AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

USING PIC MICROCONTROLLER

A Project Submitted

For Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement

For the Award of Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

By

JYOTI PRAKASH JHA (16322)

KM. ANNI (178307)

SHASHIKANT MAURYA (16347)

Supervisor

MISS SHASHI PANDEY

(Assistant Professor)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

KAMLA NEHRU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, SULTANPUR
(U.P)

(An Autonomous State Government Institute)

Affiliated to

Dr. A. P. J. ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

LUCKNOW (U.P.), INDIA

2019-2020
 Department of Electrical Engineering
Kamla Nehru Institute of
Technology
Sultanpur (U.P.) - 228118

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Ms Jyoti Prakash Jha, Ms Km Anni and Mr. Shashikant Maurya have
completed their project entitled “Automatic Power Factor Correction Using PIC
Microcontroller”, for the partial fulfillment of the award of Bachelor of Technology degree in
Electrical Engineering from Dr.A.P.J, Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow (U.P.),
under our supervision during the academic session 2019-20.

PROJECT INCHARGE SUPERVISOR

Mr. Yogesh kumar Chauhan Ms. Shashi Pandey

(Associate Professor) (Assistant
Professor)

APPROVAL FOR SUBMISSION

Date: Dr. S.K.Sinha

Place: Sultanpur (U.P.) (Professor and

Head)

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We express our deepest sense of gratitude towards our supervisor Ms Shashi Pandey,
Department of Electrical Engineering of Kamla Nehru Institute of Technology, Sultanpur, for
their patience, guidance, constant encouragement, moral support, keen interest and valuable
suggestion during reparation of this seminar report. We are greatly indebted to again Ms Shashi
Pandey for her valuable advices at every stage of this wok without the supervision and many
hours of devoted guidance, stimulating and constructive criticism, and this seminar report would
never have come out in this form. She has been a corner stone in our project. Our heartfelt
gratitude goes to all faculty members of Electrical Engineering group who, with their
encouraging and caring words and most valuable suggestion have contributed directly or
indirectly in a significant way towards completion of this seminar report .

JYOTI PRAKASH JHA (16322)

KM. ANNI (178307)

SHASHIKANT MAURYA (16347)

4
 Abstract

Power factor correction (PFC) is a technique of counteracting the undesirable effects of

electric loads that create a power factor that is less than one. Power factor correction may be
applied either by an electrical power transmission utility to improve the stability and
efficiency of the transmission network or correction may be installed by individual electrical
customers to reduce the costs charged to them by their electricity supplier. In order to
improve transmission efficiency, power factor correction research has become a hot topic.
Many control methods for the Power Factor Correction (PFC) have been proposed. This
thesis describes the design and development of a power factor corrector using PIC
(Programmable Interface Controller) microcontroller chip. This involves measuring the
power factor value from the load using PIC and proper algorithm to determine and trigger
sufficient switching capacitors in order to compensate excessive reactive components, thus
bringing power factor near to unity.

4
 CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGE NO.

Certificate ii
Acknowledgement iii
Abstract iv
Table of content v-vii
List of figures viii-ix
Abbreviations x
Literature survey xi-xiv

Chapter 1 Introduction 1 - 22
1.1 Introduction to power factor 1
1.1.1 Instantaneous power 2
1.1.2 Average power 3
1.1.3 Phase and phasor diagram 4
1.2 Need of power factor controller (PFC) 9
1.2.1 Explanation 9

1.3 Types of PFC 10

1.3.1 Passive 11
1.3.2 Active 11
1.3.3 Synchronous 11
1.4 Capacitive power factor correction (CPFC) 12
1.4.1 Different methods of CPFC 13
1.4.1.1 Bulk correction 13
1.4.1.2 Static correction 14

5
 1.4.1.3 Inverter 16
1.4.1.4 Solid-state soft starter 17
1.4.2 Demerits of CPFC and its solution 18
1.4.2.1 Capacitive selection 18

1.4.2.2 Supply harmonics 19

1.4.2.3 Detuning reactor 20

Chapter 2 Modelling and Control Strategy 23 – 29

2.1 Software used 23
2.2 Description of complete system 23
2.3 PIC18f452 25
2.3.1 Pin diagram 25
2.4 Multi media card (MMC) and its connection with PIC 27
2.5 Liquid crystal display (LCD) and its connection with PIC 28
2.6 Capacitor bank and its switching circuit 29

6
Chapter 3 Simulation result and discussion 30-34
3.1 Test the voltage level and current level 30
3.2 Simulation and result evaluation 31

Chapter 4 Conclusion and Scope for Future Work 35

6.1 Conclusion 35
6.2 Future work 35

References 36-38
Appendix 39-44

7
 List of figures

Figure no. Name of figure Page No.

Figure 1.1 Power factor triangle 2

Figure 1.2 Instantaneous voltage and current 2
Figure 1.3 Phase diagram 5
Figure 1.4 Phasor diagram 5
Figure 1.5 Inductor 6
Figure 1.6 Phasor diagram of inductor 6
Figure 1.7 Capacitor 7
Figure 1.8 Phasor diagram of capacitor 7
Figure 1.9 Resistance 8
Figure 1.10 Phasor diagram of resistance 8
Figure 1.11 Showing relations between magnetizing current
motor current and work current. 12
Figure 1.12 Bulk correction using capacitor bank 14
Figure 1.13 Static correction using capacitor 16
Figure 1.14 Power factor controller solid-state soft starter 18
Figure 1.15 Supply resonance 20
Figure 2.1 Block diagram of PIC based PFC 23
Figure 2.2 Proteus Simulation of ZCD 24
Figure 2.3 Result of ZCD on CRO 24
Figure 2.4 Block diagram of core features 26
Figure 2.5 Pin diagram of PIC 18F452 26
Figure 2.6 MMC card connection diagram 27
Figure 2.7 LCD connection diagram 28
Figure 2.8 Simulation of relay with capacitor 29
Figure 3.1 Complete circuit diagram of the project 31
Figure 3.2 Values of CT and PT 32
Figure 3.3 Reading of LCD display 32
Figure 3.4 Resistive load and PFC is on 33
Figure 3.5 Both Inductive and Resistive load is on 34

8
Figure 3.6 PFC is on alongwith loads 34

9
 List of
Sr. no.
abbreviation
Short form Abbreviation

1 ADC Analog to Digital Convertor

2 APFC Adaptive Power Factor Controller
3 BOR Programmable Brown-Out Reset
4 BSM Binary Search Method
5 CISC Complex Instruction Set Computer
6 COA Centre of Area
7 CPFC Capacitive Power Factor Controller
8 ICD In Circuit Debug
9 LCD Liquid Crystal Display
10 LPF Lower Power Factor
11 LUTM Look-Up Table Method
12 MOM Mean of Maxima
13 MSB Most Significant Bit
14 MSSP Master Synchronous Serial Port
15 PFC Power Factor Controller
16 PIC Peripheral Interface Controller
17 PLVD Programmable Low Voltage
Detection
18 PWM Pulse Width Modulation
19 PSP Parallel Slave Port
20 RMS Root-Mean-Square
21 RISC Reduced Instruction Set Computer
22 SAM Successive Approximation Method
23 SCR Silicon Controlled Rectifier
24 SMPS Switched-Mode Power Supplies
25 SCPFC Single Controller Power Factor
26 USCM Unity Step Control Method
27 UPF Upper Power Factor

10
Literature survey

Though correction of power factor is very old practice, we have considered the work
done in last 25 years in our survey, starting from 1983.

