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SUNITI BHUSHAN QANUNGO

A HISTORY OF CHITTAGONG
VOLUME TWO
By the same author :

A History ong, VoL. I (FYom Anctent Time s doun to

oJ Chittag 1 76 1 )
The Chittagong Reuolt, 1930 - 34
ClnkmnRes us tance to Brttish Domination
HISTORY OF CHITTAGONG
VOLUME TWO
(L76L - 19471

sItNrTI BHUSTTAN gAITUNGO

M. A. Ph. D.

I(ANUNGOPARA
CHITTAGONG
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 PREFACE
The present book is the continuation of my
pubtished work A History of Chittagong, volume one
which deals with ancient and medieval periods. The
present work deals with the modern period of the
history of Chittagong. Thus the two volumes jointly cover
the ancient, medieval and modern periods of the
history of Chittagong.
During the latter part of the British rule people of
Chittagong became very much conscious of local
history. A number of native writers wrote many books
connected with the history of particular area. Most of
these works are not available at the present time. The
government reports, contemporary newspapers,
statisfical accounts, district gaoetteers, census reports,
travellers' accounts and other written documents are
useful sources of information regarding the history of
Chittagong under British rule. These sources have been
utilized in writing the book.
From the very beginning the British ruJers
conducted experiments in administration in order to
plan, organize and run the statecraft. Throughout the
latter half of the eighteenth century, the successive
experiments have failed to evolve an acceptable
system of govenrment. It was found difficult to carr5r on
day to day administration of the province and to
replace the Mughal administration. In fact, the British
administration was an amalgamation of British and
Indian system of administration. By the Cornwallis code
the magistrate collector was given sole authority to
orgarize the public affairs. Chapter four deals with the
evolution of administration in the district.
Four major communities, namely the Muslims,
Hindus, Buddhists and Christians are living together
in Chittagong from the medieval period. Each
 tl

community practise their owrl religion and follow their

own ways of living. However, there are many objects
which are common to all communities. In the events of
the Independence movement and political activities they
were closely connected with one other. The British
period witnessed religious reforms and social changes.
These subjects are briefly discussed in chapter five.
The British period witnessed the growth of
Chittagong town and the development of urban life. The
town of Chittagong was the administrative, financial
and business centre of the district. Though the town of
Chittagong is thousand years old the British city of
Chittagong was created in 186Os. It has undergone
gradual growth since that time.
The latter part of the nineteenth century and the
early part of the twentieth century witnessed the in-
troduction of modern ideas in social life, social welfare
activities, cultivation of arts and literature, transport
system, economic system and other things. The elite
section of the society played a leading role in the mod-
ernization of the society. In fact, the British period
brought Chittagong to the door of modern age.
Writing of this book was completed about a decade
ago. In the following years the author was under
pressure to publish the book. But due to some unavoid-
able circumstances the book could not be published at
an earlier period of time. It is hoped that the author
will be excused for the delay.
I am very much grateful to all those who have
helped me in producing this book. I should like to thank
my students, colleagues and acquaintanees whose
encouragement was always an inspiration to me.

Mahalaya S*n.{.- !f^",.sf^a'" Qon tny

Kanungopara, l4l7 B E
 CONTENTS

Preface I
Contents III
Chapter I L"and and People t
Chapter 2 Establishment of an
Authoritarian Government 8

Chapter 3 Relation with Elurma 12

Chapter 4 Administration 2r
Chapter 5 Societir and Social Life M
Chapter 6 Urban Centres 84
Chapter 7 Political Parties l08
Chapter 8 lndependence Movement 130

Chapter I Edtrcation r57

Chapter lC Public Health 180

Ctrapter lt l)isaster and Relief 188

Chapter 12 Social Welfare 200

chapter 13 Literary
ffi::ffi: 212
Chapter l4 Journalism 232

Chapter 15 Art and Culture 242

Chapter t6 Bcono'mic Condition 253

Chapter 17 Social Chartge 290
A Map ol'Chittagong 301
 Chapter I
Land and People
Name. Chittagong, in ancient times, was known as
Chattagram, which was changed into Chatgaon during the
sultanate period. The Mughals commemorated their conquest
of Chittagong in t 666 by renaming it Islamabad or the land of
peace. The name Islamabad continued till the end of the East
India Company's rule. Chittagong, the anglicised form of
Chatgaon became the most common name during the
subsequent British rule.
Boundary. Just after the cession of the district to the East
India Company, the boundary of the district was demarcated as
follows:
The province of Chittagong extends to the southward of the
capital (lslamabad) about fifty miles to a river called Cruzcolly
(Khuruskhali). To the westward from the said river is a ridge
of mountains that stretch to the S. E. and E, and divide the
Chittagong district from the kingdom of Arakan; to the N. E.
and N the mountains still continue, and divide the province
from that of Tipperah; to the N. N. W. and N. W. it is bounded
by a river called the Burrah Fenny.'l
Since then, the boundary of the district has undergone
changes from time to time. In 1761, the conquered territory of
the plains Tippera was incorporated into Chittagong and it
remained as such till the formation of the separate district of
Tippera in 1789.2 Itr th" early years of l77Qs. a large part of the
subjugated area of Chittagong Hill Tracts was united with the
district. In 1785, the island of Sandwip was joined to
Chittagong.3 Hatia and southern Noakhali constituted a part of
Chittagong till the formation of the district of Noakhali in 1822.
Sandwip was transferred to the Noakhali District. The judicial
2 | A History of Chittagong
branch of administration of Sandwip was, however, kept
reseled under the civil courts of Chittagong.4 The revenue of
Sandwip was controlled by the Chittagong collectorate till 1877.
In l88l -82, river Feni marks the boundary line between
Chittagong and Noakhali. In 1956, Sandwip was reincorporated
into Chittagong District.
After the British occupation of Burma in 1826 the
province of Arakan was incorporated into Chittagong. In 188 I ,
it was separated from Chittagong to form a part of Burma. River
Naaf marks the boundary between Arakan and Chittagong.
In 1860, the non-regulation district of Chittagong Hill
Tracts was changed into the district of Chittagong Hill Tracts,
the boundary of which, was not clearly defined till 1880.5
Area. The area of the district was subjected to time to
time changes. According to W W Hunter, the area of the district
at the time of the cession in L76O was 2987 sq..miles.6 The
census report of l89l rneasured the area of the district 2563
sq. miles. At the time of Lt. Siddon's survey in LB37-41, the
area of the district was 2717 sq. miles.T According to Allen's
report, the area of Chittagong District in 1898 was 2492 sq.
miles. The cause of the variation in area obviously was due to
the addition and subtraction of pieces of land. Since that time
the area of the district has not undergone any major changes.
Physical environment. The physical environment of the
district concerns chiefly with the aspects of the geological
structure which is arranged as follows.
Soil. The type of soil is distinguished by texture. Three
types of soil can be found in the district. (a) Loose soil can be
found in the hill slopes, in the char lands and on the banks of
the rivers and streamlets; (b) clayey soil is found chiefly in the
marshy areas between the hill ranges; (c) alluvial soil consists
of clay and sand, deposited by running waters of rivers and
streams.
Hill ranges. Three hill ranges, broken by valleys and
 Land and People | 3

marshy tracts characterize the topography of the district. The

Sitakunda Mirsarai hill range spread farther south upto Mahesh
khali. This hill range south of the Sankha is mentioned in
Buchanan Hamilton's narratives as Churamani hills.S Th.
Rangunia hills extends farther south. The part of the range
from the south of the Karnafuli upto Gaq'ania is mentioned Muin
Pahar (Muni Pahar) in Buchanan's narrative".9 Pttts of this
hill range are differently named Ram Pahar and Sita Pahar.lo
The eastern most hill range marks the border between
Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts.
Hills of Chittagong are mostly sandy. Large blocks of hard
stone detached from earth's crrst can be seen in Sitakunda.
Soft stone can be seen some few feet under sandy surface of
the hilly region. Small hills and mounds can be seen
everywhere in the district.
Some of the hilly areas are well known for their scenic
beauty. The naturai scenery of the district arouses admiration
of walkers and tourists alike.
Rivers. Heavy rainfall brought about a large number of
rivers and streams of various sizes. Except the river Karnafuli
no other rivei- is deep enough to provide passage for vessels. On
account of the situation of sandy hill in the catchment areas,
silt is deposited on the bottom of the rivers and streams. The
hill streams are very much helpfu-l for watering of land and
carryring of hill products ciownstream. Rivers and streams help
creation of plains land everywhere in thc Cistrict.
Ocean. Chittagong has a long strip of land that borders
the sea. The coast furnishes water communication, harbour
facilities and seaside resorts. It has much economic value. Salt
is manufactured everywhere in the coastal areas. Fisheries
grow up in parts of the coastal area where the business of catch-
ing fish thrives.
Vegetation. The vegetation of Chittagong is chiefly of
two types, crop crop plantations and forests. Agricultural fields
4 | A History of Chittagong
can be seen everywhere in the plainsland. Forests are found
chiefly in the hilly areas. The forests of Chittagong are charac-
terized by luxuriant natural growth of trees and creepers.
Bamboos of various species are planted throughout the district.
Climate. Due to the contiguity of ocean, summers are
on the whole cooler and winters are milder than that of other
parts of the country. Monsoon winds during the months of June
to September blow from sea across the district. As a result, rain-
fall is heavy during the monsoon months.
Throughor-rt the British period, Chittagong was much
rescrted to by the Europeans. Hamilton writes, 'This maritime
tract is much resorted to by the European inhabitants of
Bengal, on account of the beneficial effects experienced from
the sea air, and the salt water bathing.'ll Referring to the
healthy climate of Chittagong W W Hunter writes,
At the end of the last and the beginning of the present
century, Chittagong v!/as considered a sanatc.rrium ... [n former
years Chittagong was resort.ed to for its cool sea-breeze, and
because Calcutta was therl more unhealthy, and when a
change of air was desired, tficic were few places more
attractive within easy reach.12
Population. The inhabitants of Chittagong constituted
of two main groups, the Bengalees living primarily in the
plairrsland and the tribesmen living primarily in the liilly
regiuu.
According 1o i60i
khanasumari census report, the total
number of inhabitants of the district was l2,OO,OOO.l3 In
l868-69 the population of the district was B,00,OO0.la Th. d"-
crease in numbel of the population was due to creation of two
separate clistric , ofNoakhali and Cirittagong Hill fYacts. The
(.ensus reports $ive ihe number of population as follows :
1872 ... Lr,27,402
,9 I ...
',
1 12.9(\. 167
 Land and People | 5

l90l ... 13,53,125

1931 ... 17,97,O34
A study of the census reports from 1872 to 1931 reveals
that the growth of population was slow. The natality and the
mortality both were high in the district during that time.
Populatiorr movement. Throughout the British period,
population movements from one place to another did occur.
There has been a movement of people from central Chittagong
to southern Chittagong. People of the plains moved to Chittagong
Hill Tracts especially to Rangunia to establish more or less
perrnanent residence. During the Burmese invasion in Arakan
there was a mass migration of the Arakanese (called Rakhain$
to southern Chittagong. After the Burmese war, a number of
people left Chittagong to settle in Burma especially in the Alqyab
district.
During the latter part of the l940s, large number of peopie
rnigratecl from rural areas to urban areas in search oflobs.
Ethnic groups. For centuries, a number of ethnic groups
are living in Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts districts.
Dr. Irrancis Buchanan Hamilton, while visiting Chittagong in
l79Os, gives a brief but valuable description of customs,
language and religious beliefs of a nurnber of tribes living in
particular areas of Chittagong and the Chittagong Hill Tracts.
The tribesmen ethr-rically belong to the mongoloid group of
human race.
The Chakrnas are some of the earliest inhabitants of
Chittagong. The earliest reference to these people is found in
De Barros'rnap (l55Os). At the tirne of the acquisition of diwani
by the East India Company, the territory of the Chakma Raja
extended as far west as the Mirsarai Sitakunda hills and
Rangunia valley. The second capital of the Chakma Raja was
Rajanagar in Rangunia.
Buchanan's narratives refer to the Tripura settlement
in Mirsarai - Sitakunda hill .ul g".15
6 | A History of Chittagong
The Mannas (popularly called the Maghs) are ethnically
connected with the Burmese. Dr. Buchanan Hamilton writes
that the Marmas under the leadership of Bohmang Konglafru
entered Chittagong from Burma and settled in the vallels 6r
the Sangu (the Sankha) and the Matamuhuri in the middle of
the eighteenth century. Konglafru became the ctrief of the
Marmas and the dynasty founded by him is knovrn as lSohmang
dynasty. The Marmas are related to the Bur:mese in language,
religion and custom.
'lhe Rakhaings are the rnost numerous section of the
tribesmen living in Chittagong. They left their original country
Arakan in the latter half of the eighteenth century to settle in
the British terr:itory of southern Chittagong. Mr. Bateman, the
collector of Chittagong, "reported on the lTth Novernber', 1775
thr t 2OOO people had fled frorn Arracan and settled in the
district, and that he had given them pottahs for new lands."16
According to Buchanan Ilamilton, the whole area between
Ctrandpur and Baratulla (Baraitali) are inhabited by the
immigrants from Rosang (Arakan).17 The largest concentra-
tion of the Rakhaings was iir and around Ramu. Buchanan
writes in 1798 that "in the whole of this valley there are fifteen
thousand Rakain, who have fled hither since the conquest of
their country."18 B.t*een the years l7g7 and 1800, it is saicl
"about 3O,OOO or 40,000 persons emigrated from Arakan to
Chittagong District". l9

Note :

I Verelst's letter to Vanstttart, l6th Feb., l76i

2 H J S Cotton, Mentorantdum on tlrc Reuenue History oJ Chittagortg, p. 5
3 W W llunter, A Status/rcal Account o-[ BaryaL Vl, ll7
4 L S S O'Malley, Eastern Bengal arrri Assant. I)istdct Gozetteers, Cltil.tagortg
5 lbtd.
6 Hunter, op. ctt., p. 125
7 Census Report, 1872, p. i09
 I.and and People | 7

B Dr. Francis Buclranan Hamilton, Bttchanan inSouth Easl 13e.,'gal (1798),

p. 24
9 lbid., p. 25
l0 tbtd., p 26
I I Walter Hamilton. A Geographical, Statrstical antd Historical Descrtptions oJ
Htndustan, 1, 169
12 l{unter, oSt, t'i1., W, 228
13 Hamtlton's Iltrtdustan, I, 169
14 Hunter, op. cit.. \'I, 133 o

i5 Buchanant, p. l5
16 N/lennrandum. p. 83
17 Buchamtn, p. 3l
iB lbid., 1t" 50
l9 Htrnter, op. cit., p. I l8
 Chapter 2
Establishment of an Authoritarian
Government
A. Chittagong under the trast India Company's
rule (1761- 1858)
By a secret treaty between the English East India
Company and Na'uvab Mir Kasim on Septentber 27, 1760, the
foriner gained the diwani of Chittagot g.l The grant of diwani,
embodied in the secret treaty, was oflicially confirmed on
October 15, 1760.2
In reality, a mere acquisition of diwani did uot satis$r the
English. They proceeded to take firrn hold of the district's ad-
nrinistration. In December, 1760, the council at Fort William
appointed Harry Verelst 'Chief of Chittagong and asked him to
take over char5les of the district from the faujdar. A council
consistirrg of two rnembers \^/as crlso appointed to advise the chief
in ofTir:ial functions.
On Janr-rery 5, 176l Verelst took charges of the adminis-
tration from Muharnmad Reza Khan, the last Mughal faujdar of
Chittagong, who Ilersonally acconrpanied Mr. Verelst in Decenr-
ber, 1760.3 Nawab Reza Khan never returnecl to Chittagong as
his powers and functions had been captured by tire English.
The appointment of 'Chiel'virtually put an end to the faujdarship
in the district. The company authorities brought. the giarrison-
ing Mugl-ral anny in Chittagong under Lheir control. The faujdar's
court was replaced by a council consisting of European
members. 'i'he adrninistration of the district was broughl
under direct supervision of the Calcutta auLhorities.
The cliwani grant of Chittagong was renewed by Nawatl
Mir Zafar on JuIy 6, 1763.
 Establishment of an Authoritarian Governrnent II
Taking privilege of the diwani, the East India Company
'step by step assumed monopoly of inland trade.'By the
establishment of the Board of Trade in 1774 the English
acquired full authority over inland trade.
The company's rule in Bengal gained great significance
by enactment of the Regulating Act of 1773. This Act provided
for parliamentary superwision over the compally'S administra-
tion in India.
The East India Company began to make revenue man-
agements in its owrr way. In 1776 the khasmahal settlement
was introduced in some parts of the district. It was rnade more
extensive in 17 83. By this arrangement the British
government became the direct owrler of the cult-ivable land.
The refonns of l,ord Corrrwallis further consolidated the
British power in Bengal. By the Permanent Settlement a
subseryient landlord class was created. Executive power of the
district's ruler was strengthened by the concentration of
judicial functions in his hand. Thanas \vere created to make
sure. thal the laws wet'e obeyecl without question. During the
Independence mo\/ement a strong police force was created to
crush a.ll sort.s of agitation against government.
Tlie Brit.ish rulcrs took severe measures against any per-
son who refused to dcl r,r'hat the larv tells him to do. The Bengal
Regulation III of iElS authorized the British government to put
under detenticln for an indefinite period any person who mi$ht
be suspected of committing or cotrtentplating to ccmmit any act
injurious to tl"ie safety of ttre lSritish govenlment in India.
The suppression of the Sepoy Mutiny brought the whole of
the Mughal territory under the sway of one suprelne military
power-the British.
ts. Chittagong under the British Crown (l B5B-
1947)
On November t, 1858 by a proclamation, Queen Victoria
took over the administration of India to her owrr hand and put
10 | A History of Chittagong

an end to the company's rule over India. By this proclamation

the British monarch became the sovereign ruler over India. In
1877 , Queen of England became the Empress of India. The post
of the Governor General was abolished and in his place the post
of the Viceroy of the Emperor or Empress of India was created.
The legitimacy of the British rulers must be acknowledged by
the Indian subjects.
The relations between the British ruler and the Indians
were those of superiors and subordinates. High status was ac-
corded to the Europeans. Indians were reduced to permanently
inferior position. British rulers attempted to make the people
of India understand that they were backward people and had no
ability required for conducting administration efficiently.
Authority is related to power. The British authorities
claimed that they had the right to issue commands and the
people must follow the directions of the authorities. Every
legislation invested the British rulers with greater power over
their subject people.
By the Indian Penal Code, 1860, the controlling power of
the government took a definite shape. By this code whoever
collects men. arms or otherwise in order to wage wa-r against
the governmerrt shaii suifer nraxrmum penalty.
The British born subjects were exempt frorn the jurisdic-
tions of native courts. The mischievous activities of the Euro-
peans could not be tried in an Indian court. The native judges
were forbidden to take cogrrizayrce of any suit in which an
European British subject happened to be a party. The judicial
privilege gave the F-uropeans to act in an arbitrary manner.
Individual freedom was not recognised under
authoritarian government. The rights to free speech, writing
arrd political organizations were denied to the people. It was
expected that the Indian people should obey authority and rules
even when these were unfair.
As the Indians were the subject people under the British
sovereign, so the British executives would exercise full control
 Establishment of an Authoritarian Government I I I

not only over the political affairs but also over the economy,
education and civil service.
The Vernacular Press Act (1878) clearly and lirmly states
that one cannot write or speak anything that is critical of the
government. Newspapermen and writers had to write under
threat of interference by the goverrrment. By the Indian Act
( 19 I O) publication of materials what were thought to be

provoking against government were forbidden.

By the Rowlatt Act ( 19 l9), any assemblage to demonstrate
political agitation and to take part in protest meetings and
processions were prohibited.
The British rulers established, in fact, a colonial rule in
India. colonialism means "a policy by which a nation main-
tains or extends its control over foreign dependencies." The
colonial country does edst for the benefit of the mling country.
The British colonial rule in India was controlled by the Britistr
army.
The British rulers employed all possible devices to change
trade and commerce to their owrl advantage. In fact, India
became a market for British goods and capital invest-ment.
The educational system was utilized to create bureau-
crats. Indigenous ship building industry was discourageol
ocean, coastal and river transport systems were directed by
the British companies. Manufacture of salt was prohibited by
law in 1833 and again in t8g8. Government assumed the mo-
nopoly of trade in salt. cotton textile industry was discouraged.
The British government in these ways brought the trade
and cornmerce under its complete control. The British
government demanded servile obedience from the Indian
subjects. The Indians were forced to obey all kinds of rules and
regulations without question.
Note:
I Aitchison, T)-eafies, Engagements o.nd Sanctd.s, Vol. I
2 Hunter. op. ctt.. p. 1I5
3 Memorandunt p. 7
 Chapter 3
Relation with Burma
Chittagong is situated adjacent to Burma. There has been
a political and social connection between these two countries
since time immemorial. From 1576 to 1666 Chittagong was
rrnder the rule of the Arakanese kingdom. In 1666 A. D. the
Mughals under Nawab Shaista Khan gained mastery over
Chittagong by driving the Arakanese out of the district.
By a systematic conques;t the Mughal territory of
Chittagong extended as far south as Ramu, where a Mughal
outpost was erected. The British as successors to the Mughals
claim authority over the whole of the area as far south as the
right bank of the river Naal'.
Harry Verelst, the 'Chiefl of Chittagong after taking charge
of the district wrote a letter to the king of Arakan assuring him
of the company's friendship. The king of Arakan, in reply, sent
a deputation to Verelst as a gesture of friendship and goodwiil.l
The Burmese occupation of Arakan in 1786 made the
whoie thing different. It gave birth to the Arakanese resistance
against the Burmese occupation forces. A large number of
risistance fighters took shelter in the border area{i of southern
Chittagong.
In 1786, a bclcly of Burmese troops crossed the Naaf with
the intent to capture or kill a Magh sardar who was then
staying in the British territory. The Burmese crossing of the
Naaf gave the British authorities of Chittagong signal to
prepare {or military actiort. Major Bllerker, a senior army
officer was sent with some troops to protect the frontier. No
hostiie step, however, was taken by Major Bllerker.2
Tr: rebuff any possible Burmese inroad into Chittagong,
 Relation with Burma I 13
I
the British authorities strengthened military build-up at Ramu.
Thanas or police outposts were established in Ctrakaria,
Teknaaf and Nhila chiefly for watching the enemy's
movements.
One of the leaders of Arakanese resistance forces named
Lahwa Murang, brother of the defeated 'Rajah of Rushum'
(Roshang or Arakan) took shelter in the jungly areas on the
right bank of the river Naaf.
In reply to a petition from l-ahwa Murang, asking the
British authorities to grant land for the settlement of his
followers in the border areas, the British authorities granted
him the land asked for. The limits of the granted land are stated
as follows.
Your petitioner prays that a pottah and perwannah for the
rvastcs and churs situate in Teknaaf nuddy, in the province
of Is;lamabad, as per the following boundaries - to the north
of the river Naaf; west of' the nulla Oocheea and the
aforesaid river; cast of the sea; and south of the nullah Razoo,
be granted him by Government to the .end that he may
encourage ryots who have not other interests to resort thither
from Arracan..."3
This petition was entered into the diary on the 2lst
October, 1790. In course of time, a large number of the
Arakanese refugees came to live in this extensive region which
has been known as Palong sincc t.hen.
In 179:J, three insurgent leaders who being defeated in
one of their hostile enterprises fled as usual to the company's
territ.ory of Chittagong.4
A Magh sardar named Apulung along with a group of
insrrrgcnts took shelt.er in the British territory.
The Arakarrese rebcls harried the Burmese occupation
forces by conducting sporadic attaclis on thenr. "The Burmese
court suspectcci that in these raicls the fugitives were abetted
by the British a.uthorities."S
L4 | A History of Chittagong

In January, 1794, a large body of Burmese troops crossed

the Naaf and demanded for the surrender of all rebt.ls inclrrding
Lahwa Murang, the leader o[ the Arakanese insurgents.
The presence of the Burmese forces in the Palclng areas
frightened the Arakanese settlers. They fled from their granted
lands to safe places in the lurther north.
Dr. Buchanan Hamilton, while travelling in the affected
areas found several Palongs, "deserted
in the year L794 on ttre
incursions of the Burmans and which ever since have contin-
ued almost without inhabitants."6 Dr. Buchanan further writes,
"Before the Burman incursion they (the twelve palongs) were
thickiy inhabited and well cultivatecl."T
In reply to Buchanan's enquiry about their return to
former settlements, "the inhabitants both Rakain and
Bengalese say that they would not venture to go to the Pallungs
from the want of a military force sufficient to protect them from
the Burmrnr."S
To ctrreck the Burmese design of hostile intrusion into
the company's territory the British authorities adopted both
diplomatic and military means.
On Feb. 18, 1794, magistrate Colebrooke sent letters to
the governor of Arakan and to the governor of' Ramree
separately requesting them to withdraw their forces from the
occupied region."9In his reply, the governor of Ramree repeated
the charges against Apalong and "clearly stated that the
Burmese army would not rr:treat beyond the British frontier
without arresting Apolung. " lo
Captain Ra5rne, the ofticer in charge of British troops at
Chittagong was sent to beat back the Burmese int-ruders. He
starti:il marching to reach Ramu. He rnoved upto Rat.napalong
and reported that a stronger force would be neecled 'to do
anything effectual agairrst therri." Accordingly, Lieutenants
Watherstone and Hunt with artillery and a company of sepoys
were dispatched to strengthen the military base at Ramu. [n
 Relation with Burma I 15

L7g4, the garrisoning sepoys at Ramu were commanded by Mr.

