
 Mixture of gases that surround the
planet such as nitrogen, oxygen,
argon, carbon dioxide, and water
vapor.
 Composed of 78% nitrogen, 21%
oxygen, 0.9% argon, remaining 1/10 %
different traces of gases.
ATMOSPHERE
 Layers of the Earth’s Atmosphere
 Troposphere
 Stratopshere
 Mesosphere
 Thermosphere
IN A NUTSHELL
BIOSPHERE
 Includes all life forms and even
organic matter that has not yet
decomposed.
 Most life on earth exists within a zone
less than 20km wide.
 Interaction between the litosphere,
hydrosphere ant atmosphere create a
habitable environment.
BIOSPHERE
 Theorigin of the Biospshere
 Theory of primordial soup
 Deep-sea vent theory
 Panspermia
REFLECT UPON
THE EVOLUTION
 The earth is a very complex system with
many other system operating within it.
All these system work because of the
presence of the fundamental materials
that make up earth. Driven by various
geologic process, the diversity of these
materials has grown as Earth continues
to develop and evolve.
EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of Minerals
 COLOR
 Usually the property used to identify minerals
easily
 A result of the way minerals absorb light.
 May not be used in identifying translucent to

transparent minerals due to the presence of
trace amounts of minerals in them.
 Considered the least reliable means of
identifying minerals.
EARTH MINERALS
 Example of Minerals and their Colors
Augite (brown, green, black, purple)
EARTH MINERALS
 Biotite (black, brown or green)
EARTH MINERALS
 Calcite ( Pearlescent and pale colors)
EARTH MINERALS
 Dolomite (Colorless, pale pink, brown or gray)
EARTH MINERALS
 Feldspar (Yellow, white, pink, green or gray)
EARTH MINERALS
 Hematite (Metallic gray or black)
EARTH MINERALS
 Hornblende (Green, yellow, brown or black)
EARTH MINERALS
 Limonite (Black, brown, or yellow)
EARTH MINERALS
 Sulfur (Pale gold )
EARTH MINERALS
STREAK Test
EARTH MINERALS
 HARDNESS
 Refers to the measures of the mineral’s
resistance to scratching.
 To measure the relative hardness of minerals,
the Mohs scale is used.

 The harder the minerals, the greater is its
resistance to scratching.
 FREDERICK MOHS (1773-1839) German
Minerologist.
MOHS
Relative
Hardness MINERAL COMMON OBJECT
1
TALC POWDER
2
GYPSUM FINGERNAIL
MOHS
Relative
3
CALCITE TOOTH
4
FLUORITE IRON NAIL
MOHS
Relative
5
APATITE WINDOW GLASS
6
ORTHOCLASE STEEL FILE
MOHS
Relative
7
QUARTZ PORCELAIN TILE
8
TOPAZ HARDENED STEEL
MOHS MINERAL COMMON OBJECT
Relative
Hardness
9
CORUNDUM SAPPHIRE, RUBY
10
DIAMOND NONE
EARTH MINERALS
CLEAVAGE & FRACTURE
Are used to describe how minerals
break into pieces.

Minerals are crystalline structures and
breakage may take place in weak parts

of the structures.
The breakage along the crystalline
structure where a mineral is likely to

break smoothly- Cleavage.
EARTH MINERALS
 CLEAVAGE & FRACTURE
Are used to describe how minerals break
into pieces.
Minerals are crystalline structures and
breakage may take place in weak parts of
the structures.
Cleavage- breakage along the crystalline
structure where a mineral is likely to break
smoothly.
Fracture- breakage is in a direction where
there is no cleavage.
EARTH MINERALS
CLEAVAGE FRACTURE
EARTH MINERALS
CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE or
CRYSTAL LATTICE
Tells how a mineral’s crystals are
arranged.
Crystal Solid- form a regular repeating
three-dimensional crystal lattice.
Amorphous Solid- forms aggregates
that have no particular order or
arrangement.
EARTH MINERALS
CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE or
CRYSTAL LATTICE
Hand Lens
EARTH MINERALS
TRANSPARENCY or DIAPHANEITY
Indicates the extent of light that can
pass through the mineral.

Depends on the thickness of the
mineral.
EARTH MINERALS
TRANSPARENCY or DIAPHANEITY
Transparent Topaz Translucent Corundum
Opaque Stibnite
EARTH MINERALS
MAGNETISM
Indicates the ability of a mineral to
attract or repel other minerals.
Lodestone
attracting
paperclips
EARTH MINERALS
TENACITY
The level of resistance or reaction of
minerals to stress such as crushing,

bending, breaking, or tearing.
It can tell if the mineral is brittle,
malleable, and elastic.