Jones and Blackwell proposed a technique for maintaining a synchronous motor at

unity power factor (or minimum line current) from no-load to full-load conditions,
assuring peak efficiency. This concept stemmed from an adaptation of the Energy
Saver Power Factor Controller for induction motors developed and patented by NASA
Marshall Space Flight Center. The method constantly and automatically adjusted the
DC field current of a 3-phase synchronous machine such that the AC line current would
always operate at the minimal point of the well-known "V" curves [Jones and
Blackwell 1983].

Sharkawi et al. proposed an adaptive power factor controller for three-phase

induction generators. The controller sensed the reactive current drawn by the machine
and accordingly provided the needed reactive power to improve the power factor to as
close to unity as possible. The controller was a modular, low-cost, harmonic free
device. It did not create any transients in line current. It was designed to eliminate the
self-excitation problems associated with induction generators. The controller was
tested on an induction generator [Sharkawi et al. 1985].

Sharkawi et al. proposed a continuing effort to develop an effective, reliable, and

inexpensive adaptive power factor controller (APFC). The APFC was able to
compensate adaptively the reactive power of rapidly varying loads without adding
harmonics or transients to the power system. Based on thousands of hours of field
operation, the APFC had substantially modified to improve its reliability and
effectiveness [Sharkawi et al. 1988].

11
 Nalbant proposed the calculations and measurements of power factor correction and
distortion reduction using the peak current programmed boost topology. The topology
and a regulator used a dedicated power factor controller were introduced. The input
current wave shape was modeled mathematically and analytical expressions for the
calculation of the power factor and total harmonic distortion were derived. Various
measurement methods were described and actual data related to the high- power
regulator were presented, including pictures of the low-frequency spectrum of the input
current [Nalbant 1990].

Ioannides and Papadopoulos proposed the speed and power factor of an adjustable
speed slip power recovery drive were controlled in order to optimize the operation.
This was accomplished by means of a variable-voltage-variable-frequencies power
converter. The function of the digital controller of the power converter was to provide
the online speed and power factor regulation [Ioannides and Papadopoulos 1991].

Fuld et al. proposed a combined buck and boost power-factor-controller for three-
phase input which was the combination of a buck and a boost stage, which gave
important advantages at high input voltage, favorable output voltage, e.g. 400 V, wide
input voltage range and no additional inrush limiter necessary. For three-phase input,
it was possible to use three single phase units connected each to two phases (line-to-
line) [Fuld et al. 1991].

Malesani et al. proposed a single-switch fully-controlled three-phase rectifier, which

provided high AC power factor and wide DC voltage regulation while allowed high-
frequency insulation. Owed to one-cycle control, output voltage ripple was also
eliminated and switch voltage stress was limited by a lossless clamper circuit [Malesani
et al. 1993].

Miller et al. proposed a family of rectifiers with power outputs from 1.5 kW to 7
kW, based on high frequency (200 kHz) converters using power MOSFETs. The circuit
used full-bridge converters in the quasi-resonant mode (zero-voltage switching), which
resulted in very low switching losses. Both single-phase and three- phase designs were
available. The single-phase 230 V versions were equipped with a power factor
controller to comply with IEC 555-2. Two bridges were mounted in series for operation
from a three-phase 400 V supply [Miller et al. 1993].

12
 Mandal et al. proposed a laboratory model of a microcomputer-based power factor
controller (PFC) for compensating the reactive power of rapidly varying loads by
switching capacitors sized in a binary ratio, with the help of zero voltage static switches
[Mandal et al. 1994].

Kurachi et al. proposed a detailed analysis of the ripple current of an electrolytic

capacitor in a boost-type power factor control circuit. The ripple current was divided
into two components, namely the low-frequency and the high-frequency components.
The root-mean-square value of the capacitor current was derived for both components
[Kurachi et al. 1995].

Ayres and Barbi proposed the continuous current mode (CCM) operation of the
family of power converters for power recycling during the burn-in test of synchronized
uninterrupted power supply (UPS) with sinusoidal output voltage. The CCM operation
reduced the current peak in the semiconductors and the filters volume. The circuit
operates at constant frequency, the control was based on the average current value and
performed by a power factor controller IC [Ayres and Babri 1996 a].

Masserant and Stuart proposed study compares calculated losses with measured
losses obtained from the temperature rise of the heat sink of the IGBT. Measurements
of insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) losses in modulated converters presented a
difficult challenge because of the wide variations in the waveform [Masserant and
Stuart 1996].

Ayres and Barbi proposed conventional integrated circuits for PWM and power
factor controllers. Conventionally, the burn-in test of DC power supplies used resistors
as load. Consequently, all the energy involved was lost by heating, provoking still an
additional energy waste with the air conditioning system. The power recycler was a
power converter that replaces the resistors load banks in the burn-in test of DC power
supplies with the advantage that most of the energy was sent back to the utility grid
with low THD and quasi-unitary power factor [Ayres and Barbi 1996 b].

13
 Rao et al. proposed the solid state AC voltage stabilizer was novel due to the unity
power factor at the input side, low current harmonics injected into the input side,
excellent output voltage regulation for line voltage and load current variations, good
dynamic response for line voltage and load current variations, low total harmonic
distortion in the output voltage wave shape, low weight to power ratio and low volume
to power ratio. The suggested static voltage stabilizer operated similar to a servo
controlled stabilizer, but the servo stabilizer was replaced with an electronic AC
voltage generator [Rao et al. 1998].

Dallago et al. proposed about the Monolithic ICs that allowed the simple and cheap
single-phase power factor correction (PFC) systems to be implemented. They
contained an analog multiplier, the transfer characteristic of which may be nonlinear.
In this delta-sigma (ΔΣ) modulation technique was applied to fully implement the
algebraic operations of a PFC system's multiplier block. A ΔΣ multiplier prototype was
bread boarded and inserted in a PFC control loop based on a commercial IC [Dallago
et al. 1998].

Tinggren proposed a new integrated power quality device-power factor controller

(PFC) for power distribution system and industrial power circuit applications. A PFC
integrated breaker-switched capacitor banks into a compact design with low cost
sensing elements and an intelligent control unit. The device provided more accurate
voltage control and power factor correction than traditional shunt capacitor bank
installations [Tinggren 1999].