Braigham.I I
In 1796 captain Hiram cox was appointed resident at
Rangoon.l2 He was directed to conduct negotiations with the
Burmese authorities so as to arrive at a satisfactory solution.
It seems that his diplomatic efforts failed to gain any concrete
result.
A section of the British officials at chittagong were
unwilling to be involved in hostility with the Burmese. Mr'
Pierard, the collector of chittagong (t 795- t 799) writes,
(the area connected with the conflict) is a vast space of country
almost wholly waste lyrng between the village of Burrapalang
and the Naaf River which has been considered for some years
to form part of the company's territory, though it does not
appear to have been regarded in that light in earlier times,
, nor to have been included in major Rennel's delineation of
this provin"".13
Buchanan Hamilton who was staying in the area at that
time, gives a description of the military presence of the
Burmese in border areas and the British preparation to
checkmate their ag$ressive design in L798.
The Burmese force .... consisted of four thousand muske-
teers. They had fifty small cannon mounted on ship carriages,
and each wlought by two men. The musketeers were Burmas.
The gunners were Talain and Moormen (Muslims). Besides
these, there were a large body of Rakain armed with swords,
who served chiefly as pioneers .... colonel Erskines made
them retreat to Raja Pallang .... it is to be observed that this
was only the half of the force sent by the king of Ava""14
on April 5, 1798, Buchanan Hamilton while visiting
Ratnapalang saw "a Havildar's party of sepoys. From this to the
mouth of the Naaf a messenger is clispatched thrice a week, to
l5
bring intelligence from the frontier."
Meanwhile, the number of Arakanese refugees who had
been forced to leave their country was steadily increasing. To
16 | A History of Chittagong

provide them with food and shelter the British authorities built
a number of refugee camps at Cox's Bazar area. Captain Hiram
Cox was appointed to supervise the relief works. The extreme
physical work was responsible for Captain Cox's premature death
in the later part of the year L798. His service to humanity is
preserved by naming the place Cox's Bazar.
In September, 1799, Lieutenant Thomas Hill was sent to
Burma to discuss with the Burmese government on the sub-
ject of the mass emigration of the Arakanese from their owrl
country. He was directed to tell the Burmese authorities clearly
and unequivocally that the British government would not expel
the emigrants by force, although no pains would be spared to
induce them peacefully to return to their native country. The
Arakanese governor justified the military action taken by him
on the ground that it was the British authorities who were
giving protection to rebellious Mu$s. The goverrlor, however,
declared that this unhappy incident should be forgotten and the
old ties of friendship uniting the two countries should be
rest<-lred. l6
The magistrate of Chittagong gave an order that the
troublesome Arakanese should be expelled from the British
territory if necessary by force.
The voluntary repatriation of the Arakanese refugees were
not safe. Buchanan's narratives give evidence of the cruel
action taken by the Burmese authorities towards the emi$rants
who had returned to their native places. -A Rakain chief named
Damaning had a few hundred attendants, and fled hither on
the overthrow of his country by the Burmese. (Afterwards) he
returned to Arakan, and \Mith his whole family was put to Death
17
by those sanguinary conqll".or"."
In l8ll serious troubles arose in connection with the
offensive operations against the Burmese authorities by an
Arakanese rebel leader named Nga Chin Slan, who is referred
to under the name of King Bering in contemporary British
records.
 Relation with Burma I 17

In February 1812, the governor of Arakan formally

demanded the surrender of King Bering and other rebel leaders
and declared that if the demand was not met with then he would
pursue the rebels "to whatever quarter of the company's
territory they may retreat."lS
In pursuance of their conciliatory policy the British
authorities sent Captain Canning to the court of Ava assuring
the latter that the British authorities would do their best to
restrain King Bering from attacl<ing Burmese territory.lg Th.
Company's conciliatory policy did not produce any positive
result.
In 18 12 the magistrate of Chittagong took stern measures
in clealing with the Burmese. *A company of troops were sent
from Dhaka to the southern frontier in order to deal with the
menaced invasion of the Burmese forces.-2o
Meanwhile, King Bering with his followers had made
another hostile inroads into Arakan. He crossed the Naaf
accompanied with about 50O followers and occupied a stockade
at Maungdow. Col. Morgan tried in vain to stop him from
making inroads into Burma. The government authorised the
magistrate of Chittagong to offer a reward for the capture of
King Bering and his principal associates.2l
The warlike preparations of the British and the Burmese
governments made the border areas very much insecure. In
August, 1812, the magistrate of Chittagong reports : *The whole
of the southern part of the district is in a state of confusion.
The officers of the Thana at Tek Naaf were compelled to
abandon their post."22
In April, 18L4, a group of 5OO Burmese troops, while
pursuing King Bering, entered Chittagong. They proceeded upto
Garjania and established a military base there. Captain Fogo
officer commanding at Ramu, at once marched to the Burmese
camp and forced the Burmese troops to retreat.23
Captain Fogo suggested a plan for strengthening the

{.
l8 I A History of Chittagong

border forces by recruiting the Arakanese refugees. He proposed

the formation of 8 or l0 companies partly of Rakhaings and
partly of other natives of this part of the district. This proposal,
however, was not approved by the magistrate of Chittago rlrg.24
In 1815, King Bering died. He was succeeded by RlmgJeing.
He was, however, kept in restraint by the British.
In the period between the years l8 15 and 1825 a large
territory of eastern India comprising Manipur, Cachar, and
Assam was conquered by the Burmese. In l8l8 the Burmese
goverrrment demanded from the British government the sur-
render of Eastern Bengal which in their view constituted a part
of the ancient kingdom of Arakan. The Bunnese $overnment
claimed authority over the small island of Shah Pari which was
surveyed by the British in 18O I . This island is situated in the
mouth of the Naaf on the British side. At the darkness of night,
on the 24th September 1823, a thousand men landed on the
island, overpowered the giuard, killed and wounded a number of
British citizens and drove others away from the island. The
Burmese intruders, however, had retired from the island
before the arrival of the British troops. The Shah Pari Dwip
incident caused a serious deterioration in relations between
the two countries.
on February 24, L824, the British government declared
war against the Burmese government. A $roup of soldiers
under Captain Norton encamped at Ramu "to check any
demonstration" on the side of Burma.
Early in May 1824 about 8000 troops under the joint
command of the governors of Arakan, Ramree, Sandaway and
Cheduba crossed the Naaf and proceeded upto Ratnapalong.
Maha Bandula, the renowrled Burmese general himself was
directing the mititary operations from his headquarters in the
capital of Arakan. Captain Norton advanced southward with his
troops, but in a short time he moved back to Ramu. On May 13,
the advancing Burmese army occupied the hills east of Ramu-
 Relation with Burma I 19

On the morning of the ITt}r May the Burmese arrny

were within twi:lve paces of Captain Norton's pickets, and
the untrained local troops fled, The small force of sepoys
was completely surrounded, and although for three days they
maintained the struggle, they were at last compelled to
retreat and then fell into the greatest confusion. Captain
Norton and five other officers were killed, and the detach-
ment was annihilated.25
The Burmese troops advanced upto Chakaria. The
advancing Burmese army created panic everywhere in
Chittago rrg,26 resulting in a rush to safer places.
Maha Bandula's departure from Arakan put a halt to the
Burmese advancement.
In January, 1825, general Joseph Morrison, the
commander of the British garrisoning army at Chittagong
marched to face the enemy. The army followed a road along the
coast and reached Tek Naaf on February 1. The Burmese troops
retreated to the 'City of Arakan'.
On April l, 1825, general Maha Bandula was killed by an
explosion of hand grenade. His death destroyed all hopes of
winning war. The Burmese army could not stop the progress of
the British forces from one stage to another and in the
successive engagements they were completely routed.
By the Treaty of Yandabo, concluded in February, 1826,
the Burmese agreed to accept the broundary as demarcated by
the British government. Robertson, the magistrate of Chittagong
recommended 'the separation of Arakan from the Burmese
dominion" to be joined with the province of Bengal Presidency.
After the subjugation of Burma by the British
rulers, communication between Chittagong and Burma
increased to a very great extent. Large number of Chittagong
people migrated to Bunna either in order to find work or for
business purposes. Priests, preachers, politicians, scholars and
literary persons visited to Burma and stayed there for a period
20 | A History of Chittagong

of time in their owrl interests. Regular naval communication

'between Chittagong and the Burmese ports was established to
facilitate passenger traffic and trade activities.

Note :

l. Fifth Report from lhe Select Committee of the House oJ Commons on the
Alfairs oJ the East Irtdio Contpantg (1812), ed. W K Firminger, I, C)Oil
2. A. C. Banarji, Eastent Flontier of British Indtn. p. IOO

3. Memorandunr p. 98
4. Bengal District Gozetter
5 Hunter, op. cit, p. I lB
6 Btrchanran,p. 53
7 lbid".. p. 55
B lbid"., p. 52
9 Eastern Frontier. p. lO3
lO tbid.. p. tO4
II Memorandurn. pp. 205-06
12 Eastern Frortier. p. 133
13 Memorandurn, p. lO7
14 Buchuran,p. 57
15 lbid., p. 53
16 Eastem Frontier, pp. 145-46
17 Btrchanan, p. 55
lB Eostern FYontier. p. 179
19 lbid"..p. t77
20 tbid.. p. 179
2L lbid.. 1t. tB4
22 lbid., p. 186
23 O'Malle.y, op. cit.
24 Eastent F-ro..rlier. p. lS)5

25 rlunter, o . cit.. p. l2l

26 tbid.
 Chapter 4
Administration
Administration of Chittagong under the British rule
signifies the management of public affairs under the
jurisdiction of executive, judiciary, police and other a$encies.
Some features of the district's administration may be discussed
under the following heads.
Civil and Revenue Administration
The British public administration inherited much of its
features from the previous Mughal administration. The
British rulers created the post of 'Chiefl and gave its sharpe
after the model of a'Faujdar'. Important officers, such as divran,
qazi, bakhshi, poddar, peshkar, khazanchi, etc. were allowed to
remain in their respective places
The chief executive of the district under the diwani rule
was the Chief who was appointed by the East India Company
authorities to act as a ruler of the district. He was also named
Resident. Harry Verelst was appointed Chief on December l,
1760. He was to be assisted by a council which was consisted of
Harry Verelst, Ranclolph Marriot and Thomas Rumbold. Mr.
Wilkins was appointed assistant and Gokul Chand Ghoshal was
appointed dirvan. Ttre council not only gave'advise'to the Chief
but also took some share in the functions of administration.
Between the years 176l and 1769 the Chief and the council
jointly performed the executive functions. The Chief, however,
acted under the authority of the East India Company at Calcutta.
Regarding the discretionary powers and functions of the
Chief the District Records report :
Whatever directions the Chief may think proper to
issue for the better regulating and conducting the Company's
22 | A History of Chittagong
business under his management or for explaining any
matters he may think necessary to enquire into, in his
superintendence of the several Departrnents are to be
implicitly obeyed.l
Thus the Chief was invested with wide power and a good
deal of responsibility. He was the principal executive, control-
ling the whole body of officials of the district. All kinds of official
appointments were subject to his approval. He controlled the
management of financial affairs. He was the chief judicial
officer having the functions concerrling the court of law. He
was in charge of the arrny that was stationed in the clistrict.
In 1766 the Governor and Council in Calcutta decided that
the collection of revenue of the district should be the special
responsibility of the Chief of Chittagong. Accordingly, the Chief
was directed to supervise the functions of the officials related
to the collection of revenue.
Thus the chief also became the collector of revenue. H J
Cotton writes that "the Chief of Chittagon$ had almost from the
first been designated as Collector r,vhen addressed in his
revenue capacity."2
The Chief of Chittagong as the principal revenue officer
undertook the works of measurement of land in 1764. He had
to evaluate the quality of land and assess the amount of money
to be paid.
The Mughal administration of justice had its own system
of law courts. The Mughal judiciary was divided into thr"ee coutls,
the Nizamat Adalat or civil court, the Faujdari Adalat or
criminal court and the Diwani Adalat or revenue court. Nizamat
Adalat was presided over by the Qazi, Faujdari Adalat was
presided over by the Faujdar and Diwani Adalat was presided
over by the Diwan.
Warren tlastings made the judicial system shorter and
divided the jtrdiciary into two branches; (A) Nizamat (including
Diwani) Adalat or civil court and (B) Faujdari Adalat or criminal
court.
 23 | Administration

These courts were established in every district in L7723

and started their operation in 1774.
The judicial arrangement made by Warren Hastings per-
sisted till 186f . On the 6th August, 1861, this arrangement
was abolished.a
The cutchery or the government secretariat was kept
open on every Tuesday, Wednesday and Friday for the disposal
of civil suits relating to landed property and on every Monday,
Thursday and Saturday for the trial of criminal cases.5
During the Mughal rule, the diwan held an important
post in the revenue administration. Under the diwani rule
(L76O-73), the post of diwan was retained although he lost much
of his former power as a chief financier and as a diwani judge.
In 1766 important financial duties of a diwan were transferred
to the office of the chiefship.
The per-iod between the years 1768 and 1793 is marked
by series of administrative events that frequently changed the
adrninistrative structure of the district.
In 1769 British supervisors were appointed in the districts
by the calctrtta authorities to supervise the administration
especially the local collection of revenue.6 In chittagong,
however, no supervisor was appointed. The chief was perform-
ing the same type of functions as the supervisors were doing in
other districts of Bengal.T
In order to make the collection of revenue more effective,
a group of revenue officers named sazawals were given appoint-
ment. rn l77l there l-rad been three sazawals performing their
official duties.
The post of sazawal was not proved satisfactory with
regard to the collection of revenue. In l7T2 the quinquinial
settlement wzrs put into effect throughout the province and the
oflice ofsazawal was withdrawn. In the same year tl're oflice of'
the diwanship was transferred to the collector.
In 1772 Mr. Bently, the collector of chittagong restored
24 | A History of Chittagong

the Mughal chakla system which had its revenue and civil
aspects.
During the Mughal rule, the whole district was divided
into nine chaklas. These were Nizampur (chiefly Mirsarai
Thana), Bhatiyari (comprising the greater part of Sitakunda
Thana), Aurangabad (comprising Hathazari and Fatikchhari
Thanas), Noapara (greater portion of Raozan Thana), Rangunia
(comprising the valley of the lchamati), Chakrasala (compris-
ing Patiya, Satkania and Boalkhali Thanas), Dohazari (com-
prising portions of Patiya and Satkania Thanas) Banskhali,
Deang (comprising Anwara Thana). To facilitate revenue settle-
ments chakladar was appointed in every chakla. Hc would be
responsible for regular collection of revenue. They were also
connected with the works of civil administration. The chakladars
were remunerated by the revenues derived from'secreted land.'
The chakladari system could not be persisted long owing
to the active opposition of Lhe zamindars.
After the abolition of the chakladari system the district
authorities proceeded to make settlements with Llne zarnindars
directly. Collector Goodwin was directed to make agreements
with the leading zarnindars of the district to ensure regular
collection of revenue. This alTangement was known as farmer
security system. By this system tlne zamindars were converted
to the fzrrmers who could retain their tracts of land on
payment of a fixed sum of money to the government. The
securities were to be the guards and guarantors for fulfilrnent
of the obtigation of paymelrt of revenue. The farmers artd their
sec:urities were in general relat.ed to the payment of revenue.
An interesting feature was that one farmer acted as surety for
another. The failure of the quinquineal settlement pul the
farrner-security system to an end.
In 1774, a great change took place in the district's
adrninistrative system. In this year, "the European Collectors
were recalled from the districts and native amils lilled ttre place
 Adrninistration I 25

of the Collectors."B The amil was given wide power over district's
administration especially with regard to revenue affairs. In fact,
he filled the role of a collector.
under the amil the post of ameen was revived. The word
ameen means a trustworthy person. The post of ameen was
introduced in 1776. He was to investigate accounts connected
with revenue collection. Krishna Dulal was the first anleen
appointed in chittagong by the Governor General. "The Gover-
nor General himself gave him a special letter of introduction."9
I-Ie was to "collect from the zarnindars and talookdars the ac-
counts of the jumma, wasil bakee of the different land holders
for some years past."Io
Krishna Dulal left Chittagong on July 10, LTTT. He was
succeeded by Sreemunta Roy.
ljnder the amilship much of the Mughal system of gov-
ernment was revived. The amil and the group of native officials
under him were responsible for the goverrrment of the district.
'fhe official staff of the collectorate durin g IZTZ consisted of the
following persons. Collector or amil, assistant collector, diwan,
ameen, peshkar, head munshi, persian muhuri, karkun,
Bengali muhuri, writer, arasbegi, vakeel, khazanchi, poddar,
naib, nazir.
The lower grade staff was composed of the foilowing per-
sons, jamadar, peons, daftari, coly, hadi (sweeper), mashalchi.
The Regulations of the I lth April, rr9o rec:omnlended the
establishment of mufassil courts at Islamabad.l I In the next
year the recommendation was put into effect.
In l78 I some important changes gave a new shape to the
administrative system ol the district.
The native amil, whatever administrative efficiency he
had could not be wholly understandable to the Brilish authori-
ties. In actual flact, a British collector was capaLrle of being readily
understood by the higher authorities. In l78l the native amil
was replaced by European collector. The British collector gained
26 | A History of Chittagong

control of revenue as well as civil administration of the

district. His power was substantially increased.
The post of magistrate was officially created in 1781. He
was entrusted primarily with administration of law and order'
The collector conculTently held the post of magistrate' As a
magistrate he performed duties of a civil administrator'
The post ofjudge was created in ITSL The judge was vested
with highest power to make legal decisions especially in civil
and revenue cases. The collector was required to perform the
functions of a judge.
Thus the chief executive held simultaneously different
administrative assignments. Mr. Cotton writes that there had
been complete concentration of authority in the hand of a single
individual, the collector of the district. Mr. Sumner in L78I held
the offices of "chief, collector, ma$istrate and collector of the
goverrrment customs."I2 In 1782 Mr. James Irwin "held the
offices of chief, collector, judge and magistrate combined'-13
Mr. shearman Bird tike his predecessor Mr. Irwin was judge,
-lhe collector thus became
magistrate, and collector in one.la
the sole representative of British authority over the district.
Though the collectorship, magistrateship and judgeship
were united in one agency, it is required that the functions of
each of the three branches of administration should not be
rnerged into one another. W R Gourley writes,
"In l TBT by order
of the court of Directors the European civil servant ... was vested
with the powers of a jtrdge in civil matters, a collector of
revenue, and a magistrate for the arrest of offenders "' He was
directed to keep eactr of these offices wholly distinct."l5
In 178l, the collecLor of chittagong was asked not to make
any kind of lancl rc'ventre settlement with any body in the
district. Referrin,q to this official instructiort of'the higher
"Orders
authorities to ttre collector ol Chittagon$ Cottott writes,
were passed that the r:ollectors themselves should not cclnclude
ttre settlement, for it was deemed an official inconsistency that
 Administration I 27

those who were to collect under the settlement should have

any part in the formation of i1."16
With this view in mind, the Committee of Revenue choose
an officer known as wadeddar to supervise the revenue settle-
ment. The Committee of Revenue proposed on April 28, I78L to
appoint Uday Narayan Mukherjee as wadeddar in Chittagong.
The wadeddari system proved inadequate for the need of
better revenue administration. It gradually declined in power
and function.
To make the revenue collection system more effective,
the government entrusted the collection of revenue to the
native officer known as tehsildar in 1791. '"The object of the
Tehsildari system," according to a report (1776) of Mr. Francis
Pierard, collector of Chittagong was "to facilitate the collection
of the public revenue from the very numerous independent pro-
prietors... in this Zillah.-r7 As many as four tehsildars were
given appointment in L79I. One tehsildar was in charge of
Chuckersallah (Chakrasala), another of Aurangabad (Hathaari-
Fatikchari), another of Nizampur (Mirsarai)I8 and a fourth of
Banscolly (Banskhali) and Doazari (Dohazari). The tehsildar was
assised by sheristadar, head mohurrir and four mohurrirs. The
Cornwallis Code of 1793 brought drastic changes in the admin-
istrative system of Bengal. The reporter writes about the code
It annulled the judicial power of all officers of the revenue
and transferred the cognizance of all matters .... to the courts
of Diwani Adalat. A new court of civil judicature was estab-
lished in every district. The new Judge was a European
covenanted servant of higher official rank than the Collector
uniting in his person the powers of Magistrate as well as of
civil judge and controlling the police within the limits of his
division. This arrangement long continued, one officer in each
district being Judge and Magistrate and another Collector.l9
These reforms were brought to effect from the lst May,
1793. Mr. E Colebrook, collector of Calcutta was appointed the
first judge and magistrate of Chittagong. Mr. Cornelius Fryer
28 | A History of Chittagong

was at the same time appointed the collector of the district.2o

Dr. Francis Buchanan Hamilton while visiting Chittaggong in
lTgB saw magistrate and collector two different officials.2l
By Regulation )O(X of I 793 the j udicial functions of qazis
were greatly curtailed. Regulation XLVI (1803) refers to the
appointment of qazis in towns and pergunnahs "for the purpose
of preparing and attesting deeds of transfer, and other law
papers, celebratin$ marriages" but makes no allusion to
judicial duties.22
By Regulation XL of 1793, the post of munsif was
created, but their selection was entrusted to the zamindars'
This preference in favour of landlords was, however, withdrawn
by Regulation XLIX of t BO3. In the beginnin$, the post of munsif
was without remuneration. By Regulation )OO(UII of 1795
munsifs were permitted to appropriate entire amount of the
fees levied on cases instituted before them.
"In Zilla chittagong twenty one Munsifs were
appointecl in 17g5. They harl alt ben Kazis."23 "In 1928 there
were fifteen Munsifs posted in the district. Only five of them
were Kazis."2a
According to o'Malley, in the beginning of the 2oth cen-
tury, fifteen munsifs were on official duties in Chittagong. Among
them three were posted in Chittagong town, three in Patiya,
three in Satkania, two in HaL]nazart.25
Munsif courts were e.stablished both in the town and in
the mufassil areas. Munsif courts were established in north
Raozan, south Raozan, cox's Bazar and Fatikchhari.
The posts of District Registrar and Assistant Registrar
were created in 1793. Regarding their powers and functions
the reporter writes in detail.
To the Courts of Justice a Registrar and one or more assis-
tants were appointed from the junior branch of the European
Covenanted Service. The assistants were assistants to the
Judge and Magistrate in both capacities. As assistants to
 Adrninistration I 29

the Magistrate they could be empowered by him to decide on

' cases to the same extent that the Magistrate hirnsclf was
authorized uncler the Regulations of 1793. The Registrar was
ernpowered to try civil cases not exceeding 2oo ,.rp""".26
The monthly salary of the district registrar was Rs soo.27
The Madras system of departmental district registrar was
introduced in May 19 l9 in chittagong (along with some other
districts)28
According to Mr. H J s cotton, on the 28th August, l7go,
the couit of wards was first formally established, "with powers
to superintend the conduct and inspect the accounts of all per-
sons entrusted with the management of the estates of minors,
females, lunatics, idiots and other disqualified proprietors (of
land)".29 'Th" institution of a court of wards was afterwards
formulated by the regulations of l7g3.In chittagong it appears
to have given trouble... in consequence of the scattered
character of the mahal.3o
In 1803, a superior order of Indian judges with authority
to decide cases upto Rs loo was created. They were designated
as sadr amins. The post of sadr amin "was the designation of
the second class of nativeludge."3l
when the office of sadr amin was created in I Bo3 no
specific qualification was laid down for it. Like that of munsifs
the sadr amins were also appointed by the sadr diwani adalat
on the recommendation of the district judges. The sadr amins
were to perform official functions at the headquarters where
the district judge held court.
By the regulation XV of l8o5 the powers and functions of
sadr amins were substantially increased.
The power of munsifs and sadr amins was considerably
increased successivelyin lB L4, l92l and rB2T. Soon after l12l
additional sadr amins were posted at subdivisional headquar-
ters. Munsifs were empowerecl to try suits upto Rs. 300/-.
ln LB24 the sadr amins were made salaried servants of
30 | A History of Chittagong
the government. Official approval now became necessary for
every appointment-. In general, 'the selection was made from
persons who had formerly held ministerial offices of peshkars'
nazirsand sheristadars of the provincial and district courts and
"the
from persons of reco$nised academic attainrnents' By 1868
designation of Sadr Amin was changed to subordinate3udge''32
The later part of the British rule witnessed the unifica-
tion of magistrateship and collectorship in one person and the
gradual growth of power of the magistrate collector.
The Criminal Procedure Code, 1882 increased the police
power of magistrate collector. The Reform Acts of 1909' 1919,
1935 invested the collectors with $reater power with regard to
judicial administration. The administrative reporters
specifically describes the powers and functions of the
magistrate collector as follows :
As collector, he supervises the collection of the various
branches of the revenue, and is tlre head of all the depart-
ments connected with it; as District Magistrate he is
responsible for the administration of criminal justice in the
district. and is vested with certain well defined original and
appellate criminal powers. The district jail.... is under his
general control, while as head of the police, he exercises a
general supenrision over the force at his disposal. He is the
ex-officio chairman of the District Board, and as such super-
vises local education, sanitation and the execution and
administration of all local public works'33
The administrative historian H E Hennessy writes about
the powers and functions of the magistrate collector as follows
:

The Magistrate collector is the head of the district and has

to care for the details of administration in that district' He
must gather the land revenues and taxes, keep records of
land and registers, administer criminal justice, and control
other departments in the district comin$ as he does. into
contact with all classes of people, his duties are most
important. District Boards afford him advise and infornta-
tion....34
 Administration I 31

The residence of the magistrate collector during the lSth

century was built on the hill known as Rung Mahal.3s After-
wards, his residence was removed to modern D C Hill.
By a regulation of 1833 (Regulation IX), the post of deputy
collector was created. In 1843 the post of deputy magistrate was
created.
In 184I the post of additional collector was created "to
conduct the superintendence and direction of all measurement,
settlement and resumption operations. The salary of the
additional collector was fixed at Rs 26,000 per annum, which is
the salary of a Magistrate and Collector."36
The post ofjoint magistrate has been referred to the events
of the year 1833. In that year, Mr. George Augustus Chicherley
Plowden was appointed joint magistrate of Chittagong.3T
*thq appointment of Honorary Mag-
According to Buckland,
istrates to assist the judicial work of the country dates in Ben-
gal practically from the year l860-61'38 O'Malley mentions the
bench of honorary magistrates at Chittagong as well as at Cox's
Bazar. The honorary magistrates were mostly recruited from
the enlightened and influential section of the native society.
The British period witnessed gradual development of the
administration of justice in the district. The district judge is
vested with overall authority for the judicial administration.
He is the presiding officer of a civil court. By the Regulation )(\/
of 1805 a Hindu and a Muslim law officer called pandit and
maulvi respectively used to be attached to every district court.
Their function was to expound the laws from the religious
scriptures in cases referred to them by the judge.
Judicial functions are divided into two branches, civil and
criminal. Civil justice is related to the rights of private indi-
viduals. Criminal justice is performed according to the laws
that deal with criminal offence.
Civil justice in the beginning of the z0th, century, accord-
ing to O'Malley, consisted of the district judge, two sub judges
32 | A History of Chittagong

and l5 munsifs viz, three munsifs of Chittagong, three munsifs

of Patiya, three munsifs of Satkania, two munsifs of Hathazari
and one munsif in each of the following places, North Raozan,
South Raozan, Cox's Bazar and Fatikchhari.
Criminal justice, according to O'Malley, was administered
"session judges, the district magistrate, the
by the district and
joint magistrate and the deputy and sub deputy magistrate sta-
tioned at Chittagong and Cox's Bazar. Chief of thejudicial courts,
according to H E Hennessy, was "the district court of sessions;
its presiding officer is known as the district and sessions judge.
He may pass sentence in any civil or criminal case.-39
The post of sessions judge was created in 1831- Sessions
means the sitting of a judge in court for the purpose of trying
offenders with the aid of jurors. The judge in relation to a
criminal court of law is called the sessions judge.
It was declared (Regulation VIi of l83l) competent to
government to invest the civil judges with full powers to
conduct the duties of the sessions.
"By Act IIi of 1835 the government was auth ortzed to trans-
fer any part or the whole of the duties connected with criminal
justice from any commissioners of circuit to any sessions
judges.
"Regulation MI of l83l and Act III of 1835 were both re-
pealed by Act WII of 1868.... All sessions judges are appointed
under the rules of the code of criminal procedure.-4o
In 1862 Lt. Governor Sir Cecil Beadon was instructed to
introduce jury system under Section 322 of the Criminal
Procedure Code."4t
All cases have a jury consisting of twelve members- The jury
hears the proceedings of the case and the summing up by
the judge, it then declatres whether the accused is $uilty or
not. This declaration must be the opinion of the majority of
the jury, if the case is to be closed; but the judge is not
bound by their opinion; he may agree with their opinion and
 Adrninistration | 33

end the trial,_ or he may disagree and have the case tried
again before another jury.a2
The introduction of jury system is a significant step to
the involvement of public in the court of law.
The civil service means all governmental functions un-
der the Crown except military and naval functions.
The civil service system, introduced by the British
government was the mixture of the Indian especially the Mughal
mansabdari system with the Furopean civil service.
Indians were made eligible for the government
office, when entrance to the Indian civil service was thrown
open to a competitive examination in f 853.
Provincial executive service or Bengal civil service came
into operation in 1884. Before lB84 officers were appointed by
patronage system. From this time the officers were appointed
on the basis of a competitive examination.
Referring to the sanctioned office staff of the district
O'Malley writes (1909) :
At Chittagong the sanctioned staff consists of six Deputy
collectors, of whom four are Magistrates of the first class,
including usually of Joint Magistrates, and two are vested
with the powers of Magistrates of the second or third class
in addition to these officers, there are generally two Sub-
Deputy Collectors, and occasionally an Assistant Magistrate
stationed there.43
The chief secretariat of the district is known as sadar
katchery. Katchery means 'an office of administration, a court
house. -44 T]ne existence of the katchery dates back to the
pre-British Mughal period.
The working force of the sadar katchery in the beginning
of the 20th century was as follows : peshkar, muhuree, munshi
or writer, khajanchi or treasurer, nazir, government amin,
sheristadar.
34 I A History of Chittagong
In 1786 the collector of chittagong complained to the
higher authorities about the poor condition of the kutchery
buildings involvin$ risk to human lives. "It has often happened
*that
during the present rainy season" he wrote, I have been
obliged to keep back part of the business of the public for
days
together because I did not chos e to hazard the lives of
public
for the
officers by insistin$ upon their going into the buildings
purpose of paying or receiving money'
The present katchery buildings were built on the top of
the Katchery HiU (Fairy Hill) in the beginning of the lgth
century.
The christian holidays (especially X'mas) involved
vacation for a number of days when government offices, schools'
and business premises were closed. An Act declaring holidays
for Ramzan and Durgapuja was passed in 18O0'
Decent ralization of administration
Decentralization of district administration under the
British rule started in the middle of the 19th century' From
were
this time much of the functions of the district govelrlment
transferred to the authorities of the subdivision, thana'
municipality, local boards, port trust etc'
The subdivisional system, in the view of o'Malley, was
introduced in 1854. The district of chittagong was divided
into
and cox's
two subdivisions or mahakumas viz, chittagong sadar
Bant.
each
Each of the subdivisions was divided into thanas and
thana was subdivided into mauzas'
Administration of chittagong sadar sub division was
under the direct supervision of magistrate collector while
Cox's
officer who
Bazar was under the control of a subdivisional
belonged to the category of first class magistrate.
The powers and functions of a sub divisional officer
have not been delineated in any Act or [,aw. Referring
to his
 Administration I 35

administrative status Mr. Hennessy writes, "A subdivisional

officer is the head of a subdivision of a district.'His duties are
similar to those of the collector, to whom he has to report and
whose instructions he must fulfil.-46 His principal job was to
ma.nage administrative affairs of his locality.
The smallest territorial unit was mauza (or village). In
L872 the number of villages or mauzas was 1062.
Every m.aluza was divided into mahallas.
Most of the mauzas or villages had a local body called
panchayat consisting of influential villagers. The head of the
panchayat was called matbar or morol whose chief function was
to deal with private disputes and criminal conduct of an
individual.
Police Administration
Police system is the basic law enforcement and order
maintenance ..institution. During the Mughal period police
adminsitration was performed essentially by the military groups
such as kotwal, daro$a, dafladar, chowkidar, pikes etc.
The British rulers developed an elaborate police system
based on the Mughal system of police administration. Regard-
ing the origin of the British police system Gourley writes, "Reso-
lutions passed by the Governor General in council on the 7th
December 1792.... is the foundation of police law in Bengal".47
The cornwallis code gave the police a new shape. Accord-
ing to the Regulation )oilI of 1793. "Magistrates are to divide
their districts into polie jurisdictions.... the police jurisdictions
are to be named after the central places.'48
The chief police officer in charge of a thana or police
station was named daroga. Regarding the powers and lunctions
o[ a daroga the Regulation )Oill of 1793 states :
-... the guarding of each jurisdiction is to be committed to a
daroga or super intendent with an establishment of
officers.... The magistrates are to nominate the darogahs....
36 | A History of Chittagong
the general duty of the police daroga and of the oflicer ap-
pointed to act under.him was (l) to maintain the peace; (21to
prevent. as far as possible the commission of all criminal
offences; (3) to discover and apprehend the offenders; (4) to
execute processes and obey orders transmitted by the
Magistrate; and (5) to perform such other services as are
prescribed by the re$ulations...-49
Thus the daroga was given a wide power over his respec-
*The daroga system proved to be the mainspring of
tive area.
the strength of Government.-so
-The Re$ulation )Ofll of 1813, by which the Magistrates were
directed to divide their respective zillahs or districts into
potice jurisdictions of ten coss, or twentlr miles square' These
police jurisdictions were to be numbered and to be named
after the places at which the darogahs or super intendents
were stationed. The magistrates were forbidden to change
the names or numbers of the jurisdictions or to alter the
limits of them without the sanction of the Governor General
in council. And just as the jurisdiction was called by the
name of its headquarters; so the term thanah which ori$i-
nally only meant the police station, came to be applied to the
jurisdiction subordinate to that station. This then is the ori-
gin of the thanah divisions of Bengal - divisions which have
been for years $rowing into greater importance, and are now
utilized to a very large extent for other than police p,r.po"""-sl
The aim of the Indian Police Act, 186l was 'to make it
(the police) a more efficir:nt instrument for the prevention and
cletection of crime." According to this Act, the superior officer of
the district police would be designated as the district
superintendent of Police-
In l92O the sanctioned strength of police was as follows :

Sadar sub division : superintendent- l, assistant

superintendent-2, deputy superintendent-3, inspector-4, sub
inspector-6,Sur|-feant-6,assistantSubinspectorandhead
cor';tables-7.
 Administration I 37

Cox's Bazar sub division : superintendent- 1, assistant

superintendent- I, deputy superintendent- l, inspect'or-7, sub
inspector-S l, surgean t-2, footconstable-8O. 52
The sanctioned strength of police remained same till 1930
Reserve police. In the district a reserve police force was
kept ready to control outburst of violence.
The whole police force was under the control of the
district magistrate.
The police force is divided into several departments
according to the nature of functions. These are as follows :

A. Town police. It was independent of the Inspector

General (the head of the police orgianization in the province)
and performed its duties under a commissioner who was the
head of town police force. In 1905 the Chittagong town police
was constituted of three head constables and sixty constabl.s.53
The headquarters of the Chittagong town police was
situated in Kotwali the former headquarters of the city police
during the Mughal period.
The Cox's Baz.ar town police was constituted of one head
constable and seven constable".S4
B. Rural police. Regarding the rural police administra-
tion the L,ocal Police Act, passed in 1856 was a significant step
in controlling rural crime. According to this Act, the
responsibility of maintenance of law and order was entrusted
to a chowkidar. He was appointed by the district magistrate.
The purpose of the Chowkidari Act of L87O was enacted
*to improve the position of the village
chowkidar." The duties of
a chowkidar were "to give information to the police, to arrest
proclaimed offenders, to prevent crime."55 Tares were realised
from the local people for payment of the chowkidars.
The rural police force for the security of villages was
composed of 241 I chowkidars and 215 dafadars, who were paid
at the rate of Rs 5 and Rs 6 per month respectively.
38 | A History of Chittagong

C. Water police and the Coast Guards are the

branches of the police forces whose job is to keep watch on the
coast in order to help safe anchorage of ships, to stop piracy and
to check smuggling of goods from the ships.
D. Railway police are those who work for the safety of
the railway passengers.
E. Fire brigade (Damkal Bahini) was established by the
Act of 1894 especially in the town area as a branch of police
department. The employees are trained to put out fires and to
rescue people from fires.
Besides the police, there were some groups of armed
people, whose duff was to protect place, persons and property.
These were as follows :
Armed guards (barkandaz). High officials and influential
peoples during the East India Company period needed armed
guards especially if theywere desirous of going to distant places.
Guards stationed in the government offices were furnished with
simple weapons
Village Defence Party - In order to maintain law and order
in the rural area, village defence party was created during
Swadeshi movement period.
Referring to the village defence party's ability to control
the activities of wrong doers the administrative reporters writes
that "in 1924-25, the Defence Party performed praiseworthy
1obs."56
District Intelligence Branch.'I'he criminal invest.igation
department is chiefly engaged in the secret finding out of crime.
During the Independence movement the police
departments were given the aclded responsibilities of finding
out underground revolutionaries, discovering the shelt.ers of
the suspects and keeping a close watch on the passage of the
revolutionaries.
The police also had the duty of regulating political
 Administration I 39

meetings, anti government processions, religious gatherings

(mela) like Sitakunda mela, drama performances. In cases
concerning proscribed political activities the police were
required to write police reports to higher authorities.
Fandi or petrol police beeame the mainstay of the police
system during the Independence movement.
Persons who have to undergo a term of imprisonment,
and the prisoners while under trial are kept in the jail. The
existence of Chittagon$ District jail goes as far back as the
beginning of the British rule. The jail in the beginning of the
20th century had an accomodation for 189 prisoners.D/ Ttre
accomodation capacity gradually increased. In 1930, the jail
furnished accomodation of 32O prisoners. The Cox's Bazar
subjail was established a little before 192L. Its accomodation
capacity was 2O.
Armed forces
At the time of the cession of the district the British
garrisoning army constituted of five hundred European horse,
two thousand European foot and eight thousand sepoy".58 With
a portion of this arrny Verelst, the first 'Chiefl of Chittagong
invaded Tripura and conqured it.
An auxiliary force, which was a branch of Indian arrny
was stationed in Chittagong to protect the district from forei$n
attack and incursions of the trill tribes. "The auxiliary force is
lbrmed clf European British subjcts, and as meant as a reserve
to the British section of the re$ular army.'sg
Navy is a part of the British armed forces. An
organized navy called nawwarar had been in existence in
Chittagong port since the Mughal period. The chief officer of
the nar,y was designated as Daroga i Nawwara whose references
are fflentioned in contemporary
"or.""r.6o
Local Aclministration
Local administration was vested in the local authorities
40 | A History of Chittagong

appointed or elected to conduct the activities of local

government within lirnited area. The agencies of local
administration consisted of (a) the Municipal Board and (b) the
District Board.
Municipal Board - To conduct municipal administra-
tion in the Chittagong city a Municipal Board was formed in
1864. The Board was consisted of ward commissioners who
controlled the city administration. The District magistrate was
to act as the ex-officio chariman of the Board.
The powers and functions of a Municipal Board were
connected with providing amenities to the inhabitants of the
locality like health and education services, social welfare
serwices, the water and swerage system, town planning and
development of roads, markets etc.
District Board - The British government performed
praiseworthy job in framing a structure of rural administration
on district level. In April 1885, the Local Self Government Bill
was passed by the Bengal Legislative Council and it came into
operation on the lst October, 1886. The Act provided for a
District Board which would have the responsibility of supervis-
ing and controlling the local bodies. It was proposed that a Union
Cornmittee should be established 'for the management of
village affairs."
*A group of unions was to
constitute the circle of a local
Board, vested with certain executive powers and responsibili-
ties." The official head of a circle was called circle officer.
On April 5, IBBT by a government decree the Chittagong
District Board was created and on May 3, 1887, the Chittagong
District Board started functioning.
The district magistrate was to be the ex-officio chairman
of the District Board. The local boards and Union Committees
were to act under the District Board. It was proposed that two
thirds of the members of the District Board were to be elected.
The principal functions assigned to the District Board and
 Adrninistration I 4L

the union committes were as follows :

Development of roads and communications
*District
Better management of educational institutions.
Boards were to manage public, primary and middle class schools
other than those for Buropeans and Eurasian'"
Running of hospitals and dispensaries
Supervision of rural sanitation
Vaccination against epidemic diseases
Relief oPerations
Conducting census
Constmction of officers bungalows and their supervision
Organizing melas (fairs) and extribitions
Construction of railwaY roads
Supply of drinking water
Construction of government buildings
Other welfare works6l
The number of members of the District Board
increased in later times. In 1905 the District Board consisted
of 19 members. Amon$ them 13 members were elected and 6
members were to be nominated by the government' In l9O5-
Ol,Tmembers were Europeans and 2 members were Muslims'62
' In lg2l chairmanship of the District Board was declared
to be elected.
In 1936 the total number of members of the District Board
was 3O. Among them 2O members were elected and lO mem-
bers were nominated-ffi
The income of the District Board derived mainly from
cesses levied on propertlr, transport, sale of commodities etc' A
portion of spending was financed by grants flrom government-
With the passing of time the trends in local governments
have been toward the expansion of decision makin$ body and
the greater participation of citizens in the local administrative
process.
42 I A History of Chittagong

Note :

I Bengal Dlrstrbt Records, Chtttagong, p. 3l

2 Memorandurru p. 15
3 FIenry Yule and A C Burnell, Hobson Jobson, p. 5: Frrmtnger, 1, 6
4 C E Buckland, Bengal under the Liutenant-Gouemors, l, 228
5 'Verelst to Vansittart', qt. Banglad.esh District Records, I, 135
6 Ftrrninger, p. clxv
7 Memorandum, p. 15
8 w w Fiunter, Bengal Marutscripts Records, I, 19; Report on the Adminis-
tration oJ Bengal, 1911-12, p. 40
9 Memorottdurn p.26
lO 'Warren Hastings to Francis l,aw dt. 3lst January, IZZT', qt. Memo-
rondun p-25
II Firrninger, l, ccxc
12 Metnorandr-rm, p.35
r3 Ibid"., p.36
t4 lbid.., p.75
l5 W R Gourley, A contributton totuards a History of tlrc Police in Bengal,
p. 25
fG Memorantdr-rrrL p.3l
17 lbtd., p. 76
rB rbid_.
19 BergalAdrninistratiue ReporL 191 1-12, pp. al-42
20 Memorandun p.TS
2l Btrclnnan, p. L23
22 HobsonJobson,p. 179
23 'Sadar diwzrni adalat, proceedings', qt. BengalPastandl'lesent, 196a,
p.2OG
24 'Civil Juclici:rl Consultations, l2th Oct. f 830, No. 27'. qt. BpP. lgGB,
p.2O9
25 O'Malley. o1t. t'[t.
26 Reportorr l/rt'r\tlrrrirristr-cilionof Bengal I9I I I2.p.42
27 Menwrartdturl1t.75
28 RAB. 1922-23. p. 36
29 Menwrandraru p. 199
30 lltid
:Jl llobsonJobson, p. ft62
 Administration I 43

32 TheHistory ofBengal' 1757-1905,p' 149

33 RAB, 191 1- 12. PP 53-54
34 H E Hennessy, Administr0:t'||,e History ofBrtti.shlndi,-,p. 163
35 Memorandurn P.229
36 lbid-. p. L2r
37 lbid"., p. r 19
3S Buckland , oP ctt', P- 227
39 Hennessy, oP. ctt.,P- L67
N RAB 1911-12,P.45
4l Buckland. oP. cit.,P.322
42 Hennessy, oP. cit., PP. f 67-68
43 O'Malley, oP. ciL
44 HobsonJobson, P. 287
45 'Bengal Revenue ConsultationJan. 29, L787' qt. AAspinaJl, Cornwrlilis
inBengal, p. 138
6 Hennessy, oP. cit., P- f 63
47 Gourley, oP. cit,P.29
8 lbid-
49 Ibid, pp 30-34
50 B B Misra, The Central Adrninistratton of the East India Compang'
1773-1834, Manchester' f959' p. 341
5l Census RePort, 1872. P-89
52 BengalDistrictGazctteer. VoIB' pp- f 9-2 f
53 O'MaIley, oP. ctt.
tu lbid..
55 Gourley, op. ciL,IOG

57 O'Malley, op.cit.
58 Hunter, op. cit., P. f 15
59 Hennessy, oP. cit., P. I70
60 Verelst to Playdell, 15th Feb. 1761
61 Buckland, op.ciL,I, 8O5-8O9
62 O'Malley, op.cit.
63 TI:Le Panch4ianycu Autumn Number' 1936 p- L22
 Chapter 5
Socie$r and Social Life
A. Societies
People of chittagong are divided into four principal
organized religious groups, nalnely the Muslims, the Hindus'
the Buddhists and the Christians-
(A) The Muslim SocietY
Islam was brougfrt into Chittagong by the Arab traders and
preachers as early as the tenth century A D. From that time
Islam grew rapidly and within a short period the Muslims formed
the largest religious group in the district-
Muslims of chittagong mostly belong to the sunni sect.
Shiaism, the other major branch of Islam comprises a small
section of the Muslim society of Chittagong-
During the early British period, the economic condition
and the moral standards of the Muslims have fallen to a low
level.
In the middle of the nineteenth century, Lhere was a
number of reformation movernents amon$ the Muslims in
order to correct the social abuses. Among these movements
the Wahabi and the Faraizi movements were irnportant.
In the latter part of the nineteenth century and in the
early part of the twentieth century, two socio political
movements exercised deep influence on Muslim mind. These
were the Pan-lslamic movement and the Khilafat movement.
The infiltratiolr of western ideas in to the Muslim society
and the authoritative behaviour of the European countries
towards the Muslims produced serious problems in the Muslim
society. To overcome this crisis a greater unity among the
 Societ5r and Social Life I 45