EARTH MINERALS
LUSTER
Refers to the reaction of mineral to
light.
Determines how brilliant or dull the
mineral is.
Logan Sapphire
EARTH MINERALS
ODOR
A distinct smell of a mineral that is
usually released from a chemical

reaction when subjected to water, heat,
air, or friction.
Sulfur (lit match)

EARTH MINERALS
 Physical Properties of
Minerals
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
A measure of the
density of a mineral.
Determines how
heavy the mineral is

by its weight to water.
video clip(physical properties of minerals)
EARTH MINERALS
 Chemical Properties of Minerals
SILICATE CLASS
The largest and most abundant group
containing silicon and oxygen with

some aluminum, magnesium, iron, and
calcium.
EARTH MINERALS
SILICATE CLASS: examples
Feldspar Pyroxene Olivine
Quartz
EARTH MINERALS
CARBONATE CLASS
Mostly found deposited in marine
environments.
Minerals belonging to this group are
formed from the shells of dead plankton

and other marine organism.
 Foundin areas where high rates of
evaporation takes place.
EARTH MINERALS
CARBONATE CLASS: examples
Aragonite Calcite Malachite

EARTH MINERALS
SULPHATE CLASS
Forms in areas with high evaporation
rates and where salty waters slowly

evaporate.
Process: the formation of sulphates
and halides in water-sediments

interface occurs.
EARTH MINERALS
SULPHATE CLASS: examples
Anhydrite Blue barite Gypsum

EARTH MINERALS
HALIDE CLASS
Contains natural salt, these minerals
usually forms in lakes, ponds, and other

landlocked seas such as the dead sea
and great salt lake.
Have low hardness, may be
transparent, have good cleavage, have

low specific gravity, and are poor
conductors of heat and electricity.
EARTH MINERALS
HALIDE CLASS: examples
Halite Sylvite Fluorite

EARTH MINERALS
OXIDE CLASS
Diverse class, these minerals are
important as they carry histories of

changes in Earth’s magnetic field.
Formed as precipitates close to Earth’s
surface or as oxidation products of

minerals during the process of
weathering.
EARTH MINERALS
OXIDE CLASS: examples
Chrysoberyl Hematite Spinel

EARTH MINERALS
SULPHIDE CLASS
Has important metals such as copper,
lead, and silver, which are considered

economically significant.
These metals are found in electrical
wires industrial materials, and other

things that are needed in construction.
EARTH MINERALS
SULPHIDE CLASS: examples
Copper Silver Lead

EARTH MINERALS
PHOSPHATE CLASS
Considered an important biological
mineral found in teeth and bones of

many animals.
Contains phosphorus.
EARTH MINERALS
PHOSPHATE CLASS: examples
Arsenic Phosphate Vanadium

EARTH MINERALS
 NATIVE ELEMENT CLASS
Contains metals and intermetallic (gold,
silver, copper) elements, semimetals,

nonmetals (antimony, bismuth,
graphite, sulphur) or natural alloys, and
constituents of few rare meteorites.
EARTH MINERALS
 NATIVE ELEMENT CLASS: examples
Gold Silver Copper
Antimony Bismuth Graphite

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EARTH AND

Cosmology- the understanding

to be in contact got farther away from one

Formation of stars and star system .

 In 2006 pluto was observed to belong to

 The farthest intersellar travel is outside

2. How do the inner planets differ from the outer

3. How will the continuous expansion of the

2. How did Earth form after the formation of

3. How do the inner planets differ from the

best for drinking water, accounts

 May not be used in identifying translucent to

the Mohs scale is used.

break into pieces.

breakage may take place in weak parts

structure where a mineral is likely to

pass through the mineral.

attract or repel other minerals.

minerals to stress such as crushing,

malleable, and elastic.

usually released from a chemical

Sulfur (lit match)

heavy the mineral is

containing silicon and oxygen with

formed from the shells of dead plankton

Aragonite Calcite Malachite

rates and where salty waters slowly

and halides in water-sediments

Anhydrite Blue barite Gypsum

usually forms in lakes, ponds, and other

transparent, have good cleavage, have

Halite Sylvite Fluorite

important as they carry histories of

surface or as oxidation products of

Chrysoberyl Hematite Spinel

lead, and silver, which are considered

wires industrial materials, and other

Copper Silver Lead

mineral found in teeth and bones of

Arsenic Phosphate Vanadium

silver, copper) elements, semimetals,

Antimony Bismuth Graphite

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