Jee and Bong proposed a novel power-factor controller for single-phase pulse width
modulated rectifiers. The unity power-factor controller for a sinusoidal input current
was derived using the feedback linearization concept. Two active switches and two
diodes were utilized for AC-to-DC power conversion [Jee and Bong 1999].

14
Chapter 1
Introduction

Power factor is the ratio of true power or watts to apparent power or volt amps. They
are identical only when current and voltage are in phase then the power factor is
1.0. The power in an ac circuit is very seldom equal to the direct product of the volts
and amperes. In order to find the power of a single phase ac circuit the product of volts
and amperes must be multiplied by the power factor. Ammeters and voltmeters indicate
the effective value of amps and volts. True power or watts can be measured with a
wattmeter. If the true power is 1870 watts and the volt amp reading is 2200. Than the
power factor is 0.85 or 85 percent. True power divided by apparent power. The power
factor is expressed in decimal or percentage. Thus power factors of 0.8 are the same as
80 percent. Low power factor is usually associated with motors and transformers. An
incandescent bulb would have a power factor of close to 1.0. A one hp motor has power
factor about 0.80. With low power factor loads, the current flowing through electrical
system components is higher than necessary to do the required work. These results in
excess heating, which can damage or shorten the life of equipment, a low power factor
can also cause low-voltage conditions, resulting in dimming of lights and sluggish
motor operation.

Low power factor is usually not that much of a problem in residential homes. It does
however become a problem in industry where multiple large motors are used. So there
is a requirement to correct the power factor in industries. Generally the power factor
correction capacitors are used to try to correct this problem.

1.1 Introduction to power factor

For a DC circuit the power is P=VI and this relationship also holds for the
instantaneous power in an AC circuit. However, the average power in an AC circuit
expressed in terms of the rms voltage and current is

Pavg = VI cosφ eq. 1

[1]
Where, φ is the phase angle between the voltage and current. The additional term is
called the power factor. Power factor triangle is shown in figure 1.1.

X Power factor = R
Z Z

Figure 1.1: power factor triangle

From the phasor diagram for AC impedance, it can be seen that the power factor is
R/Z. For a purely resistive AC circuit, R=Z and the power factor = 1.

1.1.1 Instantaneous power

As in DC circuits, the instantaneous electric power in an AC circuit is given by

P=VI where V and I are the instantaneous voltage and current. Instantaneous voltage
and current is shown in figure 1.2.

Since
V = Vm sinωt & I = Im sin (ωt - φ) eq. 2

Figure 1.2: Instantaneous voltage and current

Then the instantaneous power at any time t can be expressed as

Pinstanteneous = Vm Im sinωt sin (ωt-φ) eq.

3 After using trigonometric identity:

sin (t-φ) = sinωt cosφ- cosωt sinφ eq.4

[2]
The power becomes:

Pinstantaneous = Vm Im sin 2ωt cosφ - Vm Im sinωt sinφ cos ωt

eq.

5 Averaging this power over a complete cycle gives the average power.

1.1.2 Average Power

Normally the average power is the power of interest in AC circuits. Since the
expression for the instantaneous power

Pinstanteneous = Vm Im sin 2ωt cosφ - Vm Im sinωt sinφ cos ωt

is a continuously varying one with time, the average must be obtained by integration.
Averaging over one period T of the sinusoidal function will give the average power.
The second term in the power expression above averages to zero since it is an odd
function of t. The average of the first term is given by

∫sin ωtdt
2

Pavg = Vm Im cosϕ 0 eq. 6

= Vm Im cosϕ

T 2

Since the rms voltage and current are given by

V = Vm / √2 eq. 7

I = Im / √2 eq. 8

The average power can be expressed as

Pavg =VI cosφ

Average Power Integral

Finding the value of the average power for sinusoidal voltages involves the integral

∫sin ωtdt 2

Pavg = Vm Im cosϕ 0 = Vm Im cosϕ

[3]
 T 2

[4]
 The period T of the sinusoid is related to the angular frequency ω and angle θ by
T = 2π
ω

or ωT = 2π

or θ = ωT eq. 9

Using these relationships, the integral above can be recast in the form:

2π

∫ sin θdθ = 1
0
2
eq. 10
2π 2

The average of sin2 θ or cos2θ is equal to ½. This can be shown using the trig
identity:

sin2 α = 1 (1 − cos
eq. 11
2α )
2

Which reduces the integral to the value 1/2 since the second term on the right has an
integral of zero over the full period?

Phase and phasor diagram

When capacitors or inductors are involved in an AC circuit, the current and voltage
do not peak at the same time. The fraction of a period difference between the peaks
expressed in degrees is said to be the phase difference. The phase difference is <= 90
degrees. It is customary to use the angle by which the voltage leads the current. This
leads to a positive phase for inductive circuits since current lags the voltage in an
inductive circuit. The phase is negative for a capacitive circuit since the current leads
the voltage. The useful mnemonic ELI the ICE man helps to remember the sign of the
phase. The phase relation is often depicted graphically in a phasor diagram [hyp phys
b].

[5]
 Figure 1.3: Phase diagram

Phasor Diagrams

The reference for zero phase is taken to be the positive x-axis and is associated with
the resistor since voltage and current are in phase. The length of the phasor is
proportional to the magnitude of the quantity represented, and its angle represents its
phase relative to that of the current through the resistor. The phasor diagram for the
RLC series circuit shows in figure 1.4 [hyp phys b].

Figure 1.4: Phasor diagram

Equivalent voltage and phase angle is given as:

V
2 2 eq. 12
= (V ) (V V )

ϕ = tan−1 VL −VC
VR

Equivalent impedance and phase angle is given as:

Z
2 2 eq. 13
= R (XX)

ϕ = tan−1 XL − XC
R

[6]
1.1.3 AC response of inductor capacitor and resistor

Inductor

An inductor with AC supply is shown in figure 1.5 and phasor diagram is shown in
figure 1.6 which shows the phase angle between current and voltage. In case of inductor
voltage lead current by 900. The voltage across an inductor leads the current because
the Lenz' law behavior resists the buildup of the current, and it takes a finite time for
an imposed voltage to force the buildup of current to its maximum.

Figure 1.5: Inductor

Figure 1.6: Phasor diagram of inductor

[7]
Capacitor

A capacitor with AC supply is shown in figure 1.7 and phasor diagram is shown in
figure 1.8 which shows the phase angle between current and voltage. In case of
capacitor voltage lag current by 900. The voltage across a capacitor lags the current
because the current must flow to build up charge, and the voltage is proportional to that
charge which is built up on the capacitor plates.

Figure 1.7: Capacitor

Figure 1.8: phasor diagram of capacitor

[8]
Resistor

A resistor with AC supply is shown in figure 1.9 and phasor diagram is shown in
figure 1.10 which shows the phase angle between voltage and current is 00. For ordinary
currents and frequencies, the behavior of a resistor is that of a dissipative element which
converts electrical energy into heat. It is independent of the direction of current flow
and independent of the frequency. So we say that the AC impedance of a resistor is the
same as its DC resistance.