Muslim countries was needed. This urge gave birth to a

socio-political movement'known as Pan-Islamic movement. The
ideology of Pan-Islamism was preached by MaulanaJamaluddin
Afghani (d. lB97) who resided for some time in Calcutta. One of
his pupils Maulana Maniruzzarnan Islamabadi a native of
Chittagong, pleaded the unity of Muslim countries in his
speeches and writings.
Towards the close of the First World War, Muslims of all
over the world became very much agitated on the issue of the
efforts by the Allied Powers to dismantle the Khilafat and to
dismember the Turkish empire. The Muslim agitators called
for the restoration of the Khalifa's power and prestige as head
of the Muslim world.
Both the Pan-Islamic movement and the Khilafat
movement were essentially revivalist movements which
created interest in learning ttrat are connected with the past.
The speeches and writings of the Muslim elite, writers and
journalists emphasised on the past glories of Islam and the
superiority of Islamic civilization over other cultures. The
progressive section of the Muslim society joined the Khilafat
movement to take part in the Islamic revivalism.
The Khilafat movement in the l92os became a political
movement in the framework of religious movement.
Writing of a large number of biographical works on
illustrious Muslims and a great amount of historical literature
emphasising on the past glories of Islam testi$ to the spread of
idea of Muslim revirralism.
There were basic dill-erences between the socio-religious
movements like Wahabi and Faraizi movements and the
socio- political movements like Pan-Islamic and Khilafat move-
ments. The Wahabi and Faraizi movements were essentially
fundamentalist movements, which were characterized by
religious zealotry. Anything which is not in conformity with
religious standards were regarded as profane. These two
movements were antiwestern in character.
46 | A History of Chittagong
The Pan-Islamic and Khilafat movements on the other
hand were liberal and pro$ressive in character. The Pan-Is-
lamists and the Khilafatists were tolerant to other creeds. The
Dar ul harb idea of the Wahabis was abandoned by them. They
favoured English education, studied western philosophy and even
visited foreign countries to acquire knowledge.
There was a different type of reform movement which had
no connection with the above mentioned movemnts. This move-
ment, which was started in the later part of the nineteenth
century, continued down to the early part of the twentieth
century. Reform in Islam means the removal of defects. The
reform movement in the twentieth century aimed at correct-
ing abuses in religious observances, avoidance of evil ways of
living, improvement of moral behaviour and training the youths
for social works.
Maulana Maninrzzarnan Islamabadi remains the most
outstanding reformist theologian in the first half of the twenti-
eth century. As a moralist, he urged the people to uphold ethi-
cal behaviour in personal life. As a religious leader he induced
the Muslims to follow Islamic doctrines strictly. He preached
religious doctines in the public meetings held in different places
of eastern India. He was also an advocate of social reforms.
The refonn movements undoutedly made the Muslims
religiously and politically conscious.
Many Muslim writers, scholars and theologians wrote a
large number of works dealing with religious duties in
everyday life. These works undoutedly imbued the Muslims with
religious fervour.
Muslim youths were encouragecl to go to northern India
to receive higher education in the madrasas especially the
Deoband group of madrasas. The Deoband madrasas exercised
remarkable influence upon the Muslim intellectuals of
Chittagong. The aim of the Deoband system of instructions was
to counteract the advancing flood of Christian missionary
propaganda and to protect the Muslim society from its harmful
 Society and Social Life I 47

effects.
The Deoband educated scholars professed nationalist
ideologr.
A number of Muslim young students received education
in Aligarh system. Later on, they formed the Aligarh group of
Muslim elite.
The Muslim organizations of northern India had profound
impact on the Muslim society of Chittagong. Some of these
organizations were as foliows :
(Central) National Muhammadan Association. It was
founded byAmirAli in 1878. Within the space of the year 1883
the Association opened its branches in different places of
Bengal including Chittagong. According to the Article 9 of the
constitution of the Association, the presidents of the branches
would be the honorary vice-presidents of the central body and
the vice-presidents and secretaries of the branches would be
the members of the cent.ral body.
The Chittagong branch enrolled as many as 64 members.
Khan Bahadur Ikram Rasul was its president and Julfiqar Ali of
Chittagong Madrasa was its secretary. I Shr.ikh Riyazuddin
Ahmad Siddiqi was an important member.
The Chittagong branch of the Association was
officially functioning till 1909.2
Anjuman e Islami or Muhammadan Association. It
was established at Calcutta in 1855. Kazi Abdul Bari, a promi-
nent social worker of Chittagong was its vice-president.3 A
branch of the organization was also established in Chittagong
and Kazi Abdul Bari was appointed its president. He held this
post till his death in 1871.
The aim of the Muhammadan Assot:iation was to look
after the welfare of the Muslim society.a
Anjuman e Ulema. A number of Muslim theologians
and educated persons of Chittagong joined this organization.
48 | A History of Chittagong

The third conference of Anjuman e Ulema was held at

Chittagong in 19 I B with much enthusiasm. Maulvi Golam Qader
a renowrled social worker was the chairman of the reception
committee. In his speech, he pointed out the evils of social
stratification and treating common people differently.
The conference was divided into three component
sessions, viz., literary, educational and religious- The
conference greatly inspired the Muslims with confidence to do
social development works.
Motowalli Conference. On December l5-16, 1938 the
first session of All Bengal Motowalli conference was held in
Chittagong. The conference contributed to the religious
awareness of the Muslim society.s
Jamaat e Ahle Sunnat. It means the partisans of the
Prophet. The followers of this sect supported all reforms leading
to Islamic revivalism. The creed of the sect is to go back to the
Quran and the authoritative Traditions (The Hadis). Its spokes-
man paper was the monthly Kohinoor which was published from
51, Ghat Farhad BeS, Chittagong.
Throughout the first half of the twentieth century a large
number of meetings and conferences were held in diffcrent
parts of the district. Muslims of all walks of life joined these
meetings and conferences in order to hear discussions about
the current problems. Suggestions for the development of
social condition were discussed and accepted.
Religious life. The Muslims follow their religious faith
on the basis of doctrinal assent known as five pillars of Islarn.
The first and most important article of Islamic faith is belief in
oneness clf God (Tauhid). It is expressed in the forrnula that
'there is no God but Allah and the Prophet is the rnessenger of
God.'The five time a day prayer (Narnaj) is the second doctrine.
F riday noon is the prescribed congregational prayer (Juma). Alms

giving (ZakaL) is the third duly. Fasting (Roza) especially in the

Ramzan month is the fourth obligatory duty. Pilgrimage to
Makka (Hajj) is the fifth requirement.
 Society and Social Life I 49

The religious life of a Muslim is guided by divine

commands as contained in the holy scriptures. With the name
of God they start work and commence journey. When they
inform others of their performance, they utter that by the grace
of God they had performed it. The will of God is held to be of
supreme importance. In fact, faith in God is very important in
their religious life.
The Muslim community was socially divided into two
orders, ashraf (upper class) and atraf (lower class). Persons
claiming of noble origin belongecl to the ashraf class. Gener-
ally, the landlords, officials of high rank, educated and rich people
consisted the upper class; the cultivators and labouring classes
constituted the atraf section.
This classification on some occasions was so ri$id that
any kind of social communication between these two classes
was strictly forbidden by social customs. In the first half of the
twentieth century, this social discrimination became the
target of attack by the social reformers.
The religious life of the Muslims are centred round the
mosque. During ttre Independence movement, the mosques
especially the Juma Mosque in the town became the centre of
political commotion. The Imam and the reliq^ous leaders
delivered spirited speeches after Juma prayer criticising
government policy.
Muslim religious life is controlled by priest class. The
priests are designated as maulvi, khondakar etc. Those who
intend to be ordained to the priesthood are required to recite
the Holy Quran aloud before audience.
Visit to a saint's graveyard (mazar) to gain super natural
blessings (jiyarat) is an important pzrrt of personal religious life.
Some of the important sacred spots are dargahs o[ [)ir Badar,
Shah Mohsen Aulia, Amanat Shatr; chillah khana of Bayezid
Bostami: mazar sharif of Shah Gharibullatu Maizbhandar Sharif
etc.
50 | A History of Chittagong

(B) The Hindu Society

The Hindu society is based on varnashram,
meaning social classification according to qualities
assigned to them. Hindus of Chittagong are divided into five
cate$ories, i. e. Brahman, Vaidya, Kayastha, Shudra and
Harijan.
The Hindus believe that the social classification is divinely
arranged. In course of time, this classification took shape of
caste system. Each one of the castes produced a number of
subcastes.
The Brahmanas form the clerical section of the Hindu
community. They are ordained to a religious life after upanayana
(initiation) before their teens. After upanayana they are
capable of performing puja (act of worship) and after death ser-
vices. They perform ritualistic functions in their personal lives.
Pandit Brahmanas constitute the superior class of the
Brahmanas. The Purohita Brahmanas rank below the Pandits.
They are functionaries authorized to conduct religious serwices.
Agradani (receiver of alms), Nat (image maker), Jyotish
(astrologer) occupy the lower position in the scale of social
orders of Brahmanas because of their execution of lower grade
religious functions.
The Vaidyas belong to the upper class of the Hindu
community. On account of their advancement in education they
are considered socially distinguished.
The Kayasthas are the most numerous class among the
upper class Hindu community. Many Kayasthas claim
superiority by means of education, holding of official rank and
personal accomplishments. In the first half of the twentieth
century, the Kayasthas gained superiority in social and
political works.6
Some classes of Hindus are reco$nized as being socially
different from upper class Hindus. They are named as
Namashudras or Harijans.
 Society and Social Life I 5l

According to religious affiliation the Hindus of chittagong

was divided into two principal sects, the Saktas and the
Vaisnavas.
The Saktas are the worshippers of Sakti or energ/. They
believe that Sakti is essentially feminine and she is personi-
fied as an Almighty woman, identified with the Supreme
Being. Sakti is generally worshipped as Durga, Kali, Bhavani
etc. the forms the goddess is believed to have assumed for the
destruction of certain demons.
Worship of Kali gained widespread adherents throughout
the province during the Independence movement.
Animal sacrifice is an indivisible part of the worship of
Kali.
The vaisnavism enjoins the worship of vishnu or Krishna
as the supreme deity. It attaches importance more to the Bhakti
cult (devotion) than to the Jnana (knowledge) and the Karma
(ritualism) cults. The vaisnavas believe in the sanctity and
decency of life and animal sacrifice is prohibited in this creed.
The important Vaisnava festivals are Janmashtami,
Rathayatra, Rasayatra and Dol Purnima.
A noteworthy organlz;ation of the Vaisnavas of Chittagong
was Chattagram Vaisnava Sammilani established in l93os.
Among their many religious observances the functions of
Namkirtan every week, recitation from vaisnava works espe-
cially the 'chaitanya Charitamrita' were performed regularly.
Another vaisnava institution deserving to be noticed was
Gauranga sevashram established by Rukmini Ranjan Acharya
Goswami, a celebrated Kirtan singer. A number of vaisnava
rites were performed in the Ashrarn throughout the yeat.7
The most famous preacher of the cult of Vaisnavism was
swami Vidyaranya (Dr. tlibrhuti Bhushan Dutta) a great scholar
and ascet.ic. He wrote a rnonumental work on the doctrine of
Bhakt.i in five volumes.
These two major religiclus sects, in course of time, splitted
52 | A Flistory of Chittagong

into numerous groups each of which has its owrt beliefs and
practices.
Throughout the British period, the Durga Fuja was the
leading religious festival of the Hindu society. It falls during
the month of Aswin (September-October). At this festival the
image of Durga is worshippped generally for three days with
great devotion and then immersed in a river or a pond.
Corporate worship has gained growing popularity since
l93Os. According to the newspaper report, the sarbajanin
Durgapuja was first organised in 1937 in the village of Dakshin
Bhurshi.B In recent times, the Durgapuja festival is terminated
in a programme of cultural functions.
The Brahma Samaj
Brahmaism was introduced in Chittagong in the middle
of the nineteenth century. A number of enlightened youths
turned to Brahmaism the most prominent among whom was
Dr. Annada Charan Khastagir. From that time the number of
the Brahmas increased considerably.
Many Brahmas came to Chittagong from other parts of
Bengal and choose the place especially the town area to make
settlements. Referring to the numerical strength of the Brah-
mas the collector of Chittagong writes, "...nearly all had their
homes in other districts. Since I87I the number of Brahmas
in the district has increased to 5O or 60...-9
A number of the lJrahmas of Chittagong migrated to
Burma. The Brahma community of Burma formed social and
cultural organizations in order to solidi$r their community life.
According to newspaper reports, one such organization was
'Nikhi! Brahnro Pravasi Bangiya Sahitya Sammelan' (1923).
As the Brahma Samaj was becoming more and more
expanding, a schism within the Samaj developed. Ultimately
the Brahma Sama,i was divided into three different sects.
The Adi Brdt ma Samaj held the conventional view of
 Society and Social Life I 53

Brahmaism and pledged allegiance to the leadership of the

Tagores ofJorasanko.
The Nababidhan (New Dispensation) Brahma Samaj was
founded by Keshab Chandra Sen in 1B8Os. On the l4th April,
1886, the first Nababidhan Brahma temple was constructed in
Chittagong town for religious services.lo
Disagreement with Nababidhan on religious practices led
a group of the Brahmas to the separation from the Nababidhan
Brahma Samaj. The separatist group was named as Sadharan
Brahma Samaj. The Sadharan Brahma Samaj in Chittagong
was founded by Shivanath Shastri in l3O4 BS. (1897). Some
distinguished Brahmas of other parts of Bengal attended the
foundation ceremony. I I
All these sects have their owrl mandirs (temples) where
the public worship took place. Every mandir had attached
social hall designed for social gathering and to listen to reli-
gious discourses.
The Brahmas are believers of the Upanishadic idea of the
existence of Supreme Being known as Brahman. The
Brahmas lay emphasis on congregational prayer and denounced
observances of unnecessary rituals. One who administer
sacraments and conduct prayer is known as Acharya.
Referring to the upasana or divine prayer by the Brahma
Samajists in the mid-nineteenth century, f{unter writes, "Some
few of the members of the Brahma Samaj meet every Friday
and Sunday for prayer. This meeting is held in a house in the
town of Chittagong, set apart for this prayer..."12 Teaching of
moral lesson and instucting code of ethics were the chief
duties of Brahma leaders.
The Brahma womenfolk formed two organizations narned
Bhagini Samaj and Mahila Sammilani for common benefit.13
The regular course of religious procedures of the Brahma
Samajists were as follows : Prayer in the morning, singing of
scriptural hymns, prayer in the afternoon, recital of scriptural
54 | A History of Chittagong

texts and reading of religious essays, prayer at night.

The principal religious festival of the Brahmas is
in the month of January.
Maghotsava which is celebrated
The birth and death anniversaries of Raja Rammohan Roy
were celebrated in a befitting manner. Discussion on life and
teachings of Rammohan, observance of religious rituals appro-
priate to the occasion were some of the principal items of the
celebration.l4
In the latter half of the nineteenth century and in the
first half of the twentieth century, the Brahma Samajists formed
the most advanced section of the Hindu society. They excelled
in academic field, provided humanitarian aid for the sufferers
and pioneered in the publication of books, journals and
newspapers. Many of the educational institutions, charitable
dispensaries and humanitarian organizations owed their
origin to the Brahma Samajists.
The Brahmas held liberal ideologl which was favourable
for social reforms. In the later part of the nineteenth century,
they engaged themselves in the campaign against social abuses
such as child marriage, po\rgamy etc. The progressive Brahma
Samajists delivered speeches on personal ethics in the public
gatherings and wrote articles in the periodicals on the cormpt
social practices. Dr. Annada Charan Khastagir vehemently at-
tacked the practice of permanent widowhood, Dr. Nabin Chandra
Dutta in his published articles pointed out the physical disad-
vantages of child marriage. The Brahma social workers warned
the people of taking harmful drrgs that affect the body and mind.
The principles of social equality and respect for the individual
are publicly proclaimed by the Brahma Samajists. A number of
enlightened Brahmas either taught or wrote about practising
moral principles in daily life.
Folk religion
It means the beliefs, customs and rituals which are held,
practised and transmitted by the common people outside
organized religion.
 Society and Social Life I 55

Folk religion knows no founder, written scriptures and

professional clergy. It is transmitted orally rather than by writ-
ten traditions.
Much of the features of folk religion are centred round
the village deities and the river deities. Worship of banian tree
and some other natural objects are parts of the folk religion.
Among the village deities, the most important is Ma
Magadheswari whom the village folk offer worship called
"e'oa.15
Among the river deities Ichamati and Shrimati are important.
People worship them to stop from being angry which is evident
in the destructive flow during monsoon months.
Believers of the folk religion attach much importance to
the supernatural power of the deity whom they worship by
saylng mantras and by performing propitiary rites.
Religious life
A major pattern of Hindu religious life is the traditional
round of rituals which follow the individual throughout the life
cycle. This is illustrated in the observance of ten religious
ceremonies (Dashabidha Samskaras) which is comparable to
the seven Christian Baptismal rites (Sacrament).
The Hindu Buddhist funerals are conducted according to
their respective religious rites. Although details vary depend-
ing on the sectarian beliefs, certain common rites and
customs can be noticed. As death approaches, the dyrn€ receives
the last water from sons, daughters, lamily members and close
relatives. Upon death the body is washed with water and sandal
paste (santalum album). The deceased is then dressed in new
garments. Then the body is led to a mortuary. The body is laid
on the pyre with the head towards either the norttr or the south
as the farnily customs permit. Incence burns throughout the
period of cremation.
Hindus regularly perform rites to show great respect to
the souls of the dead. Shraddhas are performed by the descen-
dants of the deceased so that the manes may enjoy blessed
56 I A Flistory of Chittagong

peace. Pindadan or offering of food to the fore fathers is an es-

sential part of shradh ceremony. Near relatives of the deceased
offer drinking water (tarpan) mixed with sesame to the dead
persons. Tarpan is obligatory durin$ the dark lunar fortnight
ending with the Mahalaya (Pretapaksha).
Buddhists perform recital of suttas during shradh
ceremony. Candles and incense are burned during performance
period.
Among the Hindu communitlr, Briddhi Shradh is required
to be performed on every individual ceremonial occasion to com-
fort the spirit of the paternal as well as maternal ancestors.
Another ritual related to the ancestor worship is kindling
of lamp in the slqy (Akash Pradip). It is a lantern suspended
from the top of a pole set up every evenin$ during the month of
Kartik in reverence to the deceased forefathers-
Observance of ceremonies, fasts, feasts, to go on pil$rim-
age, visiting a holy place constitute the essence of Hindu
personal religious life. The Hindus believe in the occult powers
of the celestial body and consult almanac on occasions.
The home was always a centre of religious practices.
Offerings to the gods are essential part of Hindu religious
practices. Food, fmit, milk, su$ar, honey and other substances
are offered to the deity. At the end of the ceremony participants
take part in a communion in which they consume the food
offered to the deity.
Tulsi (ocimum sanctum) is being planted in the vicinity
of temples and dwellings. The erection of a temple either dedi-
cated to a particular deity or for public worship "is a meritorious
deed recommended to anyone desirous of heavenly reward."
Taking holy bath in the rivers and streams on special
occasions is an important part of Hindu religious life. It is
believed that the bathing in the sacred waters of a perennial
river will derive spiritual benefit. Kattali Snan, Baruni Snan,
and Shrimati' Snan are three major sacred occasions for
 Society and Social Life I 57

bathing.
Journey to sacred places is an act of religious
devotion. Wealthy people and ascetics travelled to the distant
parts of India to visit sacred spots. While visitin$ a temple a
Hindu makes a circuit around the temple.
Religious structures
(a) Religious buildings used for the worship of
deities. The most sacred place of pil$rimage in the district is
the shrines of Sitakunda which attract pil$rims from distant
places of the country. Sitakunda is the collective name for a
number of shrines situated near one another. Bach one of the
temples is dedicated to a different deity.16
Barabkunda, a hot spring situated three miles south of
Sitakunda is a holyplace of bathing. Buchanan Hamilton saw
*several small temples dedicated to Siva and other gods" at
Barabkunda.
The temple of Adinath is situated in Maheshkhali Island
and is dedicated to Siva. The temple is visited by pil$rims in
large number throughout the y.ur.r7
Ramkot temple, dedicated to Siva is situated near Ramu.
Originally a Buddhist place of worship the environs of the temple
contain relics of Buddhist images which give evidence of its
existence as early as the tenth century A.D.
chatteswari temple is consecrated to the worship of
Chatteswari, the protectress goddess of Chattal or Chattagrama.
The worship of the goddess Chatteswari dates back to ancient
times.lS
The shrine of Medhas Muni is situated on the top of a
hillock at the village of Karaldenga in Boalkhali upazilla-
According to tradition, the shrirle was built by Medhas Muni' a
sage of remote ages. The sit.e was discovered by Swami
Vedanancla. le The temple is used lor the worship of the
goddess Dashabhuj a (Durga) .
58 | A History of Chittagong

Kalachand temple in Boalkhali upazilla is an

imposing religious structure dedicated to L,ord Vishnu. The
beautiful image made of touchstone in standing position
belongs to the Gupta period (3rd or 4th century A. D.)
Burakali temple at Dhalghat was erected by Taracharan
Paramahamsa to worship the goddess Kali. It is a remarkable
seat of Tantrik worship.
Ichamati Kalibari at Rangunia. The temple is connected
with the worship of river deity Ichamati.
(b) Shrines associated with holy personages.
There are a number of religious edifices where people come
to worship the deity and to pay homage to the holy persons who
constructed them. The devotees show great respect to the holy
persons by singing songs in praise of them. Some of the
noteworthy shrines are cited below.
Krishnananda Math, dedicated to the worship of Lord
Krishna was founded by Swami Krishnananda. It is situated a
few feet above the surrounding area. The outer hall is used for
public worship and also a place of assemblage of devotees
listening to religious discourses.
Kaibalya Dham is situated on the top of a hillock which
belong to the sitakunda range. In front of this edilice there is
an imposing large hall specified for religious purposes.
Rishidham founded by Advaitananda Maharaj is situated
at village Kokdandi in Banskhali upazilla.
(c) Akhras. An akhra means a house of religious
retirement or a residence of seclusion for persons under reli-
gious vows. In these akhras the resident sannyasis performed
worship of deities by saying prayers and singing devotional songs.
There were a number of akhras in Chittagong town
The Dattatreya akhra. It was a building in which
members of Dashnami sect lived together.
The Brindavan akhra. In this building members of the
 Society and Social Life I 59

Vaisnava community lived together.

Tulsidas Mohanta's akhra. The building was constructed
by Tulsidas Mohanta for his followers to live in.
(d) Institutions established for propagation of
religious faith of particular saints. Preachers are given
responsibility to teach the people about the religious views of
the saints. Some institutions devoted to the missionary work
are cited below.
Ramakrishna sevashram. This is a religious and hu-
manitarian institution established by a group of social workers
under the leadership of Devendra Lal Das. Spiritual discourses
are being given by missionary monks who visit the Sevashram
periodically. The devotees show deep reverence for Shri
Ramakrishna Paramahansa by sayrng prayers and singing songs
praising the great saint.
Satsangha ashram was founded by Thakur Anukul
Chandra in the nineteenth century. The Chittagong branch
was established by a group of followers some time in l93Os.
Prabhu Jagatbandhu ashram. The followers of Prabhu
Jagatbandhu established this ashram on the Dev Pahar Hill.
The Mahanam Sampradaya joined the ashram and formed one
larger organization. In Baisakh, 1345 B.E. a Vaisnava festival
and Namkirtana were held on a large scale in memory of Prabhu
Jagatbandhu.20
Aurobinda ashram. The purpose of this organization is
the study, appreciation and propagation of the religious views
of Shri Aurobinda.