Figure 1.9: Resistance

Figure 1.10: Phasor diagram of resistance

[9]
1.2 Needs of power factor controller
Power factor correction (PFC) is a technique of counteracting the undesirable effects
of electric loads that create a power factor that is less than one. Power factor correction
may be applied either by an electrical power transmission utility to improve the stability
and efficiency of the transmission network or correction may be installed by individual
electrical customers to reduce the costs charged to them by their electricity supplier.

1.2.1 Explanation

An electrical load that operates on alternating current requires apparent power,

which consists of real power plus reactive power. Real power is the power actually
consumed by the load. Reactive power is repeatedly demanded by the load and returned
to the power source, and it is the cyclical effect that occurs when alternating current
passes through a load that contains a reactive component. The presence of reactive
power causes the real power to be less than the apparent power, and so, the electric
load has a power factor of less than 1.

The reactive power increases the current flowing between the power source and the
load, which increases the power losses through transmission and distribution lines. This
results in operational and financial losses for power companies. Therefore, power
companies require their customers, especially those with large loads, to maintain their
power factors above a specified amount (usually 0.90 or higher) or be subject to
additional charges. Electrical engineers involved with the generation, transmission,
distribution and consumption of electrical power have an interest in the power factor
of loads because power factors affect efficiencies and costs for both the electrical power
industry and the consumers. In addition to the increased operating costs, reactive power
can require the use of wiring, switches, circuit breakers, transformers and transmission
lines with higher current capacities.

Power factor correction attempts to adjust the power factor of an AC load or an AC

power transmission system to unity (1.00) through various methods. Simple methods
include switching in or out banks of capacitors or inductors which act to cancel the
inductive or capacitive effects of the load, respectively. For example, the inductive
effect of motor loads may be offset by locally connected capacitors. It is also possible

[10]
to effect power factor correction with an unloaded synchronous motor connected
across the supply. The power factor of the motor is varied by adjusting the field
excitation and can be made to behave like a capacitor when over excited.

Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original AC current.

The simple correction techniques described above do not cancel out the reactive power
at harmonic frequencies, so more sophisticated techniques must be used to correct for
non-linear loads.

[11]
1.2 Types of power factor controller

Generally there are two types of technique are used to control the power factor
these are:

1.2.2 Passive PFC

This is a simple way of correcting the nonlinearity of a load by using capacitor

banks. It is not as effective as active PFC, switching the capacitors into or out of the
circuit causes harmonics, which is why active PFC or a synchronous motor is preferred
[Wiki].

1.2.3 Active PFC

An active power factor corrector (active PFC) is a power electronic system that
controls the amount of power drawn by a load in order to obtain a Power factor as close
as possible to unity. In most applications, the active PFC controls the input current of
the load so that the current waveform is proportional to the mains voltage waveform (a
sine wave).Some types of active PFC are: Boost, Buck and Buck-boost. Active power
factor correctors can be single-stage or multi-stage. Active PFC is the most effective
and can produce a PFC of 0.99 (99%) [Wiki].

1.2.4 Synchronous

Synchronous motors can also be used for PFC. Shaft less motors is used, so that
no load can be connected and run freely on the line at capacitive (leading) power factor
for the purposes of PFC.

[12]
1.3 Capacitive power factor correction (CPFC)

Capacitive Power Factor correction is applied to circuits, which include induction

motors as a means of reducing the inductive component of the current and thereby
reduce the losses in the supply. There should be no effect on the operation of the motor
itself. An induction motor draws current from the supply, which is made up of resistive
components and inductive components. The resistive components are: Load current
and Loss current; and the inductive components are: Leakage reactance and
Magnetizing current. Figure 1.11 is showing relations between magnetizing current
motor current and work current

Figure 1.11: Showing relations between magnetizing current motor current and
work current

The current due to the leakage reactance is dependent on the total current drawn by
the motor, but the magnetizing current is independent of the load on the motor. The
magnetizing current will typically be between 20% and 60% of the rated full load
current of the motor. The magnetizing current is the current that establishes the flux in
the iron and is very necessary if the motor is going to operate. The magnetizing current
does not actually contribute to the actual work output of the motor. It is catalyst that
allows the motor to work properly. The magnetizing current and the leakage reactance
can be considered passenger components of current that will not affect the power drawn
by the motor, but will contribute to the power dissipated in the supply and distribution
system. Take for example a motor with a current draw of 100 Amps and a power factor
of 0.75. The resistive component of the current is 75 Amps
[13]
and this is what the KWh meter measures. The higher current will result in an increase
in the distribution losses of (100 x 100) / (75 x 75) = 1.777 or a 78% increase in the
supply losses. In the interest of reducing the losses in the distribution system, power
factor correction is added to neutralize a portion of the magnetizing current of the
motor. Typically, the corrected power factor will be 0.92 - 0.95. Some power retailers
offer incentives for operating with a power factor of better than 0.9, while others
penalize consumers with a poor power factor. There are many ways that this is metered,
but the net result is that in order to reduce wasted energy in the distribution system, the
consumer will be encouraged to apply power factor correction.

Power factor correction is achieved by the addition of capacitors in parallel with the
connected motor circuits and can be applied at the starter, or applied at the switchboard
or distribution panel. The resulting capacitive current is leading current and is used to
cancel the lagging inductive current flowing from the supply.

1.2.5 Different types of capacitive power factor correction

Different types of capacitive power factor correction are

1.2.5.1 Bulk correction

1.2.5.2 Static correction
1.2.5.3 Inverter
1.2.5.4 Solid-state soft starter

1.4.1.1 Bulk correction

The Power factor of the total current supplied to the distribution board is
monitored by a controller which then switches capacitor banks. In a fashion to maintain
a power factor better than a preset limit. (Typically 0.95) Ideally, the power factor
should be as close to unity as possible. There is no problem with bulk correction
operating at unity; however correction should not be applied to an unloaded or lightly
loaded transformer. If correction is applied to an unloaded transformer, we create a
high Q resonant circuit between the leakage reactance of the transformer and the
capacitors and high voltages can result. In figure 1.12 bulk correction using capacitor
bank is shown.
[14]
 Figure 1.12: Bulk correction using capacitor bank

1.4.1.2 Static correction

As a large proportion of the inductive or lagging current on the supply is due to

the magnetizing current of induction motors, it is easy to correct each individual motor
by connecting the correction capacitors to the motor starters. With static correction, it
is important that the capacitive current is less than the inductive magnetizing current
of the induction motor. In many installations employing static power factor correction,
the correction capacitors are connected directly in parallel with the motor windings.
When the motor is Off Line, the capacitors are also Off Line. When the motor is
connected to the supply, the capacitors are also connected providing correction at all
times that the motor is connected to the supply. This removes the requirement for any
expensive power factor monitoring and control equipment. In this situation, the
capacitors remain connected to the motor terminals as the motor slows down. An
induction motor, while connected to the supply, is driven by a rotating magnetic field
in the stator that induces current into the rotor. When the motor is disconnected from
the supply, there is for a period of time, a magnetic field associated with the rotor. As
the motor decelerates, it generates voltage out its terminals at a frequency which is
related to it's speed. The capacitors connected across the motor terminals, form a
resonant circuit with the motor inductance. If the motor is critically corrected,
(corrected to a power factor of 1.0) the inductive reactance equals the capacitive
reactance at the line frequency and therefore the resonant frequency is

[15]
line frequency. If the motor is over corrected, the resonant frequency will be below the
line frequency. If the frequency of the voltage generated by the decelerating motor
passes through the resonant frequency of the corrected motor, there will be high
currents and voltages around the motor/capacitor circuit. This can result in severe
damage to the capacitors and motor. It is imperative that motors are never over
corrected or critically corrected when static correction is employed. Static power factor
correction should provide capacitive current equal to 80% of the magnetizing current,
which is essentially the open shaft current of the motor.

The magnetizing current for induction motors can vary considerably. Typically,
magnetizing currents for large two pole machines can be as low as 20% of the rated
current of the motor while smaller low speed motors can have a magnetizing current as
high as 60% of the rated full load current of the motor. It is not practical to use a
"Standard table" for the correction of induction motors giving optimum correction on
all motors. Tables result in under correction on most motors but can result in over
correction in some cases. Where the open shaft current cannot be measured, and the
magnetizing current is not quoted, an approximate level for the maximum correction
that can be applied can be calculated from the half load characteristics of the motor. It
is dangerous to base correction on the full load characteristics of the motor as in some
cases, motors can exhibit a high leakage reactance and correction to 0.95 at full load
will result in over correction under no load, or disconnected conditions.

Static correction is commonly applied by using one contactor to control both the
motor and the capacitors. It is better practice to use two contactors, one for the motor
and one for the capacitors. Where one contactor is employed, it should be up sized for
the capacitive load. The use of a second contactor eliminates the problems of resonance
between the motor and the capacitors. Static correction is shown in figure 1.13.

[16]
 Figure 1.13: Static correction using capacitor

1.4.1.3 Inverter

Static Power factor correction must not be used when a variable speed drive or
inverter controls the motor. The connection of capacitors to the output of an inverter
can cause serious damage to the inverter and the capacitors due to the high frequency
switched voltage on the output of the inverters. The current drawn from the inverter
has a poor power factor, particularly at low load, but the motor current is isolated from
the supply by the inverter. The phase angle of the current drawn by the inverter from
the supply is close to zero resulting in very low inductive current irrespective of what
the motor is doing. The inverter does not however, operate with a good power factor.
Many inverter manufacturers quote a cos Ø of better than 0.95 and this is generally
true, however the current is non sinusoidal and the resultant harmonics cause a power
factor (KW/KVA) of closer to 0.7 depending on the input design of the inverter.
Inverters with input reactors and DC bus reactors will exhibit a higher true power factor
than those without. The connection of capacitors close to the input of the inverter can
also result in damage to the inverter. The capacitors tend to cause transients to be
amplified, resulting in higher voltage impulses applied to the input circuits of the
inverter, and the energy behind the impulses is much greater due to the energy storage
of the capacitors. It is recommended that capacitors should be at least 75 Meters away
from inverter inputs to elevate the impedance between the inverter
[17]
and capacitors and reduce the potential damage caused. Switching capacitors,
Automatic bank correction etc, causes voltage transients and these transients can
damage the input circuits of inverters. The energy is proportional to the amount of
capacitance being switched. It is better to switch lots of small amounts of capacitance
than few large amounts.

1.4.1.4 Solid state soft starter.

Static Power Factor correction capacitors must not be connected to the output
of a solid-state soft starter. When a solid-state soft starter is used, a separate contactor
must control the capacitors. The capacitor contactor is only switched on when the soft
starter output voltage has reached line voltage. Many soft starters provide a "top of
ramp" or "bypass contactor control" which can be used to control the PFC capacitor
contactor. If the soft starter is used without an isolation contactor, the connection of
capacitors close to the input of the soft starter can also cause damage if they are
switched while the soft starter is not drawing current. The capacitors tend to cause
transients to be amplified resulting in higher voltage impulses applied to the SCR’s of
the soft starter, and due to the energy storage of capacitors, the energy behind the
impulses is much greater. In such installations, it is recommended that the capacitors
be mounted at least 50 meters from the soft starter. The elevated the impedance between
the soft starter and the capacitors reduces the potential for damage to the SCR’s.
Switching capacitors, Automatic bank correction etc, will cause voltage transients and
these transients can damage the SCR’s of Soft Starters if they are in the off state without
an input contactor. The energy is proportional to the amount of capacitance being
switched. It is better to switch lots of small amounts of capacitance than few large
amounts. Power factor controller solid-state soft starter is shown in figure 1.14.

[18]
 Figure 1.14: Power factor controller solid-state soft starter

1.2.6 Demerits of CPFC and its solution

1.2.6.1 Capacitor selection.

Static Power factor correction must neutralize no more than 80% of the
magnetizing current of the motor. If the correction is too high, there is a high
probability of over correction which can result in equipment failure with severe damage
to the motor and capacitors. Unfortunately, the magnetizing current of induction motors
varies considerably between different motor designs. The magnetizing current is almost
always higher than 20% of the rated full load current of the motor, but can be as high
as 60% of the rated current of the motor. Most power factor correction is too light due
to the selection based on tables which have been published by a number of sources.
These tables assume the lowest magnetizing current and quote capacitors for this
current. In practice, this can mean that the correction is often less than half the value
that it should be and the consumer is unnecessarily penalized. Power factor correction
must be correctly selected based on the actual motor being corrected. The electrical
calculations software provides two methods of calculating the correct value of KVAR
correction to apply to a motor. The first method requires the magnetizing current of the
motor. Where this figure is available, then this is the preferred method. Where the
magnetizing current is not

[19]
available, the second method is employed and is based on the half load power factor
and efficiency of that motor.

1.2.6.2 Supply harmonics

Harmonics on the supply cause a higher current to flow in the capacitors. This
is because the impedance of the capacitors goes down as the frequency goes up. This
increase in current flow through the capacitor will result in additional heating of the
capacitor and reduce its life. The harmonics are caused but many non linear loads, the
most common in the industrial market today, are the variable speed controllers and
switch mode power supplies. Harmonic voltages can be reduced by the use of a
harmonic compensator, which is essentially a large inverter that chancels out the
harmonics. This is an expensive option. Passive harmonic filters comprising resistors,
inductors and capacitors can also be used to reduce harmonic voltages. This is also an
expensive exercise.