Chattagram Hindu milan mandir. It was founded by Swami

Pranabananda, the president of the Bharat sevashram sangha.
The purpose of this organization was to lind out courses of
action regarding the revival of Hinduism.
On September 13, 1938 a meeting was held in Oldham
Institute to discuss the variorrs problems faced by the t{indu
60 | A History of Chittagong

community. A proposal to organize a Hindu volunteer corps was

adopted in the meeting
Shortly after the conclusion of the meeting, an assembly
of the Hindus was held at the J M Sen Hall. Babu Rasik Chandra
Hazanpresided over the meeting. Swami Purnananda, a promi-
nent member of the Bharat Sevashram Sangha delivered an
inspiring speech on the problems of the Hindu community and
the ways and means to remove them. A talkie show on the past
€lory of the Hindus was exhibited.
Religious fairs. Periodical gathering at holy spots for the
sake of gaining divine blessings is an important feature of Hindu
socio-religious life.
The Shiva Chaturdashi mela at Sitakunda is the largest
fair. W W Hunter malTates the fairs held at Sitakunda in the
middle of the 19th century as follows :
The principal gatherin$ is the siva chaturdasi
festival on the l4th day of the moon sacred to Siva (usually
in February). The pilgrims live at lodging houses kept for the
purpose by Brahmanas, called Adhikaris. These men send
out agents to almost every district in tsengal, to persuade
people to visit the shrines; and each of the adhikaris is said
to realize from three thousand to four thousand rupees at
the Siva Chaturdasi festival. Besides the char$e for lodging,
the adhikari $et everything which the pilgrims offer in the
name of the gods, except the kar or cess, paid to the mahantas
for the rnaintenance of the shrines. The Siva Chaturdasi
festival lasts about ten days, and is attended by from ten to
twenty thclusancl devotees.
Minor gatherings take placc in or near the month of March
and November, and on the clay of every eclipse of the sun and
moon. About two thousand to ten thousand persons attend
on these occasiclns. The ascent ol-the Chandranath hill is
saicl to redeem the pilgrim fronr the misery of a future birth,
at the top of the hill there is a temple containing a linga.
There are numerous shrines surrounding Chandranath, and
 Society and Social Life I G l
also at Barabkund and at t abanakhya. AII of these are vis-
ited by pilgrims.-2r
since that time the number of pilgrims is becoming
greater at our time.
w w Hunter also narrates the Jaisthapura fair (surya
khola) *held annually in worship of the sun (god)-22

(C) The Buddhist Socieff

Buddhism was once a predominant religion in chittagong.
At present, the Buddhists constitute a group numerically
smaller than either the Hindus or the Muslims.
Buddhist society of chittagong is composed of diverse
ethnic groups. These are Bengalee or the plains Buddhists,
chakma Buddhists, Magh Buddhists and Rakhaing Buddhists.
The Bengalee Buddhists live scattered in different parts
of the district. The Chakma Buddhists live mainly in the north-
ern part of chittagong Hill Tracts. The Magh Buddhists live
primarily in the southern part of'the chittagong Hill Tracts. A
group of the Maghs (called Maun$ had become detached from
larger Magh group of tribesmen and at present live in the
Khagrachhari District. The Rakhaing Buddhists live primarily
in Cox's Bazar District.
Throughout the ancient and medieval periods Mahayana
Buddhism was a predominant religious sect. The discovery of a
large number of Bodhisattva images in different parts of the
district indicates the predominance of Mahayana Buddhism in
chittagong from ancient times down to the middle of the
nineteenth century.
Not much is known about the condition of tsuddhism at
the time of the beginning of the British rule. The great anthro-
pologist Dr Francis Buchanan Hamilton (lzg7-98) travelled
extensively in Chittagong District and came into contact with
various classes of the Buddhist tribesmen. I-Iis narratives are
useful sources of information about the condition of Buddhism
62 | A History of Chittagong

in the latter part of the ei$hteenth century.

The Mahamuni (lit. the great ascetic), according to
Buchanan Hamilton was the chief deity of the Buddhists. The
worship of Mahamuni in the Arakanese kingdom dates back to
the ancient period. The worship was culTent in Chittagon$ dur-
ing the period of the Arakanese rule in the district (1570- 1666).
All that information Buchanan Hamilton had learnt about the
origin of Mahamuni from a Rakhaing priest of a Buddhist lcyang
are as follows : "Maha Moony (is) a brother of Godama (Goutama).
.... There had been five Moonies, of whom Godama was the fourth
but that he having obtained Nirban, was no longer to be
worshipped. The God at present in power.... was Maha Moony.-23
In another place of his accounts Buchanan named five
moonies. They are Chaucasam (Shakya Muni), Gonagom
(Kanaka Muni), Gaspa (Kashyapa Muni), Godama (Goutama
Muni), Mahamoony.-24
The Mahamuni temple at Pahartali (in Rangunia u- z.)
serves as the principal centre of Mahamuni worship. The
Chakma queen Rani Kalindi started the construction of the
temple which was completed in f 87O. The image of the
Mahamuni was installed within the temple. Rani Kalindi inau-
gurated the opening of the temple with a special ceremo.ty.2s A
periodical gathering called Mahamuni fair was organtzed at the
time of the establishment of the temple and still being held
since that time. Visitors are provided with various kinds of en-
tertainment.
Besides Mahamuni, another deity named Phora (? Prabhu)
Tara was worshipped by the Buddhists. Phora Tara as a princi-
pal deity alnong the Buddhists at the 18th century is referred to
a Bengalee }{indu devotional song (Ifq <rE T<l v13ll, el-s <cFI ftRft-<t).
The principal sacred books of the Buddhists as late as the
middle of the nineteenth century were, 'Magha Khamuja',
'Agartara Sutra'and 'Khaduttoyam'. In all these scriptural texts
a mixture of animistic, Mahayanic and Hinayanic doctrines is
 Society and Sociirl Life I 63

perceptible.
The 'Magha Khamuja' of unknown authorship was trans-
lated into Bengali by Dharmaraj Barua under the name of
'Dharma Purabritta.'
The 'Agartara' was one of the earliest and the most
popular scriptural texts among the Bengalees and the Chakmas
alike. The whole book was divided into sixteen chapters or 'taras'.
The text was written in debased Pali langn.g..26
The 'Khaduthoyam'written in proto Burmese and dealing
with Lord Buddha's life and miraculous activities was
translated into Bengali verse by Nilkamal Das under the name
of 'Bouddha Ranjika'. The work was also translated into Bengali
prose by Fulchandra Barua.
Buchanan Hamilton states that "the principal
religious scripture" of the Rakhaing Buddhists was 'Kam-mua'.
He found 'some very fine copies of this book" in a kiyang of
southern Chittagong.2T The eminent traveller further writes,
"....Perhaps the Rakain edition of that book differs from the
Burma, as I found, that there existed many differences in the
religious doctrines of the two people."2B
'Kama-mua' is probably the Arakanese version of Kama
mukti or Nirbana. At present among the Bengalee Buddhists
and the Chakma Buddhists this sacred book is known as
'Parinirbana Sutta.'
Buchanan Hamilton ascribes priesthood to "two ranks of
priests : the Samona (sramana or samana) and Moishang (?
mahasaya), the latter of whom are the superiors, and by the
Bengalese are called Raulins2g 1r athat)" It may be assumed
that these kinds of priests were related to Buddhist asceticism.
Earlier than the nineteenth century the common Bud-
dhist priests used to live in village houses where they could
off'er their religious services. From the nineteenth century the
tsuddhist priests became familiar with living in monasteries
apart from villagers under vows of chastity. The normal part of
64 | A History of Chittagong

the religious duties of the monks are daily recitation of Sutras

and the worship of the Buddha
Religious reforms. The second half of the lgth
century is a period of changes in religious system in Bengal.
Religious reformers preached new ideas of religion. In
Chittagong, during this period, a great religious change was
taking place in the Buddhist society.
The Buddhist monks took the leading part in the reform
movement which aimed at correcting the religious abuses. In
the middle of the nineteenth century Ven. Samgharaja
Saramedha Mahathero was among the first Buddhists to recog-
nize the need for a thorough reform of sectarian Buddhism.
In tB56 Ven. Mahathero came to Chittagong to preach
the original teachings of the Buddha among the backward Bud-
dhists of Chittagong: Although most of the Buddhists at that
time were illiterate and ignorant of holy scriptures yet many of
them very promptly responded to the call of Sangharaja
Mahathero, as a result of which within a few years a great
number of the Buddhists turned to Theravada Buddhism.
Ven. Sangharaja Mahathero's programme was carried on
by a host of monks especially his disciples among whom Acharya
Punnachara Mahathero, Jnanalankara Mahathero, Gunamaju
Mahathero were prominent. They formed the lirst group of in-
fluential Buddhist religious teachers to recognize the need for
a regeneration of Theravada Buddhism. This reformer group
led a movement to wipe out monastic abuses and to restore
strict observance of the Vinaya Suttas among religious minded
people.
The body of religious tenets preached by Sangharaja was
generally known as Sangharaja Nikaya.
Monks and monasteries. Buddhist monks are vari-
ously called Bhikkhu, Bhante (Bhaddanta), Thero etc. Monkhood
or asceticism in Buddhism is not obligatory but preferable. Boys
and youngmen are expected to join the monastery for a certain
 Society and Social Life I 65

period in their life time. "According to the Vinaya mles entry

into the Samgha is an individual affair dependent upon the
wishes of the individual and his family.-30
Monks, however, do not live a solitary life. They live in
groups under vows of poverty and chastity. They receive alms
given by the laity. They break their wanderings during the rainy
season (Barshabas) from July through August.
A monk is a member of a religious society named Sangha.
The Sangha means a community of monks and nuns living in
monasteries or hermitages.
On occasions conferences of Buddhist monks were held.
In these conferences consultation, discussion, interchange of
opinions take place. The senior priests explain the obligatory
rites of the monks to the novice.
Residential quarters of the Buddhist monks are called
vihara. A vihara is neither a temple nor it is to be used as a
temple though a vihara may contain Buddhist irnages for wor-
ship. Vihara is called by the tribesmen kiyang which rteans a
house of religious retirement for the priests under religious
vows. There is hardly any Buddhist inhabited village which does
not have either a vihara or a ashram or a kiyang. Some of the
images contained in the kiyangs are of colossal dirnensions.
Since early times a vihara has been a centre of religious
services and education. Some of the viharas noted for religious
activities and established during the British period are cited
below.
The oldest Buddtrist vihAra of the present times is the
Rajanagar Buddhist vihara established by Ven. Punnachara
Mahasthavir in 1869. The vihara was patronized by the Chakma
royal family.
The principal Buddhist vihara in Chitt.agorlg is Chattagranl
Bouddha vihara situated at trnayet Bazar in the town area. It
was established in lB99 by Bhagirath Barra a renowrted social
worker. Humanitarians donated liberally to its development
66 | A History of Chittagong

fund. Maung Thawang, a rich merchant of Ramu donated Rs

45O/ - to its construction fund.
Sudharmadhara vihara in Silok was established in the
beginning of the twentieth century.
Kanaimadari vidarsanaram vihara was established by
Ven. trrajnalok Mahasthavir who stayed there for a period of
time.
Satbaria Ratnankur vihara is one of the noteworthy
shrines. It was established in the second decade of the twenti-
eth century. Reputed Buddhist priests such as Dharmavamsa
Mahasthavir, Dharma Raksit Mahasthavir stayed there for
some time and delivered religious discourses at the assem-
blage of devotees.
A shrine named Gautamashram was established in
l9l5 by Saman Punnananda Sami in his native village at
Uttarbhurshi.
Ramu Sima vihara was a noteworthy Buddhist shrine. The
chief priest of this vihara was Ven. Vishuddhachara
Mahasthavir.
The Buddhist shrine at Hoarapara was noted for the culti-
vation of religious learning.
Pahartali Mahananda Vihara was a noteworthy centre of
Buddhist religion and learning. It was established sometime
before 1930.
Kartala Belkhain Saddharmalankara vihara was a note-
worthy Buddhist shrine. The renowned Buddhist scholar
Banshadip Mahasthavir spent the concluding part of his life in
this vihara.
Religious life. rne Buddhists perform a series of reli-
gious rites throughout the year. All religious rites are centred
round the worship of the Buddha.
Religious rites are conducted by the monks. Ritual chant-
ing of the scriptural texts is an essential part of worship.
 Society and Social Life I 67

Incense, light and flowers are chief elements employed in the

performance of religious rites some special days and events
such as Baisakhi Purnima, Asharhi Purnima, Aswini Purnima,
Kathin Chivar Dan, Pravarana etc. are performed
ceremoneously.
All categories of religious rites are carried out at temples
and the religious persons attend the ceremonies there.
Orgartwations. A very loose form of a Buddhist Associa-
tion named Chittagram Bouddha Samiti was organized under
the leadership of Ven. Gunamaju Mahathero and Krishna
Chandra Chowdhury in 1879. Krishna Chandra Chowdhury was
nominated secretary. It merged with the Bouddha Mahasamiti
towards the close of the first decade of the 20th century.
Of all the Buddhist organizations the Chattagram Bouddha
Mahasamiti was most important. It was established under the
auspices of a group of social workers in the beginning of the
twentieth century. Bhagirath Barua held the post of its presi-
dent till his death in 1906. He was succeeded by Nagendra lal
Chowdhury. Ven. Dharmavamsa Bhikkhu and Satish Chandra
Barua were nominated vice-president and secretary
respectively. A branch of Chattagram Bouddha Mahasmiti was
opened in Rangoon (probably in 191B)
Since its establishrrreni, annual meetings of the
Mahasamiti are being held regularly in different places of the
district. A brief description of the events of some of the
meetings is cited below.
The annual meeting of the Mahasamiti was held on the
first Baisakh in l906 in the precincts of the Pahartali Mahamuni
temple. The meeting was presided over by Ven. Dharmalok
Bhikkhu, a Chinese monk whose learned English speech was
translated into Bengali by Birendra Lal Mutsudi.
The annual meeting of the Mahasamiti was held on the
24th Aswin, l32O B.S. (l lth October, 1913) at Pahartali. The
meeting was presided over by Rev. Gr-rnalankar Mahathero. The
68 | A History of Chittagong

chairman of the reception committee was Birendra Lal

Mutsuddi.
The meeting congratulatecl Benimadhav Barua, Mahima
Ranjan Barua and Rebati Raman Barua on their academic
performances in University examinations.
The meeting adopted a resolution urging the $overnment
to provide more facilities for Pali education in educational in-
stitutions. A resolution containing the building of a Buddhist
hostel in the town was adoPted-
ln January, 1930, the tsuddhist conference was ceremo-
niously i-reld in the assembly hall of the Bouddha Vihara. Ven'
Dharma.rarnsa Mahasthavir presided over the meeting. The
joint secretary Birendra l"al Barua presented the proceedings
of the Mahasamiti to the audience. Miss Jyotsnamoyee
Chowdhury and others delivered speeches on different aspects
of Buddhism.3l
The annual meeting of the Bouddha Mahasamiti was held
on March L2 and 13, l93B at Bhagirath nagar, Hoarapara
under the auspices of Ag$asar Jayanti. Dr. Arabinda Barua
presided over the meeting. Umesh Chandra Mutsuddi was the
president of the reception committee. Discussions of the fol-
lowing social and political problems gave the meeting special
significance. (a) Proper representation of the Buddhists in the
pror.rincial assembly, Senate and syndicate of the Calcutta
University, municipal and District Boards, management
committees of educational institutions' (b) Awarding stipends
and scholrrships to the Buddhist students receiving education
abroad. (c) Enhancement of the number of scholarships and
stipends. (d) Advancement of female education'32
The sixt,: :nth annual meeting of the Bouddha Mahasamiti
was held in r94O at Satbaria. The meeting was presided over
by Rev. Dharmadhara Bhikkhu Tattvabhushan. A proposal
urging the governnent to provide financial assistance for the
taler.'-ed Buddhist st-udents was accepted in this meeting.33
 Society and Social Life I 69

On the 28th Baisakh l35O (1944) the annual meeting of

the Bouddha Mahasamiti was held at Fatenagat.3a
The annual meetings and conferences played an impor-
tant part in revitalizing Buddhist society. All classes of people
joined these gatherings. Monks of different monasteries
assembled for consultation. Delivering of speeches, reading of
literary articles and discussions on them, recitation, readin$
of poems written by oneself, presentation of proceedings of
previous meetings were some of the major agenda of these
meetings.
The elite section of the Buddhist society became conscious
of the negligence of the government to the welfare of the
Buddhist community. Dr. Arabinda Barua while criticising the
government policy says in the provincial council debate,
Of all the important minority communities of this province,
the Buddhists are perhaps the only community that are most
inadequately represented in posts of any importance under
the Government.... Fixation of percentage in the services is
now under the consideration of the Government and I hope
Government will find out an equitable way for the
representation of the Buddhist community in the
public services....35
Since the later part of the nineteenth century, commu-
nication with the neighbouring Buddhist countries has been
substantially increased. A number of monks and scholars vis-
ited Srilanka to train themselves more thoroughly in textual
analysis. Exchange of ideas especially religious and cultural
between the countries becoming increasingly effective. Dr.
Benimadhav Barua, a scholar of subcontinental repute while
visiting Ceylon delivered his memorable Ceylon Lectures.
A large number of Buddhists went to Bunna either for job
or for trade. Monks and scholars of Chittagong visited to Burma
in order to preach religious doctrines there. Buddhist periodi-
cals containing social issues and recent events were published
in Burma. Buddhists of Chittagong formed such organizations
70 | A History of Chittagong

as Bouddha Mahasamiti in Rangoon to work for the welfare of

their correligionists.
Buddhists of Chittagong maintained close contact with
Thailand, Japan, Mongolia and other Buddhist countries. Monks
of one country attended the religious conferences held in other
countries. Monastic Buddhism in Chittagong was strengthened
by establishing close connection with other Buddhist
countries.
(D) The Christian Society
Christianity was introduced into Chittagong by the Portu-
guese missionaries in the latter part of 1530s. Within a short
time the Christians living chiefly in Chittagong city area orga-
nized a social body. The Christian inhabitants are called Firingi,
"the name given by the natives to Europeans in $eneral, but
generally understood by the English, to be confined to the
Portugua"a."36
Ethnicity. Christians of Chittagong were ethnically
divided into three classes, (l) the Europeans, especially the Por-
tuguese and the British, (2) the Eurasians, and (3) the native
converts. The Europeans who were ori$inally connected with
different countries of Europe, perrnanently or temporarily took
up residence in the district. The Eurasian is a name for per-
sons of mixed European and Indian blood. They were wrongly
called Anglo-Indians. In reality, they are the descendants of
Portuguese father and native mother. Their surnames $ive evi-
dence of the fact that their ancestors were of half caste origin.
W W Hunter writes, "....the $reater part of the Christian popula-
tion of Chittagong consists of the descendants of the Portuguese
adventurers and mercenaries who played such an important
part in the history of Chittagong two centuries Among
"go.'37
the natives, Christianity rapidly gained converts. A nlissionary's
roles of a physician, a humanitarian and a teacher of
Christianity were the effective means of conversion.
Though Christianity is centuries old the ngtnber of
 Societ5r and Social Life I 7 |

Christians is comparatively of small size. While giving the

statistics of the Christian population in Chittagong W W Hunter
writes, "In the year 1859, the Feringis of Chittagong numbered
L,O25 souls.... (In) the following year 1860 they had decreased
to 985. In l866 their total population was 865 and at the time of
the census in 1872 they numbered only 854.'38
Since 1872 there has been a slow increase in Christian
population in Chittagong. In 193 I the total Christian popula-
tion rose to 1609 souls.
Christian settlementS. Most of the Christians live in
the town area. At present their largest concentration is found
in the Patharghata-Firingi Bazar area.
Regarding the Portuguese settlements in Chittagong as
late as the 1790s, Dr. Buchanan Hamilton writes, '"The Portu-
guese, who formerly had a grant of the place from the kings of
Arakan, are still numerous and have a church."S9 Bu.ndel Road,
Feringi bazar, Miranda Lane etc. were some of the earliest
Portuguese settlements in the town area. "The name of the old
Portuguese settlement in Bengal" was generally known as
Bandel.ao '-lhe name is a Portuguese cormption of (Arabic terrn)
bandar . .. . and in this shape the word was applied among the
Portuguese."4l
Deang was an important place of Christian settlement as
late as the early British period. There were some other places
in the interior of the district especially Rangunia, Banskhali
etc. where groups of native Christians lived. The revenue docu-
ments and literary sources give information about a family of
Portuguese origin, surrlamed De Barros which owned a large
estate in northern Chittagong.a2
Religious sects. Cl-rristians are divided into diflerent
sects based on doctrinal clifferences. Most of the Christiarns
belong to the Roman Catholicisrn which was introcluced into
Chittagong by the Iberian missionaries in the nriddle of the
slxteenth century. The mosL zealous of the Roman Catholics
72 | A History of Chittagong

were the Jesuits whose role is prominently conspicuous for their

missionary activities.
Protestantism which came into being during the early part
of the British rule, gradually formed a religious body in the
middle of the nineteenth century.
The Protestant preachers taught the word of God to their
native co-religionists through the meclium of Indo Portuguese.
They learnt Bengali and preached the natives about the glorifi-
cation of the Christianity through the medium of Bengali in
order to persuade them to accept it.
Anglicanism is in communion with the Church of England.
Its existence in lB3O is known from contemporary sources.
Christian churches. A church is a building for Chris-
tian worship. The Christian church is commonly known in
Chittagong as gi{a. The word is derived from Portuguese term
igreja,a3 meaning a building for Christian worship. The Jesu-
its for the first time constructed a church in Chittagong urban
area. It was built in 1538.41 From this time down to 1760 a
number of churches were built in urban as well as in rural
a.""".45 Buchanan Hamilton while visiting the Chittagong town
saw a Portuguese church in the town a.ea.46 He, however, did
neither mention its denomination nor the exact place of its
location. According to captain Pogson (1831), the Roman
Catholic church of Chittagong was under the religious supervi-
sion of Srirampur church.47
W W Hunter mentions three church buildings in
Chittagong town. These were the Roman Catholic cathedral
near Firingi Barar, the Roman Catholic chapel and the Protes-
tant church. These churches provided both religious and
educational services.
A sketch picture of the Roman Catholic church drawn in
1843 shows that the church complex contained an orphanage,
a two storied brick built chapel, a parochial house (the bistrop's
office) and a boy's school.a9
 Society and Social Life I 73

An old church of unknowrl denomination was located in

the place now known as Puran Girja Lane, near Laldighi.
Nothing remains of this church except the place name.
On December 24, 1839, the Anglican church (the Church
of England) was built for praye..So A few more churches were
built in the latter part of the mineteenth century.
A Christian priest is called by the natives padri, a term
derived from the Portuguese term padre meaning priest and
clergrman. A marked trencl in religious services in recent years
is that the priesthood has been transferred to the nat.ives.
Conducting of worship and maintenance of discipline are the
principal functions of a Priest.
According to Christian faith, Sunday is [,ord's Day and day
of rest and worship. On Sundays they are gathered together in
a church to worship God and to join the congregational singing
of hymns.
Way of livin$. The social life of the Christians was
regulatecl by the environment and doctrinal beliefs of the
adherents.
Regarding the occupation of the upper class Christians,
Hunter writes that in former time there were "extensive ship
owners anci wealthy rnen." According to Hunter, the native con-
verts most of whom belonged to the lower class in the rural
areas, were cultivators by profession. He writes that they
"follow agricultural pursuits"5 I
Hunter and some other Europeatr writers refer to the prac-
tice of slavery by the wealthy Christians. According to Hunter'
"even as late as the beginning of the present century (lgth
century) the Firingis possessed large number of slaves. The
nurnber of slaves often exceecled lifty in one family.-52
On account of their ignorance of tenets of religion most of
the lower class Christians clo not live following the prescribed
religious rituals. In fact, they constituted the backward part of
the society. Referring to their backwardness Hunter regretfully
74 | A History of Chittagong

writes, "By neglect of education, the Firingis have allowed the

natives to outstriP them. "53
Reform movements. TWo orgaruzations during the Brit-
ish period worked among the Christian community to improve
their social condition by making changes in their method of
living. These are Church Missionary Society and the Bible
Prachar Samiti. Church Missionary Society started their
reforming activities in different districts of Bengal in the early
part of the nineteenth century.
Bible Prachar Samiti established its branch in Chittagong.
The aim of the association was to stren$then spiritual life by
promoting religious activities among the people. Copies of the
holy book were distributed among the people free of cost.
The activities of these two organizations have stimulated
unity among the Christians.
Festivals. The observance of Christian l'estivals is marked
by social gathering. The celebration of festivals occurs at
regular interval. Christmas and Easter are the main Christian
festivals.
Christmas is an annual public festival commemorating
Jesus Christ's birth on Dec. 25. It is the most popular festival
observed by all Christians with great religious fervour. The cel-
ebration is devoted to family reunion and merry making. A small
tree, called Christmas tree is set up and hung with candles
etc. Christmas carol (christian religious son$ is attached to
the obseryance of Christmas.
Easter is celebrated in remembrance of Christ's Resur-
rection. Irnt, the period of 4O days before Easter is a season of
special penitential obse*ar.ce.54
In spite o1' their sn-rall number, the Christians have
remarkable influence on the society and culture o[ the people.
The Christian missionaries devoted themselves to educational
works. They established educational institutions for both boys
and girls. They established charitable dispensaries, prominent
 Society and Social Life I 75

among which are located in Chandraghona and Harbang.