In order to reduce the damage caused to the capacitors by the harmonic currents, it
is becoming common today to install detuning reactors in series with the power factor
correction capacitors. These reactors are designed to make the correction circuit
inductive to the higher frequency harmonics. Typically, a reactor would be designed to
create a resonant circuit with the capacitors above the third harmonic, but sometimes it
is below. (Never tuned to a harmonic frequency) Adding the inductance in series with
the capacitors will reduce their effective capacitance at the supply frequency. Reducing
the resonant or tuned frequency will reduce the effective capacitance further. The
object is to make the circuit look as inductive as possible at the 5th harmonic and
higher, but as capacitive as possible at the fundamental frequency. Detuning reactors
will also reduce the chance of the tuned circuit formed by the capacitors and the
inductive supply being resonant on a supply harmonic frequency, thereby reducing
damage due to supply resonances amplifying harmonic voltages caused by non linear
loads.

[20]
1.2.6.3 Detuning reactors

Detuning reactors are connected in series with power factor correction

capacitors to reduce harmonic currents and to ensure that the series resonant frequency
does not occur at a harmonic of the supply frequency. The reactors are usually chosen
and rated as either 5% or 7% reactors. This means that at the line frequency, the
capacitive reactance is reduced by 5% or 7%. Using detuning reactors results a lower
KVAR, so the capacitance needs to be increased for the same level of correction. When
detuning reactors are used in installations with high harmonic voltages, there can be a
high resultant voltage across the capacitors. This necessitates the use of capacitors that
are designed to operate at a high sustained voltage. Capacitors designed for use at line
voltage only, should not be used with detuning reactors. Check the suitability of the
capacitors for use with line reactors before installation. The detuning reactors can
dissipate a lot of heat. The enclosure must be well ventilated, typically forced air
cooled. The detuning reactor must be specified to match the KVAR of the capacitance
selected. The reactor would typically be rated as 12.5KVAR 5% meaning that it is a
5% reactor to connect to a 12.5KVAR capacitor. Supply resonance is shown in
figure1.15.

Figure 1.15: Supply Resonance.

Capacitive Power factor correction connected to a supply causes resonance between

the supply and the capacitors. If the fault current of the supply is very high, the effect
of the resonance will be minimal, however in a rural installation where the supply is
very inductive and can be high impedance, the resonances can be very severe resulting
in major damage to plant and equipment. Voltage surges and transients of several times
the supply voltage are not uncommon in rural areas with

[21]
weak supplies, especially when the load on the supply is low. As with any resonant
system, a transient or sudden change in current results in the resonant circuit ringing,
generating a high voltage. The magnitude of the voltage is dependent on the 'Q' of the
circuit which in turn is a function of the circuit loading. One of the problems with
supply resonance is that the 'reaction' is often well removed from the 'stimulus' unlike
a pure voltage drop problem due to an overloaded supply. This makes fault finding
very difficult and often damaging surges and transients on the supply are treated as 'just
one of those things'.

To minimize supply resonance problems, there are a few steps that can be taken, but
they do need to be taken by all on the particular supply. These are:

Minimize the amount of power factor correction, particularly when the load is light.
The power factor correction minimizes losses in the supply. When the supply is lightly
loaded, this is not such a problem; Minimize switching transients. Eliminate open
transition switching - usually associated with generator plants and alternative supply
switching, and with some electromechanical starters such as the star/delta starter;
Switch capacitors on to the supply in lots of small steps rather than a few large steps.
Switch capacitors on to the supply after the load has been applied and switch off the
supply before or with the load removal; Harmonic Power Factor correction is not
applied to circuits that draw either discontinuous or distorted current waveforms.

Most electronic equipment includes a means of creating a DC supply. This involves

rectifying the AC voltage, causing harmonic currents. In some cases, these harmonic
currents are insignificant relative to the total load current drawn, but in many
installations, a large proportion of the current drawn is rich in harmonics. If the total
harmonic current is large enough, there will be a resultant distortion of the supply
waveform, which can interfere with the correct operation of other equipment. The
addition of harmonic currents results in increased losses in the supply.

Power factor correction for distorted supplies cannot be achieved by the addition of
capacitors. The harmonics can be reduced by designing the equipment using active
rectifiers, by the addition of passive filters (LCR) or by the addition of electronic power
factor correction inverters which restore the waveform back to its undistorted state.
This is a specialist area requiring either major design changes, or specialized equipment
to be used.
[22]
Reactive power

In a direct current (DC) circuit, or in an alternating current (AC) circuit whose

impedance is a pure resistance, the voltage and current are in phase, and the following
equation holds:

P = ErmsIrms eq. 14

Where P is the power in watts, Erms is the root-mean-square (rms) voltage in volts,
and Irms is the rms current in amperes. But in an AC circuit whose impedance consists
of reactance as well as resistance, the voltage and current are not in phase. This
complicates the determination of power. In the absence of reactance, the product
ErmsIrms represents true power because it is manifested in tangible form (radiation,
dissipation, and/or mechanical motion). But when there is reactance in an AC circuit,
the product ErmsIrms is greater than the true power. The excess is called reactive power,
and represents energy alternately stored and released by inductors and/or capacitors.
The vector sum of the true and reactive power is known as apparent power.

[23]
 Chapter 2
MODELLING AND CONTROL STRATEGY

2.1 Software Used

The modelling and simulation of this project have been done on Proteus Software for electrical
and electronics simulation and pcb design.
Proteus makes it easy for design because here we can find the devices by their name too (e.g.
TRAN-2P2S for transformer). In this we directly get ICs and CROs making it easy for design as
well as checking the result and accuracy thereafter.

2.2 Description of complete system

Voltage Phase Switching

and A angle
current calculat
step ion and
control
Capacitor
PIC

Figure 2.1: Block diagram of PIC based PFC

Block diagram of PIC based PFC is shown in figure 2.1 and PIC based PFC is shown
in figure 2.2. Whole system may be divided into four stages. First stage is concern with
the conversion of incoming voltage and current into the PIC level voltage(e.g.5V).

[24]
 Fig2.2: Proteus Simulation of ZCD

Fig2.3: Result of ZCD shown on CRO(yellow wave shows zero cross wave and blue shows dc wave)

Second stage is concerned with conversion of analog to digital signal. This is done by
use of PIC. In this stage we calculate the phase angle between current and voltage that
is continuously displayed on LCD as shown in figure 2.3. The digital voltage and
current signal so acquired are processed in the PIC with the help of appropriate
algorithm realized in its software. On the basis of phase angle PIC controls the
switching drivers for on/off action of capacitor bank.

[25]
PIC 18F452 suits well to perform these tasks because of its following feature:

It has built in 10-bit Analog-to-Digital Converter module (A/D) with fast sampling
rate approximately 0.632 MHz and good linearity (≤ 1 LSb). It has high current sink/
source (25 mA) for digital input/output. It has 3 external interrupt pins and four timer
module, namely: Timer0 module: 8-bit/16-bit timer/counter with 8-bit programmable
prescale; Timer1 module: 16-bit timer/counter; Timer2 module: 8-bit timer/counter
with 8-bit period registers (time-base for PWM); Timer3 module: 16-bit timer/counter.
One major reason for selecting 18F452 is its library support for interfacing multimedia
card (MMC) drivers. A single command is required to write or read any data from
MMC.

2.3: PIC18f452

PIC 18F452 is a16 bit microcontroller having high performance RISC CPU
optimized architecture/instruction set, source code compatible with the PIC16 and
PIC17 instruction sets. Linear program memory can address up to 32 Kbytes and linear
data memory can address up to 1.5 Kbytes. Block diagram of 18F452 is shown in figure
2.5 [PIC 18F452 manual].

2.3.1 Pin diagram

Pin diagram of PIC 18F452 is shown in figure 2.6. 18F 452 has 5 ports named as
RA, RB, RC, RD and RE. Each pin of PIC 18F452 has more than one functions. Pin
11 and 32 are used as VDD, pin 12 and 31 are used as VSS. Pin 13 and 14 are used for
oscillator. Pin 1 is used for reset and it is used in case of programming.

[26]
 High
performance
RISC CPU
Analog Peripheral
PIC 18F452
features features

CMOS Special
technology microcontroller
feature

Figure 2.4: Block diagram of core features

Figure 2.5: Pin diagram of PIC 18F452

[27]
2.4 MMC card and its connection with PIC

Figure 2.6: MMC card connection diagram

The Multi Media Card (MMC) is a flash memory card standard. MMC cards are
currently available in sizes up to and including 1 GB, and are used in cell phones, mp3
players, digital cameras, and PDA’s.

Secure Digital (SD) is a flash memory card standard, based on the older Multi Media
Card (MMC) format. SD cards are currently available in sizes of up to and including 2
GB, and are used in cell phones, mp3 players, digital cameras, and PDAs. These two
only works with PIC18 family.

[28]
2.5 LCD and its connection with PIC

Figure 2.14: LCD connection diagram

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number
of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. It is often
utilized in battery-powered electronic devices because it uses very small amounts of
electric power.

LCDs with a small number of segments, such as those used in digital watches and
pocket calculators, have individual electrical contacts for each segment. An external
dedicated circuit supplies an electric charge to control each segment. This display
structure is unwieldy for more than a few display elements.

Small monochrome displays such as those found in personal organizers, or older

laptop screens have a passive-matrix structure employing super-twisted nematic (STN)
or double-layer STN (DSTN) technology—the latter of which addresses a color-
shifting problem with the former—and color-STN (CSTN)—wherein color is added
by using an internal filter. Each row or column of the display has a single

[29]
electrical circuit. The pixels are addressed one at a time by row and column addresses.
This type of display is called passive-matrix addressed because the pixel must retain
its state between refreshes benefit of a steady electrical without the charge. As the
number of pixels (and, correspondingly, columns and rows) increases, this type of
display becomes less feasible. Very slow response times and poor contrast are typical
of passive-matrix addressed LCDs.

2.6 Capacitor bank connection with relay

We are using Leone SC5-S type relay. It operates on 6V dc, and can handle an ac
Voltage of 300V and current of 7A. When the current is amplified by an amplifier,
It is sent to the coils of the relay, which get energised, thereby leading to the closing of No
contacts. Thus the relay operates and brings the respective capacitor bank in parallel with
it. When a particular relay operates, an LED connected to it also glows for the user to
know which relay is functional at that load to improve the current power factor.

Figure 2.14: Simulation of relay with capacitor

[30]
Chapter 3

SIMULATION RESULT AND DISCUSSION

In this work, power factor is corrected using PIC 18F452. Here two facilities are
mentioned; one is minimum current and second is power factor range both can be given
by the user. System requires minimum current for the correction of power factor and it
continuously monitors the power factor. If power factor is within the range then there
is no action, otherwise it takes the action according to the lagging or leading power
factor. The system design implementation and testing is divided into five major parts:

Test the voltage level and current

level Detecting zero crossing
Finding time gap between current and voltage
Power factor calculation
Physical testing of power factor controller

3.1 Test the voltage level and current level

First step is to step down the voltage from higher level to 4V to 5V level which is
suitable for PIC. Outcome of input voltage after passing through the diode before enters
into pin port (A1 & A2), the diode clipped the negative portion of the sine waveform
so that to prevent PIC take in excessive negative voltage. The outcomes are shown in
the fig 5.1 and fig. 5.2.

At the same time, it drains some voltage hence channels waveform is slightly lower.
A shunt resistor of any value must be connected after the diode and link to ground, this
prevents harmonic appears.

[30]
 Figure 3.1: Complete circuit diagram of the project

Power factor controller with working proposed system is described. Ordinary 350W transformer
was used as potential transformer and so as 100:5 current transformers respectively. LM358, dual
Op amp IC was used with good accuracy. 5.1V zeners are used to regulate and stabilize the
signals. 12V relays are used as switching devices and 50K resistance is used as resistive load
whereas an inductor of 10F and 220V has been used in the above present proteus simulation.

3.2 Simulation and result evaluation

⮚ The values of potential transformer(PT) and current transformer(CT) has been set as
given in the figures below.
⮚ The values of the capacitor bank used in this simulation design is 3.5 micro farad.

[31]
 Fig 3.2:Values of PT and CT

⮚ Now, when no resistive or inductive load is connected the reading in the LCD is:

Fig.3.3: Reading of LCD display

[32]
When resistive load is on and inductive load is off. In this condition, pfc is also on .
Then the reading of the LCD is:

Fig.3.4: Resistive load and PFC is on

Now, when we turn on both the inductive as well as the resistive loads, we can observe
that the power factor decreases and the value of the current increases to 0.66A. In this
situation our PFC has been kept off.

[33]
 Fig.3.5: Both Inductive and Resistive load is on

Now, when we turn on our PFC we can observe that it improves the power factor from
0.95 to 0.97 as relays RL3 and RL4 are working in this condition.

Fig.3.6: PFC is on alongwith loads

[34]
Chapter 4
Conclusion and Future Work

4.1 Conclusion

This project work is an attempt to design and implement the power factor controller
using PIC micro controller. In this work there is a provision to define the own current
minimum range and power factor minimum and maximum range. PIC monitors both
continuously and then according to the lagging or leading power factor it takes the
control action. This project gives more reliable and user friendly power factor
controller. This project makes possible to store the real time action taken by the PIC
microcontroller.

This simulation also facilitates to monitor the power factor changes on LCD in real
time.

4.2 Future work

This project work is not tested on power converter based systems or synchronous
motor because of the requirement of huge amount of expense. It needs the further
enhancement of the system. Finance is a critical issue for further enhancement.