B. Social Life
The structure of society in the beginning of the British
rule was not of much different from eartier Mughal rule. In the
latter part of the British rule variety of conditions brought
fundamental changes in the structure of the society.
People according to social and economic position, were
divided into four classes; upper class, upper middle class, lower
middle class and commonalty.
Upper class. High government officers in the town and
landlords in the rural areas comprised the upperrnost class in
the society.
The British government favoured aristoceracy. The per-
manent settlement gave birth to a new land lord class. Their
status was based primarily on the amount of property they held
and the power they could exert. The titles of knighthood, Rai
Bahadur, Rai Saheb, Khan Bahadur, Khan Saheb etc. were
granted for individual achievements. This class of people forrned
the nobility section of the society.
Members of the legislature were given high status in the
society.
Persons of distinction were called Babu in case of the
Hindus and Buddhists, Saheb and Mia in case of the Muslims
and Mr in case of the Christians and all other gentlemen. Bibi,
Begam were some of the titles of clistinction attached to the
names of Muslim ladies.
Higher middle class. Teaching in higher educational
institutions, practice of medicine and law, holding of high gov-
ernment jobs, management of banks and insurance companies,
ownership of trading vessels and persons of importance led to
the emergence of higher middle class among all the four
communities.
Mahajan (great person) or creditor held important place
76 | A lJistory of Chittagong

in his locality.
Lower middle class. This class consisted of independrint
farmers, traders, school teachers etc-
comrnon people, cultivators, manufacturers of commodi-
ties of daily tlse, daily wage earrlers, boatmen, cart drivers etc'
constituted the commonaltY.
Most of the peasants found it difficult to acquire their owrl
land since the land tenure system favoured land lordism'
Throughout the year a cultivator kept himself busy in such
works as preparing land, sewing plants and harvesting crops.
Interdependence among the common people helped to
sustain their livelihood.
Life style. Clothing for either men or women constituted
the casual and formal dress. Choga ("a dressing gown embroi-
dered on the sleeves and shoulders")Ss and chapkan were chiefly
worTl by the upper class male folk on the occasions of public
appearance and while attendin$ the official darbar'
shalwar kamij were outer $arments wore by Muslim
ladies on ceremonial or festive occasions. Embroidery works
provided clecorative details lbr the choga chapkan and shalwar
kamij.
Chemise and chaya (woman's body undergarment) are
originally Portuguese women's dress. These along with saree
were being used by the upper class Hindu womenfolk.
In the nineteenth century dhuti panjabi for the I'Iindus
and panjabi pyjama for the Muslims were $arments of the civil
aristocracy.
Towards the end of the nineteenth century the male folk
changed over to wester-n clothing. In the beginning of the tr'ven-
tieth century, the tlesign and type of clothing were modelled on
European uniforms.
costly dress and the use ofjewellery undoubtedly improved
appearance and heightened social position.
 Society and Social Life I 77

The most representative foods are rice, pulse, fish, egg,

meat and vegetables. Rice is the primary staple food. Fish, pulse,
bamboo shoots and vegetable curry are popular side dish. Iloth
freshwater and marine fish is abundantly available in
Chittagong.
The condiments used in cooking are salt, chilli, corian-
der seed, tamarind, dried red pepper, ginger, $arlic, onion,
cassia leaf etc. The material is fried with mastered oil, ghee,
melted butter etc. All types of food are most delicious when these
are deeply fried. Oil or similar other substance is poured into
the pot so that it measures twice as deep as the thickness of
the rnaterial. Many of the orthodox Hindus refrained themselves
from taking onion and garlic. Hindu widows practice
vegetarianism.
A sweet dish prepared by boiling rice in milk with sugar
and other ingredients (paes) is a favourite delicious food. Sorne
types of food especially rice cakes mixed wittr the juice or sap of
the date palm is flavourite common food during winter months.
A cook in a Muslim aristocratic household kitchen was
known as baburchi who also sen'ed out meals.
It was customary to eat twice a day. Farmers and others
who engaged themselves in physical labour ate three times
daily. The midday meal was the main one.
Dtrring the l93os, progressive persons took active
interest in the cultivation of various types of western food crops
and vegetables such as potato. tomato, lettuce, cabbage, cauli-
flower, parnip, spinach, celery (French bean) etc. were intro-
duced in inclignous cooking. Spicy foods such as polao biriani
with fish, rnutton and chicken were popular among the wealthy
Muslims.
I.iarrners were satisfied by eating watered rice of previous
night a.long u'ith cooked dried fish and green chilli. Those who
could not afford to purchase cooking oil, cooked dried fish by
exposure to radiant heat.
78 | A Flistory of Chittagong

During the l93os in order to serve meals to the

visitors, hotels and restaurants began to appear in Chittagong
town. Sorne few hotels provided both lodging and meals for
Pa)'lng guests.
The dietary habits of the chittagonians underwent a
substantial change after World War II.
Pan is prepared with the combination of betel leaf, supari
(areca nut), lime, elachi (cardamom), labanga (clove), karpur
(camphor) etc. which is politely offered to guests and visitors
and which intimates the termination of the visil.
Tobacco leaves used for smokin$, che\Ming and as snuff
were introduced by the Portuguese in the subcontinent towards
the close of the sixteenth century. Since then smoking of to-
bacco has been popular among all classes of people. Among the
upper class people hookah (or gargara) or a long pipe for smok-
ing was very common. The hookah bearer was called hookah
bardar, "the servant whose duty it was to attend to his master's
hooka."56 Amon€ the masses tobacco "is placed with embers in
a terra cotta chillum from which a reed carries the smoke into
a coconut shell half full of water, and the smoke is drawn through
a hole in the side, generally without any kind of mouthpiece,
making a hubbling or girgling sound." It was a common sight
that the common people kept hooka in their house. Indigenous
cigarettes (rolled in a tree leafl are made from domestically grown
tobacco and are called bidi. "Cigars truncated at both ends" were
known as churut"
The practice of drinking tea was introduced as early as
the beginning of the tlineteenth century. Since that time drink-
ing of tea has gradually been gainillg popularity. Tea stalls sprang
up along the rnurjor highwaYs.
Narcotics like afim (opium), ganja, bhang etc. were taken
by the people of all classes. People believed that narcotics in
moderate doses relieve pain and produce profound sleep.
Addiction to the practice of taking strong narcotics and drunk-
 Society and Social Life I 79

enness were the two vices of a section of upper class society.

The art of beauti$ing the feminine body consisted of hair
oil, kajal (eye brow paint), surma (collyrium), alta (red dye to
paint the borders of the feet), atar (fluid containing essence of
flowers). All these cosmetic products were very much popular
among the upper class ladies.
Fair skin was the forernost condition of beauty. In order to
maintain a beautiful complexion woman of the past used green
halud (tamarind), chandan (sandal wood paste), neem (margosa)
to wash her face and body when taking a bath. The juice of
lemon, water of wet masuri (lentil), cucumber, thin layer on
milk were used as face lotion. Atl these items were used to
improve a person's appearance.
The manufacture of tooth powder, body powder, scented
hair oil, face cream, rouge, eye brow oaint and other cosmetics
replaced the older types of cosmetics in the post world war
period.
Traditional furniture of an aristocratic house included
such objects as screens, shelves, cabinets, writing desks, large
size looking glass etc. The forms were usually simple. changes
and modifications have taken place with the introduction of
British specimens. screens were used to create privacy. Bur-
mese wood made chests of many different shapes were mainly
used to store coins and other valuables. Elaborately decorated
chests were used to store sacred books, curios and valuable
objects. Chairs especially arm chairs called kedara made of wood
and cane were used on special occasions to entertain impor-
tant persons. Sinduk rnade of Burmese teak was an oblong,
legless chest ttrat was used for storing clothing etc.
The main material used in making of furniture is woocl
and cane. The most frequently used woods were shegun, gamari,
and jarul. Head with horns of ditlerent anirnals added lustre to
the drawing rooms of an aristocratic family.
Dola, palki, t.anjam etc. were chief"means of transport
80 | A History of Chittagong

especially used by upper class people. Palki is a covered

palanquin resting on long horizontal poles that were borne on
the shoulders. Tanjam was "like a European sedan each pair of
bearers bearing it by a stick between the poles to which the
latter are slun g.-5' Bearers of these carriages belonged to the
poorer classes. High governmental officials and influential
persons travelled on horse back-
Horse driven carriages gained growing popularity from
1920s. The covered coach pulled by one or two horses were
common sights in citY streets.
Bicycles and motor vehicles were introduced into the
streets in the post world war period.
The most joyful observance in a famiy is marriage
ceremony. Decisions about marriage were largely co-operative
decisions. Often families would be involved for years in an on
going discussion of the kind of spouse most suitable for a child.
Private detectives were sometimes employed to find out details
of the other family's reputation or history.
Jautuk or a dowry form an integral part of a marriage.
Those may be in cash, property, orrlaments, clothes and house
hold goods. The girl's status in her husband's house is directly
linked with the size of dowry she brings. In most cases the size
of dowry is settled after negotiations between the parents of the
couple to be. Almost every major festival is an occasion for the
husband to expect gifts from his wife's parents. In the eigh-
teenth and in the early part of the nineteenth century the jautuk
system (pan pratha) assumed all characteristics of a market
transaction. Since the middle of the nineteenth century there
has been a mounting campai$n against this evil custom.
when a bride married' she was marryrin$ the husband's
family. She was expectd to carryr out the orders of the superior
individuals. Motherhood and the careful nurturing of children
were valued as supremely important in household life. Her
nurturing task also included her husband and other relatives.
 Society and Social Life I 81

An ideal wife cared for her husband so that he would remain

healthy and free of worry. Her responsibility was to take care of
every member of the family. The housewives in the poorer class
of society were treated much like a female attendant and were
denied of health care and even sufficient food.
Prevalent custom vested the household head in a
position of absolute authority over others.
Conventional sanctions, religious beliefs and imposition
of institutions controlled the social life of an individual.
The most popular games in the rural areas were wres-
tling, swimming, hadoodoo, paraikhela, golladair, dandagooli,
kite flying etc. Since the Swadeshi period wrestling, swimming
and fighting with sticks have been the most lively sports espe-
cially among the youths. Swimmin$ competition across the
Karnafuli was periodically held during the Independence move-
ment period. In Chittagong free style wrestling prevails. In this
match two wrestlers (mallas or bolis) contend by grappling and
attempting to throw one's opponent to the floor. The victor is
awarded with medals as distinction for his performance. In
Chittagong, the wrestling is knowrl as Bolikhela which takes
place in almost every village during winter season. The
Bolikhela is often accompanied with mela or fair.S8
The total round of annual festivals is too long to summa-
rtze here. Most of the festivals are related to religious events.
The Eid of the Muslims, the Durga Puja of the Hindus, the
Baisakhi trurnima of the Buddhists and the Christmas of the
Christians are the principal festivals of the respective
communities. People stop their work to celebrate the event.
The festival is accompanied with family get together, better
food, songs and music.
The year ending and the new year are the most
important celebration of the year. Year ending festivals are held
toward the end of Chaitra. Arnong the Hindu community the
household and sulToundings are thorou$hly cleaned to sweep
82 | A History of Chittagong

out impurities of the outgoing year. The entrance and all

objects of household are decorated with garlands of flowers and
plants. All these indicate the renewal of life at the new year.
Buddhists visit temples on this occasion. Hindus and
tribesmen observe Bihu (>Bishuva, a Sanskrit word for vernal
equinox) according to a particular custom. The year ending dish
is a currlr cooked with a number (at least twelve) of vegetables.
The new year's day is celebrated by family gatherings,
visits to shrines or temples and formal calls on relatives and
friends. Favourite food is prepared especially for this occasion.
Note :
L Centrol National Muhamnmdon Assoclafion, F\fth Annrtal Report
2 Sufia Ahmed, Muslim C.ommunitA in Bengal pp. f 7g-8O
3 Wakil Ahmed, Unish Stwtake Bangali Mttsolmrner Chinta Chetanor Dhnra.
p. 138
4 For details see Al Islam
5 T}:.e Abhljan, l93B
6 Kagastha Darpan. part I, published by sadhanpur Kayastha sabha,
Calcutta. 1322
7 The Deshnpriga. 1345
8 The Deshnpnga. Oct. I I. 1937. p. lB
9 Qt. Hunter, op.cit., p. 149
lO The Panch4janga- Autumn Nunber, L342, p. IO2
I I The Seuak, Aswin, l3O4
12 Hunter, op- cil., p. l5O
13 The Molila" Bhadra, 136l
14 The Seuak. Kartik. l3O4
15 S. B. Qanungo. A History o-f Chittogorg, 1,49O-9f
l6 rbid.
17 Buctto,rrutt,p- 20
lB Qanungo, op.cit. pp. lO2-O3
l9 Angkur, 13t2-13
20 The Deshapriyct, Jaistha, 1345. p. 25
2l Hunter, op. cit.. p1';. 232-33
22 Hunter, op.cit., p. 233
23 Buchanan. p. 68-69
24 lbitL. p.92
 Society and Social Life I Sg
25 The Botuldhnnanatu. f 3f 3
26 Ven- Dharrnava'osa Bhikkhu collected a copy of this text
frorn
Trilochan chakma, the Dewa' Bahadur of the chakma
chief. The
Venerable Bhikkhu translated it into chaste pali-
27 Buclvnan p. g f
2A lbid. p.9r
29 lbid. p. tOB
30 mqaryAnBritrnnim.
3l Ttrc funglaGazette, f g3O
32 'Pnocudings ofthe ctrattap5am Elouddha
Maha samiti, r93a,. qt. Aggsnr
Jaganti. pp- b5-6O
33 The samgtwsar<ti-Baisakh, 24*3Buddha Era. pp 4sa-4s6
U The fuptahikKohinmr, tg12
35 OficinlReprtoJtle kngatl-qistnttu:e bwrcL 1939. p.317
36 'Moor's Narratives,, qt HobsonJobsonp- 354
37 Hunter, op.ciL, p- l4B
38 lbid-,p. r49
39 Btrchonnn p- 123'
40 HobsonJobson, p.Sg
4l lbi{7.
42 Qanungo. op.cit-.p. 335_36
43 HobsonJobson, p. a2S
44 Qanungo, op-citp. 223_24
45 Marciate, t,2TG77
46 Btrctwnan, p. l2S
47 Pqson'sNart-atrr;es, p- 5f
4a Hunter, op.cit-,VI, l48
49 BPP,X,pt. t. l9r5
m 'IIre Panchqjarulct AutunnNu43lper lT42,pp f Ol , t43
5l Hunter, op.cit.,p. t4B (
52 lbirl. pp. l48- 149
53 lbid..p. 149
fu For details, see eanungo, op.cit,pp. 558_60
55 HobsonJobson
s rbid
57 Ibid
58 The Prabasi. t522. pp. 353_3b6
 ChaPter 6
Urban Centres
urban areas in chittagong during the British period
consisted chiefly of the towns of Chittagong and Cox'l $azvf '

ChittagongTown
In the early period of the British rule chittagong town
was merely a corporate place made up of a number of densely
populated villages connected with trading in goods. There are
about half a d.ozenplacenames ending in suffixes such asbazar
and ganj (for example, Waliganj, Imamganj, Nanakganj'
Rahamatganj, Katalganj, Kasim baz,ar, Lalkhan bazar, Dewan
$az.ar, Enayet bazar, Firingi bazar etc.) in the city area which
testiSr to their attachment to trade and commerce during the
Mughal period.
Dr. Francis Buchanan Hamilton while visiting the
Chittagong town in 1798 gives a description of the town as
*The town of chittagong is very populous....It consists
follows.
entirely of a number of scattered villages, occupying the
narTow vallies, which separate the south end of the low hills
running from Seetacoon (Sitakunda range) to the Kurrum
Fullee (Karnafuli).-l
The natural scenery of the town of chittagong
delighted a reporter, who visited the town in the middle of the
nineteenth century. He expresses his feeling in the following
words; "....a succession of small round hills, planted with coffee,
pepper, vines nnd bamboos, and surmounted by the villas of the
Engiish resid..:nts, give to the surrounding country an interest'-
ing and romantic aPpearance."2
At the time of the establishment of municipality,
chit, agong still retirined much of its rural character. Hunter
 Urban Centres I 85

writes, "Chittagong town itself is merely an agglomeration of

small villages, grouped together for municipal prr.po"."."3
In the beginning of the British rule there were only a few
brick built houses in the town. Buchanan Hamilton, while
visiting the town in 1798 saw the brick built houses of the mag-
istrate, the collector, a commercial resident and a salt agent.4
There were, however, some other brick built houses which had
not been noticed by the traveller. These were (a) the residences
of the people of high rank such as European officials, commer-
cial residents, salt agents built generally on the top of hills,
(b) the houses of the zamindars and influential town dwellers;
(c) the Kutchery or government offices;-(d) the joint buildings of
the circuit house and the dak bangalow; (e) religious buildings.
Creation of Chittagong Municipality. According to the
Act III, passed by the Bengal Council in 1863, it was proposed
that a municipality should be established in Chittagong. On
the authority of W W Hunter and L S S O'Malley, Chittagong
Nlunicipality started working in 1864. The Act also provided for
civic affairs being run by a body of representatives.
Municipality area. Sources are not unanimous
regarding the area covered by the municipality. The experi-
mental census of 1869. shows the area of the town as 7 .O97
u,"r"".5 W W Hunter measures the area of the municipality as
9 sq. miles.6 It is striking to note that the area of the munici-
pality was getting smaller from that time. According to L S S
O'Malley the area of the municipality was 4t / rsq. miles.T Sir,".
that time the area of the municipality has been on increase.
In 1936 the area of the municipality was 5.3702 sq. miles..B
Population. The census reports supply details about size,
growth, density and regional distribution of population of the
town.
According to Hunter, the first census of Chittagong
municipality took place in 1869 on experimental basis. It gives
the following demographic statistics. Muslims- I l, 156,
BG I A History of Chittagong
Hindus - 3,479, Christians- 559, other denominations- 324. Total
15, 518 souls.
The regular census taken in January L872 shows the
grand total of the town's population as 20,604. But the published
report of the census gives the number as 18,780.
The year of census taken and the total number of popula-
tion furnished by the report are given below.
r88I - 20,969
l89l - 24,069
1909 - 22,t40
191 1 - 28,766
t92t - 36,030
1931 - 53,156
1.947 - 2,30,000
One of the features of the town population during the
period from the middle of the l9th century to the early part of
the 20th century was that the number of male folh exceeded
the female folk. According to lB72 census report, the male
population of the town was L2,2O6 and the number of the
females was 8,398. The cause of the predominance of male
population in the town. according to W W Hunter, was the male
folk who were employed in government serwices left their
families in their owrr village home.9
It is worth noticing that 1901 census shows the
unexpected decrease of the city's population. It was due to the
cyclone of lB97 which took a heavy toll of human lives. In the
latter part of l93os the population of the town has increased
considerably. This was due largely to the influx of the rrral people
into the town area.
Administration. Immediately after the crcat ion of
municipality, a Board of commissioners was formed and it was
invested with administrative authority. The district magistrate
was to act as the chairrnan of'the tsoard of commissioners. The
 Urban Centres I 87

erstwhile constituent villages was transformed into municipal

wards (mahallas), which were given power to elect the
commissioners.
The provincial government took necessary steps to
increase the efliciency of the urban administration.
The Municipal Bill, l88g-84 carries great significance
regarding the composition, powers and functions of the Munici-
pal Board. The Bill provided that the tax payers would choose
their representative to the Board. By this Act the size of the
Municipal Board was made bigger. According to the District
Gazetteer (19o9), the Municipal Board of chittagong town was
consisted of 18 commissioners; only two commissioners were
elected, others were nominated.
According to this Act, both the chairman and the
vice-chairman of the municipality were to be elected by the
commissioners. The vice-chairman, elected by the commis-
sioners needed no approval of the goverrrment. Though the
district magistrate ceased to be the ex-officio chairman of the
municipality a great amount of power remained in his hand.
This Act undoubtedly gave the municipality a greater
share of self government and civic responsibilities. In fact, the
Municipal Act of 1884 rernained the basis of municipal govern-
ment in Bengal.
The Bengal Municipal Act of I Bg4 assigned greater
responsibility to the Municipal Board with regard to the
improvernent of the health services. The Act recommended
stern measures against the neglectful board of commission-
ers. It was clearly and firmly stated that if any municipality
was found neglectful to the hygienic condition of the city
dwellers then the government had the authority to dismiss the
commissioners.
By this Act the property qualification of a voter was
lowered to the minimum income of Rs 50 per month.
The municipality was given authority to appoinl an audi-
88 | A History of Chittagong

tor and tax assessors. it was also empowered to organize fire

brigade.lo
The Bengal Municipal Act of 1896 takes important steps
aiming at the improvement of aesthetic surroundings of an
urban zrrea. The municipality was given instructions to build
playgrounds, open space, free libraries, veterinary hospitals
etc.l I
In r9l8 the supervision of the urban functions was
transferred'trom the provincial executive to the provincial
legislative council.
The Bengal Municipal Act, 1934 extended the power of
administrative authorities over municipal affairs.
The administration of chittagong municipality was not
wholly satisfactory. This was due to the poor methods of
accounting and taxation. collection of taxes was very. much
irregular. Moreover, a large number of people living in the town
had their homes in nearby villages. They were reluctant to pay
municipal taxes.
Accordin$ to the goverrlment reports, financial stringen-
cies, non co-operation of the tax payers, high cost of building
materials, the expense of runnin$ the water works stood on
the way of cit5r's develoPment.
In April, 1919, the municipality raised the rate of water
tax. The house owners in many cases refused to fix water tap
at their own cost.12
The differences of opinions among the municipal
commissioners made it difficult to take necessary steps for the
development works of the municipality. The administrative
*There are said to be So many parties among
reporter writes,
the municipal commissioners that it is a difficult task to carry
any measure through a meeting.'t3
In 192l-22 the government expresses dissatisfaction over
the financial condition of the municipality due to non. realisation
of municipal taxes.14 In lg22-23 the financial condition of the
 Urban Centres I 89

Chittagong municipality was unsatisfactory. A large amount of

municipal taxes remained due, owing to laxity in collection.15
In 1925-26 "the financial condition of the chittagong
municipality continues to be bad."l6 Next year the divisional
commissioner advises the Municipal Board "to reor$anise its
finances.'"
l7

Chittagong municipality faced much financial crisis

during the Second World War. To overcome wartime crisis gov-
ernment granted a small amount of money to the Chittagong
*An advance
municipality. Accordin$ to the government report,
of Rs l,50,ooo bearing interest at 33 / np. c. per annum was paid
for the maintenance of the essential services of the
l8
municipality of Chittagong. -
Public health. Public health is the field of hygiene and
sanitation dealing with the prevention of diseases, the promo-
tion of health care by government agencies and improvement
of drainage system.
The chittagong municipality following its establishment
was not clean enough to prevent the outbreak of epidemic
diseases. The divisional commissioner in his annual report for
the year 1874-75 writes, "There is no doubt that the town of
Chittagong continues to deserve the evil reputation of being
one of the most insalubrious spots in Bengal.-19
The civil surgeon in his annual report for the year
1874-75 specified two causes of less salubrious urban area'
First, the existence of the extensive low lytng marshy lands'
Second, the enormous number of tanks and stagnant pools that
it contairrr."2o
The provincial government adopted some important mea-
sures to protect the city dwellers from the danger arisin$ from
contaminants by enacting legislation. The Bengal Municipal
Act of tB94 attaches great importance to the improvement of
public health in urban areas.
The Bengal Municipal Sanitary Officers Act (Bengal Act II
 90 I A History of Chittaggng

of 19 14) "enables Government to enforce the appointment of

sanitary officers by municipalities and to determine the
qualifications of those officers.-2I
Different classes of health officers were appointed to su-
pervise the health condition of the people in the urban areas.
The public health duties in the municipalties were carried out
mainly by health officers, sanitary inspectors, assistant sani-
tary inspectors and vaccinators .-22 They were responsible for
health care of the people ensuring the purity of water, milk
etc., checking adulteration in food. They were required to take
preventive meaures to reduce serious outbreaks of diseases.
In 1936 a number of health asociations known as
'swaistha Mangal samiti' were organized chiefly by the youths
in different parts of the city to make the city dwellers more
health conscious. The youths visited people in their homes
and rendered voluntar)r health services to the people of their
localities.23
Drainage system. The town of chittagong has good
natural drainage system in the form of hill streams which flow
in the direction in which the Karnafuli flows.
The sanitary Drainage Act, l ggg proposes to
'facilitate the construction of Drainage works for improving
the
sanitary conditio n.-24
In l94o the sanitary board proposed certain measures in
order to improve the drainage system in the town so that no
water in the drains was stagnating due to the constnrction of
the water works. An ambitious project to construct pucca drains
in the conjested part of the town was also recommended.2S
The chaktai Khal is the principal drainage channel of
the city. It was gradually being silted up by the town rubbishes
flowed down into it. In lg27 Maulvi syed Maqbul Husain,
member of the legislative council urged the government to take
immediate steps for the excavation of the chaktai Khal.26
 Urban Centres I gl

Education. The provincial government, the city govern-

ment, the humanitarian organizations and-the missionaries
made efforts to impart formal education to the youths and
children in the town area.
The chittagong municipality subsidized one High English
school, one labourers school (shramik vidyalaya), three tols,
nine madrasas and one christian convent.2T rn 1935 the
chittagong municipality spent Rs 8b, 7gr on educatior,.2B
Road and transport. After the creation of the
municipality a number of major roads in and around the town
were either built or taken to hand for improvement.
According to w w Hunter, the road linking chawkb az,ar
and Anderkilla through Dewanb azar and Chandanpura was the
oldest and the principal line of communication in Chittagong
town. other major roads were the strand Road, sadarghat Road,
Kapasgola Road, town portion of Hathazari Road, Agrabad Road
etc.
The improvement of transport condition of the strand Road
and Agrabad Road started in l9l3 and lg r4 respectiv.ly.2e
The Municipal Board adopted "a resolution requesting the
goverrrment to take over the maintenance of the main road
(from sadarghat to Kapasgola) of the town."3o I.t lg3g Maulvi
Nur Ahmad brought this resolution to the notice of the
government.3 I
Most local movernents within the town was on foot. Horse
driven carts transported only the privileged section of the
society. Ox driven carts transported goods. The introduction of
bicycles and motor vehicles in the beginning of the twentieth
century made a radical change in the transport system of the
town.
Water supply. The construction of the water supply
works at Dampara was started in lgl5. It emproyed such
advanced technology as Pattersons iron eliminating plant,
l"ancashire boilers etc. In lg16 Lord Carmichael, Lt. Governor
92 | A History of Chittagong

of Bengal inaugurated the water supply works'32

"A scheme for extension and improvement of water works
at chittagong was prepared by the public health department
for
and has been submitted to the government in Au$ust, 1937
-33
administrative aPProval.
In f 940 the scheme for remodelling of the Chittagong
water works was undertaken by the authorities. The aim of
this scheme was to increase the supply of drinking water in
a
the town from four lack gallons of water to nine lack $allons
day by sinking additional tubewells, installation of pumping
machinery on electric drive and by some other methods'34
Electricity supply. To provide the town dwellers with
electricity some prominent citizens under the leadership of
Karuna sen formed an organization named chittagong
Engineering and Electric supply company. In 1924-25 t}1e
or{anization made a petition to the government to grant
permit to the company for production of electricity.3s
c)n March 27, lg27 chiefly by the initiative of Karuna sen
electricity was supplied to the town from Assam Bengal
Railway Power House.36
In 1930 the petition of the citizens was granted by the
government3T to build a power plant to produce electricity
and that could be operated by the municipality for its owrl
consumption.
In Ig37 the construction of the power house was
completed and it began to supply electricity to the town-38
Street lighting. To illuminate the city streets electric
lamps were introduced in 1927. The street lights, usually
attached to tall poles were spaced at intervals along the major
roads and streets.
In 1935 the chittagong municipality increased its
expenditure on lighting the streets and added 12 more electric
street lights bringing the total number of electric lights in the
town to 528.3e
 Urban Centres I 93

Public Library. The Bengal Municipal Act of rg96 asked

the 'municipalities to establish public library along with free
reading room where people could read or study. The public
Library of chittagong has its origin in Buckland Ghat Library
which was probably the oldest library in chittagong. It was built
mainly for the Europeans to read or to study. The library hall
was located in Buckland Ghat, situated on the southern bank
of the l,aldighi. The ghat was narned after c T Buckland who
was magistrate of Chittagong from lg62 to 1g64.
To meet the mounting demand of the enlightened public
the municipality agreed to establish a public library in 19o4.
The Buckland Ghat Library and Reading Room authorities
agreed to accomodate the proposed public Library in their own
buildings.
chattal Prasun Library was established in l3 17 B E at
calcutta.4o In subsequent times (probably in lg14) the library
merged with chittagong public Library. Books and furniture were
brought to chittagong chiefly by the initidtive of Tripura charan
Chowdhury.
The acquisition of the collection of books of the Buckland
Ghat Library and the chattal prasun Library enriched the
Public Library and made it one of the valuable Libraries of the
province.
The Public Library started its functions in January, lgo5.
f'he district magistrate was its chairman and the first
secretary was Bipin Chandra Guha.
sometime in 1930s chittagong municipality took over the
charge of the Public Library. it was decided that the chairrn€rn
of the municipality should also be the ex-officio chairman of
the Public Library committee. In lg3s the secretary was
Jogendra chandra Guha, the vice-chairman of the chittagong
municipality. a I
The private collection of books of such eminent persons
as poet Jibendra Kumar Dutta, poet Shasanka Mohan sen, poet
94 | A History of Chittagong

Nabin Chandra Das, poet Rajani Ranjan Sen were donated to

the library. The chattagram sahitya Parishad Library was
housed at the Public Library buildings. Sometime in l94os the
Parishad Library was amalgamated with the Public Library'
The Public Library contains a wide range of materials
including government papers, old journals and pamphlets. It
has an excellent collection of rare books. The library is open to
the public as a reference library.
Town Hall (J M Sen Hall). From the middle of the
nineteenth century there was a pressing public demand for a
building for the purpose of public meetings. Poet Nabin Chandra
Sen while he was the deputy magistrate in Chittagong made
an effort to construct a town hall and Roy Prasanna Kumar Rai
Bahadur agreed to provide monetary assistance for the
construction of the proposed town hall. The project, however,
was not materialized owing to some problems.a2
on January 25, 1914 Jatra Mohan sen, a prominent so-
cial worker and a potitician, purchased a quantity of land needed
for the construction of the proposed town hall. He also borrowed
an amount of money on his owrl account for this purpose.
on March 26, 1915 the Town Hall Building committee
consisting of notable persons was formed. Tripura Charan
Chowdhury on behalf of the Chittagong Association took the
responsibility of raising funds for the construction.
on Novernber 19, 1916, the foundation stone was laid by
Rai Sarat Chandra Das Bahadur, a scholar of international
repute. Rajani Kanta Hore a renowned contractor took the
charge of its construction.
on February 5, L92O Rai Nabin chandra Dutta Bahadur
inauguratecl the town hall.a3 Since then the management of
t he town hall has been entrusted to the chittagong
Association.
The Chittagong Association named the town hall Jatra
Mohan Sen Hall to commemorate the illustrious life of the great
 Urban Cr:ntres I 95

leader.aa
Throughout the Independence movement period the town
hall served as a forum for public speeches and debates on
political and social issues. Prominent politicians made public
addresses and patriots delivered fiery speeches before freedom
loving gathering.
Besides the political meetings, reception meetings, liter-
arJr meetings, anniversary meetings, condolence meetings and
cultural functions are regularly being held in the town hall.
Muslim Institute. The Muslim community of Chittagong
town felt the need of a building where people could meet for
literary and political purposes. To achieve this aim an assem-
bly hall was proposed to be constructed and it would be named
Muslim Institute.
Maulvi Nur Ahmad, chairrnan of the municipality while
praying grant of a sum of money for the construction of the
Muslim Institute to the goverrrment gives the following details
in the legislative council regarding the background of the
intended construction of the institute as follows :
A representation for a capital grant of Rs 30,000 was
submitted to government through Mr. A Momin the then
commissioner, chittagong Division in lg3o for establishing
an institution to be called the Muslim Institute at Chittagong.
Recently a mass meeting of the leading Muslims was held in
Chittagong and that copies of the resolution passed in the
same were sent to the Chief Minister under the signature of
Khan Bahadur Maulvi Abdus Sattar with a request to make
an early contribution of Rs 35,000 for the construction of the
proposed Muslim Institute.
In reply, Mr A K Fazlul Haque informed the Hon'ble
member that the matter was under consideration of the
goverrrment.45
There were some other minor buildings which were used
for gathering, discussion meetings, exhibition of handicraft and
96 | A History of Chittagong
other public business. Among these buildings the following two
are important.
Oldham Institute. It was primarily meant for public
meetings, particularly related to humanitarian works. In 1937
its secretary was Sunitibhushan Sen.
Chittagong Institute. It was established by a group of
elite for the purpose of social works. In 1913 Roy Upendra Lal
Bahadur and Mr. J K Ghoshal were its president and secretary
respectively. They held their posts till 1937.
Residential quarters. Chawk Bazar is the oldest part
of the town. During the Mughal and the early British period,
the ruling class and the aristocratic section lived in Chawk
Bazar area.
The placenarnes suffixed to tola, tuli, patti, sahar, abad
etc. suggest the extent of residential areas of the town during
early British period. (For example Mogaltuli, Pathantuli, Telipatli
Halishahar, Sholashahar, Agrabad, Ashkarabad etc.)
The part of the town covered by Chawkbaar, Chandanpura,
Dewan bazar was the most densely populated area, character-
ized by tightly clustered houses.
Since the seventeenth century Patharghata - Firingi Bazar
area has been the principal place of the Christian settlements.
Muslim settled areas could be found in every part of the
town. Their chief concentrations were Bakalia, Muradpur,
Khulsi, Madarbari, Pathantuli, Alqaran etc.
From the beginnin$ of the British rule changes appeared
in the pattern of residential areas of the town. The residential
quarters of the European officials were built on hill tops. W W
Hunter writes, "The houses occupied by the European officials
and their families are scattered over a considerable area, and
each house is on a separate hill."a6...
During the British period, small residential
neighbourhoods grew up in different parts of the town. These
areas were chiefly occupied by the middle class native elite.
 Urban Centres I 97

Some of these areas were Rahmatganj, Nandan Kanan, Ghat

Farhad Beg etc. In these places men of social and political
distinctions and high professionals of the Hindu community
built their owrl houses.
The growth of city population during the latter part of the
British n le required new places for living accomodation. Va-
cant lands and under developed areas were gradually made fit
for habitation. Such kind of places were Lal Khan Bazar, Nandan
kanan, Muradpur, Dewanhat etc. Since that time the process
of improvement of the poor parts of the town is going on chiefly
by the private individuals.
During the latter part of the British rule Andarkillah area
became the main part of the town. Bakhsirhat, Khatunganj,
Asadganj, Chaktai became densely populated areas on account
of the location of whole sale and retail sale markets. Labourer
class and the poorer section of the society lived in the rough
part of the town.
Markets. Some places in the town were kept reserved
for buying and selling goods. These places were called bazars
and mandis'. Chawkbazar was the principal market of the town.
Chaktai-Khatunganj was an important business centre where
buying and selling of commodities took place in large quanti-
ties. Tamakumand i (incorporated with modern Reazu dd in Baz-ar)
and FiringiBazar were two other important markets. Since the
nineteenth century Bakhsir hat has been an important seat of
trade.
All these markets were set up in open spaces. Officials
were appointed to supervise the running of the markets and to
regulate the prices of articles.
Warehouses. Every port town has its own warehouses.
In the beginning of the British period goods intended for import
and export trade were stored in warehouses or godowns called
gudams and golas. Golas were built in different places of the
town. Such place names as Kapasgola, Saltgola etc. survive the
traces of the warehouses that have existed during the early
British period.
98 I A History of Chittagong

Associations, Clubs and Recreation centres

In the town two clubs were organized after English
models. These were Chittagong Club and Pahartali European
Club. Membership of these two clubs was restricted to the
Europeans. These clubs were meant to foster sociability and
contacts among the professionals and businessmen in
Chittagong.
Chittagong Club was a social club, organized by the
Europeans for eating, drinking, conversation and recreation.
Persons of high society joined this club. The club furnished a
ball-room where the members danced with their partners in
evening parties. They usually had beverage or drink in order to
develop acquaintanceship. In 1936 the secretary of the
Chittagong Club was Captain Aiyers.
Pahartali European Club was in fact an association of
European peoples for pleasure and co-operation.
The BOC Club was a specialized club organrlz;ed by the em-
ployees of Burma Oil Company. Mr L M Crossfield, the manager
of the BoC and the elected member of the provincial legislative
council (1936) was its patron. The club organized cultural
functions which won high praise from the audience and much
approbation of the press.
Assam Bengal Railway Indian Institute was in fact a
literary association grew out of the occasional meetings of
literary men. It was founded by the employees of Assam Bengal
Railway in a hired house in l9OO. The management of the
Institute was financed chiefly by the Railway authorities and
partly by the subscription of the members.
Shortly afterwards, the Institute constructed its own
building. It housed a. library room and a conference room. The
library won fame for its valuable collection of Bengali and
English works.
The Institute was well known for the performance of
cultural functions. Musical entertainment, recitation,
 Urban Centres I gg

speeches, reading of self composed articles and poems, staging

of dramas were regularly held. The Institute published, a
quarterly literary rrragazine named the 'Anjal|'. 47
Movie theater. Movies or motion pictures became the
popular entertainment in the latter part of the lg2Os. Cinema
Palace, the first movie hall was established in lg2g by Art
Theatre company in Lyall Road.a8 shorily after, Lotus cinema
was established by a rich individual in 1929. In the early l93os
silent pictures were shown. In the mid l93os talkie
machineries were replaced by cinematography.
There were two more cinema halls in which movies were
regularly being shown. These were Jubilee cinema (est. 1936)
on Jatindra Mohan Avenue and Lion cinema on sadarghat Road.
The most popular cinema shows in the late l93os and in the
early l94os were chand sadagar, chandidas, Krishna sudama,
Daksha Jajna, Devdas, Manmoyee Girls school, Mane na mana
etc.
Sports, games and playgrounds. By the Bengal
Municipal Act, 1896 the municipalties were given instructions
to build playgrounds. In chittagong no open play ground where
the teams of sportsmen could play was built till l93os. There
were, however, innumerable number of small fields in the town
area where youths freely engaged in playing games.
An important step in increasing the sportsmanship among
the youths was the establishment of chittagong Athletic club
in 1938. chairman NurAhmad, RafiqAhmad Siddiqi, Barrister
Anwarul Azirn, Mahim chandra Das were its members.49
For centuries wrestling has been a source of entertain-
ment among the people interested in sport. Among the
wrestling matches Abdul Jabbar's Bolikhela is noted for its
widespread popularity. It is thought to have originated during
the swadeshi movement. The event takes place on the l3th
Baisakh every year in the Laldighi Maidan. Bolis or wrestlers
from all corners of the district join the match to win prize.
f OO I A History of Chittagong
The event is accompanied with shows and entertainments.
According to news report, on the thirteenth Baisakh 1322 ( 19 l5)
more than five thousand spectators gathered to witness the
match.So On the 21LhApril, 1938 about 15,OOO people assembled
to enjoy the Bolikhela.5l
Boat racing on the river Karnafuli has been a favourite
game since the Swadeshi period. The event takes place annu-
ally. On September 14, L929, a number of country made rowing
boats took part in this race which occured with a strong feeling
of excitement. The divisional commissioner \Mith his wife; the
district magistrate with his wife and other high officials
witnessed the game. Oli Meah finished first. The wife of the
district magistrate distributed prizes to the competito.".52
Parks and gardens
chittagong town during the British rule was renowned for
the existence of a large number of parks, reservoirs and open
spaces. Pieces of land in the town area were kept reserved
where people used to go to walk and to relax. During the British
period following two parks deserve to be noticed.
(a) Hands Park. This public park was named after the
Collector Mr. Hands. This was situated near the museum and
the Inspector's office. At present this park can be located to the
north of Muslim Institute.
(b) Victoria Garden. This triangular shaped garden was
situated in the foothills of the Fairy Hill. This greenery was
named after Queen Victor ia. A work of bust sculpture of the
queen was installed in this garden. In l94Os the ,sculpture was
removed. At prsent the place is occupied by a petrol pump
station.
open sp rce. wide open spaces in different parts of the
town were avarlable for different purposes. Some of these open
spaces are mentioned below.
(a) Gandhi l\{aidan. This open space was situated in
the n'rrth of the Rangmahal Hill (General Hospital Hill). The
 Urban Centres | 10 I

maidan has been named after Mahatma Gandhi who delivered

his memorable speech in this open space during Non Co-Op-
eration Khilafat Movement.
(b) Municipal Maidan. The open space stretched out
between the foot hills of the Fairy Hill and the Laldighi was
known as Municipal Maidan. When a road stretching north to
south was constructed, the maidan was divided into two parts.
The eastern portion was given to the Muslim High School to be
used as a playground. Later on it was converted to Laldighi
Maidan.
(c) Nizamat Paltan Ground. It was situated in the
foothills of Railway Hospital Hills.
(d) Parade Ground. This open space of important urban
heritage was in former times used for inspection of troops.
After the creation of police and military cantonments the
Parade Ground lost much of its military character.
Chairman Nur Ahmad on behalf of the city dwellers de-
manded to hand the parade ground over to the Municipality."
The government, however, did not comply with his request.S3
Protest meetings were held in the parade ground throughout
the Independence movement period. Besides the patriotic
meetings, political and social assemblages were also held in
the Parade ground.
(e) Race course. Polo ground. Horse racing was a
favourite sport of the Europeans. In this sport horses with
riders race against each other. Horse racing was often
accompanied with a bet on the horses. The polo game is played
by two teams on horse back.
(f) Cricket ground. It was situated in the modern
stadium ground. The cricket was played on grass by two teams.
Almost all the cricket players were Europeans.
The Bengal Municipal Act of 1896 directed the
municipalities to make provisions of aesthetic establishments
for the city dwellers. With this end in view a museum was
established in 1930s somewhere near Hands Park and school
lO2 | A History of Chittagong

inspector's office.
Some places of the town having natural beauty were given
special attention.
Hill resorts. There are a number of hills which are
pleasant to look at. A lot of people go to these hills especially at
afternoon to enjoy the sight seeing. Within the town some of
the attractive hills are as follows.
Fairy Hill (hill of fairies or hill of enchantment) is the
highest hill in the town. From the top of the hill the whole of
the town, river Karnafuli and many other objects can be seen
by bare eyes.
Tempest Hill is situated adjacent to the Fairy Hill.
Rangmahal Hill is situated near Anderkilla.
Golpahar Hills (Pravartak Hills). This range of rolling
hills was the most beautiful spot renowned for its natural
scenery. Climbing the hill tops and walking on the hill slopes
were enjoyable experiences.
Lakes and reservoirs. There are some lakes and
reservoirs which give the visitors great pleasure.
Lal Dighi. this is the natural reservoir of fresh water.
During the Arakanese period (1570- 1666) it was the principal
reservoir of water used by the garrisoning army. During the
subsequent Mughal period it retained its importance as the
principal source of fresh water. In the middle of the nineteenth
century Lal Dighi was given a beautiful shape. The inner sides
of the digtri were paved with brick. Two ghats or flight of stairs
were built on two sides of the dighi. One was Ricketts Ghat
named after the district magistrate Sir Henry Ricketts
(l 84 1-46). Another was Buckland Ghat named after the district
magistrate C T Buckland (1862-64).
Foy's lake. This natural reservoir was intended
particularty for the purpose of the railway workshop. A dam was
constructed on a stream under the supervision of Mr. Foys to
give a shape of reservoir. Since that time it has been named
Foy's lake. It is the most beautiful natural spot in the city, It
 Urban Centres I lO3

attracts a large number of visitors especially on holidays.

Pahartali lake. Originally a marshyland the area was
excavated and converted to an artificial lake.
Askar Khan's dighi. This reservoir has two hills on two
sides which lend it a pleasant look.
Seaside resorts. Sea beaches near the town are located
at the sloping surface between the foothills and the landward
limit of the ocean waves. The government located two coastal
areas featuring excellent sea beach for recreational purposes.
(a) Seaside resort at Minamuttee. It was built on the side
of a hill overlooking the ocean.
(b) Seaside resort at Parkee. This broad sandy beach
between the hills and the sea is noted for its scenic beauty.
These two sea beaches were much liked by the Europe-
ans either to have a sunbath or to take a water bath in sea
water. To go to the sea beach on holidays was a pleasurable
experience to a person visiting the places. The sea breeze was
thought to be good for the health.
River bank or Strand Road. The shore of the river
Karnafuli from Sadarghat to Patenga was once noted for
walking and driving.
The rate of progress of urbanization of Chittagong town on
modern line after the First World War was praiseworthy. In the
beginning of the nineteen forties Chittagong became the third
largest urban area in the province. The city and its environs
undoubtedly gives the inhabitants of the district a feeling of
pride.
Chittagong town suflered most during the Secorrd World
War. The Japanese bonrb attack led the government to take
hzrsty measures. Chittagong town was declared "a non-family
area" i.e., unfit for living with family members. All the
educatiorral institutions and big buildings were requisitioned
for military purposes. The city life returned to nor-rnalcy alter
the world war was over.
IO4 | A History of Chittagong

Cox's Bazar
Before 1798 Cox's B,azar was an obscure place. Rennell's
map does not insert any habited place in this area. Dr. Buchanan
Hamilton while visiting the area in L797 does not mention
anything about human habitation in or near Cox's Bazar.
After the Burmese occupation of Arakan in 1786
thousands of Arakanese fled to southern Chittagong to escape
political persecution.
The Arakanese refugees could not settle permanently
anywhere owing to the continuous Arakanese incursions into
southern Chittagong. They lived in scattered hamlets spread-
ing all over southern Chittagong. The British government made
arrangements to assemble the Rakhaings in one place. Mr. H J
S Cotton writes, '"Towards. the close of the century (l8th) the
number (of the Arakanese immigrants) was found to be so great
as to demand special arrangements for their settlement."54 The
British Government in L798 "selected a tract of wasteland as a
convenient spot for the houses of the new Mugg (Rakhaing)
colony."ss The execution of the project was entrusted to. Cap-
tain Hiram Cox. Rent free lands were granted to the settlers.
"Since which time the inhabitants have enjoyed it rent free,
each person occupying his house as his own property."56 Th.
laborious task of relief works exhausted Mr. Cox's energy and
accounted for his premature death. He was the founder of the
township of Cox's Bazar. "He has left his name to the place now
called Cox's Bazar."57
In spite of continued Burmese military incursions into
southern Chittagong the Rakhaing settlement in Cox's Bazar
continued to be thriving. Within a short time Cox's Bazar grew
up to township. In l8l7 the district magistrate Mr. Paul
William Peehall writes, "Cox's Bazar is a large town upwards of
a mile in length, situated on a spot of sand about (at the
utmost) a quarter of a mile broad between the north and of the
hills called the White Cliffs and the river Bag Colly (Bak-khali).
This town.... is entirely full of houses."58 O""u.sional incursions
 Urban Centres I lO5

of Burmese troops into southern Chittagong render it

necessary to build enclosures on all sides and to establish
military posts to make the township safe from attack.S9
After the Burmese war was over the township of cox's
Bazar underwent a rapid growth. A number of kiyangs (places of
worship) were built in different parts of the town. Residential
quarters of the well to do families gave the township a pleasant
look. Referring to the pleasant sulToundings of Cox's Bazar
township in the middle of the lgth century W W Hunter writes.
coxBazar is a thriving and important place. In appearance it
differs altogether from a Bengal town. The places of worship
and the rest houses of the Maghs are well and solidly built,
and 'some of the houses of the well to do residents are not
only substantial, but very picturesque and neatly
ornamented', The houses are built entirely of timber' raised
on piles, after the Burmese fashion, and with their surround-
ing verandahs and decorated gable ends, the wholepresents
an appearance not unlike that of a Swiss cottage'6o
In the view of Hunter the environment of Cox's Bazar was
better than that of Chittagong.Gl
By the Act w of Bengal council passed in 1868 it was
proposed that a municipality should be established in Cox's Bazar'
Accordingly, the Cox's Bazar Municipality was created in 1869'
The administrative activities in order to run the municipality
starled this year.
In 1869 the total number of the commissioners of Cox's
BazarMunicipal Board was 13 and none of them was elected'62
The election system had not been introduced till 191 l. Accord-
ing to O'malley ten commissioners were nominated while three
were ex-officio members of the Board.63
Accordin$ to the District Gazetteer ( I 909), the area of the
Cox's Bazar Municipality was l' / , miles'
"q,.
Throughout the 19th century, Cox's Bazar was overwhelrn-
ingly a Rakhaing dominated town. According to 1872, census
report the town population consisted of 3,205 Maghs (Rakhaings),
f 06 | A History of Chittagong