[35]
 Referenc
es
1. [Ali et al. 2000] - Al-Ali, A.R.; Negm, M.M.; Kassas, M. (2000) “A PLC Based Power
Factor Controller for a 3-Phase Induction Motor”, IEEE Conference on Industry
Applications, Volume: 2, Pages: 1065-1072.

2. [Andersen et al. 2002] - Andersen, G.K.; Klumpner, C.; Kjaer, S.B.; Blaabjerg, F.
(2002) “A New Green Power Inverter for Fuel Cells”, IEEE Conference on Power
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a Family of Converters for Power Recycling During the Burn-In Test of Synchronized
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992.

4. [Ayres and Babri 1996 b] - Ayres, C.A.; Barbi, I. (1996) “Power Recycler for DC
Power Supplies Burn-In Test: Design and Experimentation”, Applied Power
Electronics Conference and Exposition, Volume: 1, Pages: 72-78.

5. [Barsoum 2007] - Barsoum, Nader (2007) “Programming of PIC Micro-Controller

for Power Factor Correction” IEEE Conference on Modeling & Simulation, Pages:
19-25.

6. [Borlotti et al. 2001] - Borlotti, R.; Gemme, C.; Tinggren, R. (2001) “Integrated
Power Quality in Distribution Equipment”, IEEE Conference on Electricity
Distribution, Volume: 2, Pages: 1-6.

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the Dc-Bus Current to Improve the Power Factor in Low-Cost Electric Drives”, IEEE
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“Innovative Solutions for Power Quality in a Deregulated Market”, I

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 Referenc
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9. [Consoli et al. 2001] - Consoli, A.; Testa, A.; Aiello, N.; Gennaro, F.; Lo Presti, M.
(2001) “Unipolar Converter for Switched Reluctance Motor Drives with Power
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11. [Dallago et. al. 1998] - Dallago, E.; Sasone, G.; Storti, M.; Venchi, G. (1998)
“Experimental Analysis and Comparison on a Power Factor Controller Including a
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12. [Fuld et al. 1991] - Berthold Fuld'; Siegfried Kern; Ray Ridley (1991) “A Combined
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19. [Ioannides and Papadopoulos 1991] - Ioannides, M.G.; Papadopoulos, P.J. (1991)
“Speed and Power Factor Controller for AC Adjustable Speed Drives”, IEEE
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[38]
 Appendix I

Program for power factor calculation

/*............ Program for calculated the power factor by taking current and voltage
...............*/

#include"built_in.h"

long vlong, clong;

unsigned cnt, cnt1;

void interrupt()

{ // Interrupt

cnt++;

cnt1++; // Increment value of cnt on every

interrupt TMR0L = 101;

INTCON = 0x20; // Set T0IE, clear T0IF

void main()

unsigned int voltage, //Increases the count of

speed

voltagepre, //Previous value of voltage

current, //Decreases the value of count

currentpre;
 Program for power factor calculation

int pwf,b,c,d; //Previous value of down key

unsigned char ch; //Character variable used to display values on

LCD

voltage=0; // Initialize the voltage

voltagepre=0; // Initialize the voltagepre

current=0; // Initialize the current

currentpre=0; // Initialize the currentpre

T0CON =0x81; // Assign prescaler of 1:4 to TMR0

LCD_Init(&PORTD); // initialize LCD on PORTD (4-bit interface connection)

LCD_Cmd(LCD_CURSOR_OFF); // send command to LCD (cursor off)

LCD_Cmd(LCD_CLEAR); // send command to LCD (clear LCD)

ADCON1 = 0x82; // configure VDD as Vref, and analog channels

TRISA = 0xFF; // designate port A as input

TMR0L = 101; // Initialize Timer0 to 101, so as to help to generate

1sec. INTCON = 0xA0;

cnt=0;

cnt1=0; // Enable TMRO interrupt

LCD_Out(1,1,"frequency"); // Printing charachters on

LCD do //start

{ // LOOP 1 starts, infinite loop

voltage = ADC_read(1); // get ADC value from 1st channel

 Program for power factor calculation

vlong = voltage * 5000; // use (int) multiplication instead of (long)

asm { // and fill the upper two bytes manually

MOVF STACK_2,W

MOVWF _vlong+2

MOVF STACK_3,W

MOVWF _vlong+3

voltage = vlong/1024;

current = ADC_read(2); // get ADC value from 1st channel

clong = current * 5000; // use (int) multiplication instead of

(long) asm { // and fill the upper two bytes manually

MOVF STACK_2,W

MOVWF _clong+2

MOVF STACK_3,W

MOVWF _clong+3

current = clong/1024;

if (current!=0||voltage!=0)

if((voltage!=0)&&(voltagepre==0)) // Checking for zero crossing

 Program for power factor calculation

b=cnt; // store the value of count

b=(1/b)*1600; // It gives frequency

ch = (b / 1000) %10; // Prepare value for display

LCD_Chr(2,1,48+ch); // Write ASCII at 2nd row, 9th

column

ch = (b / 100) %10; // Prepare value for display

LCD_Chr_CP(48+ch); // Display the ASCII value

ch = (b / 10) %10; // prepare value for display

LCD_Chr_CP(48+ch); // Display the ASCII value

ch= b % 10; // prepare value for display

LCD_Chr_CP(48+ch); // Display the ASCII value

cnt=0; // Initialize the timer

if((current!=0)&&(currentpre==0)) // Checking for zero crossing

d= cnt; // Lagging of current

ch = (d / 1000) %10; // Prepare value for diplay

LCD_Chr(2,8,48+ch); // Write ASCII at 2nd row, 9th

column ch = (d / 100) %10; // Prepare value for display

 Program for power factor calculation

LCD_Chr_CP(48+ch); // Display the ASCII value

ch = (d / 10) %10; // Prepare value for display

LCD_Chr_CP(48+ch); // Display the ASCII

value ch = d % 10; // prepare

value for display LCD_Chr_CP(48+ch); //

Display the ASCII value cnt1=0; // Initialize the timer

c= (d/b)* 360; // Calculation of angle

/* Power factor calculation in term of decimal value no fraction, 0.7 is result as 700 */

pwf= CosE3(c); // Power factor is calculated

ch = (pwf / 1000) %10; // Prepare value for display

LCD_Chr(2,8,48+ch); // Write ASCII at 2nd row, 9th

column

ch = (pwf / 100) %10; // Prepare value for display

LCD_Chr_CP(48+ch); // Display the ASCII value

ch = (pwf / 10) %10; // Prepare value for display

LCD_Chr_CP(48+ch); // Display the ASCII value

ch = pwf % 10; // Prepare value for display

LCD_Chr_CP(48+ch); // Display the ASCII value

}
 voltagepre=voltage; //Store the value of voltage as voltagepre

currentpre=current; //Store the value of current as currentpre

while(1); // Endless loop