831 Muhammadans, 244 Hindus.6a

The census reports give the official number of the Cox's
Bazar town population as follows :
1872.....4280
l88l .....4363
lB9l .....4347
1901 .....3845
191r .....4632
l93l .....5018
The decrease of the town population in l9O t was due to
the devastating cyclone and tidal bore occured in 1897 which
took heavy toll of human lives.
Note :

I Buchanan, p, L23
2 Edward Thornton, A Gazetteer oJ the Territories under tlrc Gouentment
oJ the East Indta Compang, f B5B, p. 2O7
3 Hunter, op. cit., p. l5O
4 Buchanan, p. 123
5 Qt. Hunter, op.cit., p. l5O
6 rbtd.
7 O'Malley, op.ctt.
B The Panchqjanga, Autumn Number, i936, p. l2l
9 Hunter, op.ctt." p. l5l
l0 Buckland, op. cit., II, 959-60
I I tbid., p. 976
12 RAB, 1918-19. p. 46
13 lbid.. t92O-21, p. 46
t4 tbid.. 1922'23, p. 44
15 tbid., 1923'24, p. 43
16 lbtd.. 1925-26, p. 48
17 lbid., 1926 27. p. l2l
lB ORBLC, 1943. p.397
19 Qt. Hur-rtcr, oyt.cit. p. l50
20 Qt. Flunler. op.cit.. pp l5O-51
2l RAB, 1913-14. p:. XX
22 Bertgal Public: Heallh Report, 1941, p. B
23 The Pururbi. 1343
24 Buckland, op. ctt., II, 939
 Urban Centres I LOZ

25 Annual Report of the chteJ Engtneer, Public Health Department, rg4o,

p.6
26 ORBLC, 1928, p. 196
27 'Proceedings of the Chittagong Municipality', qt. Bangla Gctzette, 1g2g
28 ORBLC, 1941. pp 426-27
29 RAB. 1913-14, p. 82
30 lbtd., 1925-26, p. aB
31 ORBLC, 1939, p.763
32 Annual Report of the chteJ Engineer, Public Health Department, 1934
33 ORBLC. 1939, p. 146
34 Annual Report oJ the chi{ Engineer, Public Health Department, 1940,
p.6
35 RAB, 1924-25, p. 142
36 The Satyabarta. 1344, p. 5l
37 RAB, I93O-31, p. 176
38 The Panchqjanga, Autumn Number. 1344 (1957) p. t3O
39 RAB, 1935-36, pp 93-94
40 Education Gazette, Kartick I I, 1317
4I The Jugadharrna, 1935. pp. 6-7, tlr'e Panchqjaryta, tg36
42 See the poet's autobiography
43 The Jugadharmn. July, 1935, p. 7
44 The Sadhana, Jaistha, 1327. pp 72-73
45 ORBIC, t941, p. 2
46 Hunter, op. ctt., p. l5O
47 The Aryali, No. 3, 1340. p. 192
48 The Darnrk Jyoti, 1929
49 The Deshapriga, June, 1938, p. 2I
50 The Prabasi, 1322, pp. 353-56
5l The DesLnprtga, May, 1938, p. 27
52 The Bangla Gazette, 1929
53 ORBtf, 1939, p. 432
54 Memorandurn- p. 227
55 rbid.
56 Mr Paul William Pechall, magistrate of Chittagong to govenrment, dt.
Nov. 26. qL. Memorandum, p. 227
57 Memorandum" p. 227
58 81. rbtd
59 rbid.
60 Hunter, op cit., p. 152
6l lbtd.
62 Hunter, op.ctt.
63 District Gazetteer, Chittagong
64 Hunter, op.ctt., p. I52
 Chapter 7
Political Parties
In modern sense a political party is a group of people
organized to advocate political ideologies and to promote
political activities among the masses. Generally, the
progressive section of the communities organize political
parties and exercise control over political activities.
Unfortunately, not much information is available
regarding the activities related to the political parties in
Chittagong during the British period. There was no proper
system of maintenance and preservation of the official records
of the activities of the political parties. The mea$re references
to the activities of the political parties and speeches of the
political leaders published in some books and newspapers are
the chief sources of our study.
The Chittagong Association founded in 187 5
initiated the political activities in the district. It dealt with public
affairs, advised the government on vital matters, and criticised
the government for its authoritative exercise of power. In later
times, almost all the members of the Chittagong Association
joined the district Congress ParLy.
The Congress Party. Bnglish System of party organi-
zation came into being with the creation of Indian National
Congress in 1886. From the very beginning, nationalism,
democratization of government and secularism have been the
foundation of the Congress Party.
Article IV of the constitution of the Congress Party, passed
in 1904 provided for the formation of the district Congress
committees and the subdivisional Congress committees. If may
be assumed that in this year Chittagon$ District Congress
committee was established.
 Political Parties I log

Jatra Mohan Sengupta, the leading politician of the

district was elected president of the district Congress commit-
tee. From that time down to his death in 1919 he remained the
head of the district Congress committee. Mahim Chandra Das
was appointed secretary to deal with the official business. Other
prominent members of the Congress Party were Tripura Charan
Chowdhury, Jamini Kanta Sen, Prasanna Kumar Roy, Prasanna
Kumar Sen, Ramesh Raksit etc. Some of them were members
of the district Congress committee.
After the formation of the Congress Party the leaders
engaged themselves in spreading party ideologlr among the
people. The chief spokesman papers of the Congress Party were
the Jyoti' and the 'Panchajanya'.
From the beginning, the Swadeshi ideas and Bengal
Nationalism became the political creed of the Congress Party.
In this connection, the Congress played a leading role in
mobilizing the public opinion against the partition of Bengal.
Youths played a vital role in the party organization. Youths
from all corners of the district joined the Congress Party as
volunteers. The corps of volunteers was knowrr as Congress
Seva Dal which played an important role in shaping the party
activities.
On October 15, 1905 partition of Bengal was carried into
effect. The district Congress undertook the task of conducting
the Anti Partition movement and of directing the course of
action.
Throughout the period of the Swadeshi movement a
number of Congress Swadeshi leaders visited to Chittagong and
in public meetings they delivered fiery speeches against
partition of Bengal. Their speeches aroused public emotion of
loving of motherland.
The first provincial conference after the annulment of the
Partition was held in Chittagong on the 6th and the 7th April,
1912. It was a great event in the history of the district
l lO I A History of Chittagong

Congress. The conference was presided over by Barrister A Rasul

a staunch supporter of Swadeshi movement. The conference
was attended by a large number of All Bengal Congress leaders
such as Surendra Nath Banarji, Ambika Charan Majumdar,
Pran Krishna Acharjee, Aswini Kumar Dutta, Byomkesh
Chakravorti etc.
The Home Rule kague, established in 1916 gave birth to
the self goverrlment movement in 1917. The district Congress
joined the Home Rule movement and publicly declared that the
people have a right to control the government of the country by
its own people.
The Montague Chelmsford Reform Bill did satisff neither
the Congress nor the Indians. To express their dissatisfaction
the Congress Party leaders organized protest meetings
everywhere in the province.
To stop the organization of public meetings the
goverrrment promulgated a law, called Rowlatt Act, the breach
of which would lead to the arrest of the disobedients.
To express strong protest against the government's
unfair treatment a large number of agitators gathered in the
field of Jalianwalabagh. To disparse the gathering the police
started firing on the crowd, as a result of which thousands of
people were either killed or wounded. This cruel action made
the whole nation aggrieved with deep pain.
Condemning the Rowlatt Act and the Jalianwallabagh
massacere Jatra Mohan Sengupta gave his memorable presi-
dential speech in the Bengal provincial conference held in
M5rmensingh in 1919. He branded the British rule as the rule
of terrorism.
The death of Jatra Mohan Sengupta on Nov. 2, I9l9 was a
great loss to the Congress Party. His able leadership guided the
people towards the freedom movement.
In 1921 Jatindra Mohan Sengupta and Mahim Chandra
Das were elected president and secretary respectively of the
I Political Perrties |

district Congress committee. The Congress committee under

111

the competent guidance of Jatindra Mohan Sengupta took the

responsibility of conducting the Non-Cooperation movement.
On June 3, lg2l, eminment Congress leader C F Andrews
came to Chittagong to plead for the doctrine of nonviolent non
cooperation movement.
Jatindra Mohan Sengupta accompanied with the Congress
leaders started mass agitation against the authoritative rule
of the British government. The agitators disobeyed the
restrictive laws imposed on public meetings. A large number of
Congress leaders including J M Sengupta, Mahim Chandra Das,
Tripura Charan Chowdhury, Ramesh Chandra Raksit, Moksada
Ranjan Kanungo, Jamini Mohan Basu, Ratneswar Chakravorti,
Nripen Banarji were arrested by the authorities on ground of
disobeying the government orders. Throughout the Non Co-op-
eration movement the Congress Party kept in close touch with
the common people.
Mahatma Gandhi accompanied with Maulana Mohammad
Ali came to Chittagong on August 3l , l92l to preach and ex-
pound the doctrine of Satyagraha and Khilafat ideologr.
In May, 1922, the Bengal provincial political conference
was held in Chittagong. Jatindra Mohan Sengupta, president of
the reception comrnittee took special care of the management
of the conference. Chittaranjan Das was designated to preside
over the conference. By this time he was sentenced to
imprisonment. His wife Basanti Devi was nominated president
of the conference which was held in the parade ground.
On January I, 1923 Chittaranjan Das founded the
Swarajya Party. A large number of Congressides joined the
Swarajya Party. Chittaranjan Das was the president and
Jatindra Mohan Sengupta was the deputy leader of the Swarajya
Party.
In1924 Jatindra Mohan Sengupta was elected president
of the Bengal provincial Congress Committee. Next year he
lI2 | A History of Chittagong
became president of the Swarajya Party after the death of
Chittaranjan Das. Under his skilful leadership both the
Congress and the Swarajya worked on common ground inspite
of difference of opinion between the two parties.
on May 12, L925 Gandhiji visited to chittagon$ for the
second time. The purpose of his visit was to review the trend of
changing politics. He laid stress on the unity of the Congress
party.
Towards the end of the 1920s extremism rose to a very
great degree in the Congress Party.
The growth of extremism became apparent in the Calcutta
session of the Congress held in 1928. A large delegation headed
by Surya Kumar Sen attended the meeting.
The rivalry between Jatindra Mohan sen Gupta and
Subhas Chandra Bose for leadership of the Congress Party
reached its climax in the year 1929.In Chittagong Subhas Bose
Surya Sen alliance gained dominance on the political
activities of the Con$ress.
The conference of chittagong district congress
committee held in 1929 carried with it great importance to the
organizational structure of the party. It marked the dominance
of the extremist group. The whole conference was divided into
four sessions : (1) district Congress working committee's
meeting, (2) district youth conference, (3) district students
conference, and (4) district women conference. The conference
as a whole was presided over by Subhash Chandra Bose-
In all these meetings the extremist group under the
leadership of Surya Kumar Sen appeared to be in the lead.
Medical practitioner Mahim Chandra Dasgupta was nominated
president of the district Congress committee. Surya Sen had
already been notninated general secretary.
The conference was followed by the outbreak of factional
disturbances in which a number of people were injured.
 Political Parties I l13

In January, 1930, the Congress called for civil disobedi-

ence movement. The leaders addressed the people to break
goverTrment laws everywhere and on every occasion. On the
6th April Congress satyagrahis proceeded to disobey the Salt
Law. In Chittagong Mahim Chandra Das conducted the salt
satyagraha.
The civil disobedience encouraged the extremists to
increase their acts of violence. The extremist $roup of
Chittagong rose in rebellion against the British government in
I93O. The revolt involved raids on military establishments and
fight against British armed forces over a period of four yea.s.l
All kinds of activities of the political parties were
prohibited by the government during the period of civil
disobedience. As a result the political activities of the Congress
ParW were suspended during the period.
Deshapriya Jatindra Mohan Sengupta died of heart at-
tack on July 22, L933. His political ideology, his organizational
ability, his unique role in the Independence rnovement will be
remembered for all future time.
After the enactrnent of 1935 Act, government prohibitions
on political activities were gradually becoming less strict. The
Congress, however, fell into division. A large number of
Congressmen especially the extremists left the party and joined
the Communist Party. Most of the leftist members of the
Congress formed a faction named Congress Socialist Party.2
The All Bengal Congress Socialist Party was formed in
1934 as a left wing organrzation within the Congress. This party
was critical of traditional political strately ancl ideologr of the
Congress. Their programme included transfer of power to the
masses, state planning and ownership, elimination of the
privileged class, redistribution of land to the peasants, and the
establishment of co-operatives and collectivization.3 Amar
Prasad Chakravorti a detenu was one of the leading organizers
of this party in Chittagong.
I L4 | A Flistory of Chittagong

In 1936 the district Congress committee was reorganized.

Mahim Chandra Das was nominated district Congress
president, Tripura Charan Chowdhury was nominated
vice-president and Golam Sobhan was nominated general
secretary.
Under the auspices of the district Congress committee
local committees were formed.
The Chittagong city Congress committee took a shape for
the first time in the middle of the 1930s. Mohammad Lokman
Khan Sherwani was elected president of the Chittagong city
Congress committee (probably in 1937)
In order to extend the party ideology in the rural areas
and to make the local leaders increasingly involved in the party
activities, the subdivisional branches of the Congress ParLywere
forrned.
The sadar north subdivision Congress committee was
formed in 1938 and Mohammad Lokman Khan Sherwani was
its elected president.
The sadar south subdivision Congress committee was
constituted in f)ecember, 1937. The members of the highest
rank in the committee were as follows. Chairman-Jamini
Mohan Basu, co-chairman-Anukul Chandra Das, secretary-
Sachindra Nath Dasgupta, joint-secretary - Parsvanath Das.
The Cox's Bazar subdivisional Congress committee was
formed in July, I938. The local Congress members assembled
in the local public library hall and nominated the members of
the Cox's Bazar subdivisional Congress committee.a
Towards the close of the l93Os, the Congress Party accel-
erated its organizational activities at village level. In almost
every progressive village a Congress committee was formed.
On June 12, lg37 All India Congress president Jawahar
Lal Nehru, accompanied ',^rith his daughter Indira paid a brief
visit to Chittagong for the purpose of seeing the organizational
 Political parties I l15

activities for himself. He was given a warm welcome at the

steamerghat. He addressed a rarge public meeting in the town.
In 1937 election, the congress faired good. Mahim
chandra Das was elected on the congress party ticket to the
legislative assembly. Dr. sanaullah, a Nationalist Muslim leader
supported by the congress was elected to the assembly.
onJune lo to I l, 1938, Netaji subhas chandra Bose, the
congress president accompanied with Ashrafuddin Ahmad,
general secretary of the Bengal provincial congress visited
chittagong. He along \Mith his troup was given a ceremonial
reception at the railway station. During his stay in chittagong,
Netaji Bose undertook an extensive tour throughout the length
and breadth of the district.
In the public meetings held in different places Netaji
subhas called on the people to broadcast the congress ideolos.
on the loth June, he addressed a mammoth meeting of l0,oo0
people at the parade ground. In every meeting subtras Bose
praised the revolutibnaries of chitagong. He recalled the illus-
trious memory of Jatindra Mohan Sengupta and comfortecl the
people by praising the great services rendered by hirn. ln a
crowded meeting held at the J M sen Hall both Netaji and
Ashrafuddin Ahmad chowdhury eloquenily addressed the
audience. At the end of the meeting Netaji paid homage to the
relic of J M sengupta kept reverenily under gro'nd in the
campus. Netaji subhas then ceremoniously hoisted the national
flag in the campus of the hall.
on october 27, 1938, Maulvi eazi Shamsuddin Khaclem, a
member of the Bengal provincial congress public relations
commiltee came to chittagong to discuss with the congress
leaders about organizational activities of the party.
Iirom l93B to 1946 the congress party canre into political
confrontation with the cornmtrnists and the Muslim Le:tgue.
In March 1946, a general election was held. In this
election Mrs Nellie sengupta ttre congress nominee defeated
116 | A History of Chitta$ong

the Communist nominee Mrs Kalpana Dutta (Joshi) by a big

margin.
After the partition the Congress formed government in
West Bengal but in East Pakistan it was gradually becoming
weak and ultimately disappeared from the political scene.
From the days of the Anti Partition movement in 19O5 to
the Partition of Bengal in 1947 the Congress Party upheld
nationalism, secularism and $uided national movements
adroitly against colonial regime.
Cn aecount of its secular ideologr the Congress Party cotrld
attract t.he Muslims to itself. In chittagong the Nationalist
Muslims, the Khilaiat Parby, the Jamiyat e Ulema e Hind took
sides with the Congress on the question of freedom movement.
The Congress Party produced a number of political
leaders, revolutionaries, dedicated social workers and patriots
who played a vital role in the struggle for independence and in
the activities connected with social advancement.
The Nationalist Muslim Party. In the beginning of
the 2oth century the Muslims especially the patriotic Muslims
formed a new party named Muslim Nationalist Party. A
nationalist Muslim is an advocate of or believer in nationalism
rather Indian natioilalism. He believes in a homogenous
culture and in living together in perfect harmony with other
religious sects.
The basic features lf the Nationalist Muslim Party were
common to the Congress Party. Both the parties unitedly
carried out the national movements.
The Muslim Nationalist Party agreed in every
detail with th : icleology of the Khilafat Party. Both the parties
held iclenticir, viervs regarding the manner of conducting the
movement against British regime.
The chiel sp.-lkesman paper of the nationalist Muslims
was che 'SatYabarte'
 Political Parties I LL7

On October 15, 1938, a conference of the nationalist

Muslims was held at the J M Sen Hall. Maulana Maniruzzarnan
Islamabadi, president of the district Krishak Praja Party
inaugurated the conference. Dr. Sanaullah presided over the
meeting. Lokman Khan Sherwani was chosen general
secretary of the conference. The leading members of the
Nationalist Muslim Party attended the conference.
The ideological difference between the nationalist
Muslims and the Muslim lrague brought them face to face.
From the latter part of the I930s the relation between the
nationalist Muslims and the Muslim League was growing
bitter.
The Khilafat Party. Indian Muslims were much
concerrred about the conspiracy of the Allied Powers to dismantle
the Khilafat or leadership of the Islamic community in the wake
of Turkey's defeat.
Secondly, the Muslims of all over the world were
seriously offended by the conspiracy of the Allied Powers to
dismember the Turkish empire.
In the early part of the year l92O a group of Muslim
leaders taking sides in defending the sovereignty of the
Turkish sultan formed the Khilafat Party in which the
Muslims found a powerful forrm to express their grievances.
Within a short time the ideology of the Khilafat Party drew the
Muslim intelligentsia to its fold.
Shaik i Chatgam Maulvi Kazent Ali, a school teacher by
profession was the president and Chowdhury Nazir Ahmad, a
prominent social worker and freedom fighter was the general
secretary of the district Khilafat Party. The greatest orgarizer
of the Khilafat Party was Maulana Maniruzzaman Islamabadi.
Other prominent members of the Khilafat Party were Shah
Badiul Alam, a journalist, Maulvi Abdul Karim a reputed scholar
in Islamic theology, Mohammad Oliullah of'Sandwip, Farrokh
Ahmad Nezampuri, a school teacher and ajournalist, Fakir Mia,
118 | A History of Chittagong

Badshah Mia, Ali Ahmad Oli Islamabadi, a spirited young writer

and a journalist, Ekramul Haq and Serajul Haq, the two sons of
Maulvi KazemAli. The Khilafat Party rapidly spread out all over
the district during Khilafat Non Co-operation movement.
On the 3 I st August, L92l Maulana Mohammad Ali (along
with Gandhiji) visited Chittagong and addressed a large gath-
ering at Gandhi maidan. His speech greatly inspired the Khilafat
agitators to overthrow the foreign domination.
The Khilafat Party in cooperation with the Jamiyat ul
Ulema organized a mammoth meeting in the Jame Masjid pre-
cincts on September 13, 1929, to express grievances against
the continued Jewish oppression on the Palestinian Muslims.
Mohammad Jalaluddin Ahmed the then secretary of the Khilafat
committee worked diligently to make the meeting successful.5
The Khilafat ideology not only played an important role in
the freedonl movement but it also lead to the religious revival-
ism. It created great interest in Islamic learning. Almost all
the Khilafat leaders were men of letters and they wrote
innumerable books and articles on the glorious past of Islam.
The Khilafat Party brought many Muslims of Chittagong
to the doorway of political leadership.
The Swarajya Party. The abrupt cessation of the
Non-Cooperation movement gave birth to a wrdespread discon-
tentment in the Congress Party and led to its division into sepa-
rate groLrps. A dissatisfied faction under the leadership of Motilal
Nehru and Chittaranjan Das founded a new political parLy which
was named the Swarajya Party. It was founded on December
31, 1922 and its manifesto was signed in January, 1923.
The cluestion of entry to the legislature splitted the
Congress Par-ty into two groups. Those who were in favour ol'
joining the assembly gained admittance to the Swarajya Party.
Chittaranjan I)as was nominated president of the Swarajya
Party.
 Political Parties | 119

The Swarajya Party supported the extremists in their

terroristic activites. As a result the secret societies like the
Anushilan Dal and the Jugantar Dal began to act openly.6
The Swarajya Party was in favour of giving the Muslims
more seats in the legislature. The policy of the Swarajya Party
gained political support of the Muslims.
The Swarajya Party, however, never sever itself from the
Congress with which it always maintained close contacts.
The district branch of the Swarajya Party was founded in
1924 and J M Sengupta was nominated its president. After the
death of Chittaranjan Das he became the president of the
provincial committee. Under his able leadership the Swarajya
Party gained increasing popularity in all parts of the province.
J M Sengupta was elected to the provincial assembly on the
Swarajya Parby ticket.
Ttie most remarkable achierrernent of the swarajya party
was the rregotiation with the Muslims on political issues which
lead to an agreement between the Hindus and the Muslims in
L923. This agreement was known as Bengal Pact.
In 1923 election, rnost of the Muslim seats were captured
by the Muslim Swarajists. In Chittagong Nurul Haq Chowdhury
a prominent member of the Swarjya Party was elected to the
assembly.
The Conrmunist Party. The Communist party is ttre
organization of industrial and agricultural labourers. It seized
the power in Russia with the help of army in l9l'2.
The Rtrssian Revolution exercised great influence on the
revolutionaries of Bengal. A number of books and parnphlets
were wr-itten on the fi.ussian Revolution. Cornmunist literature
was freelv distributed in the l:rte l92os. These books ancl
parnphlets herd tremendous influence especially on the youths
of the country.
Cornrade Muzaffar Ahmad (lBgB-1973) was one of ttre
L2O I A History of Chittagong

principal organizer of the Communist Party in the district. In

early l92Os, he made contact with the leftist revolutionary M N
Roy. Together with the leftists he gave the group a shape of a
political party in Calcutta in 1924-25 and named it the Bengal
Workers and Peasant Party. The party published a weekly
paper named 'Langal.'
In 1925 the activities of the Communist Party was
restricted by official decree. In order to carr5r on their political
acivities the Communist Party assumed the name of the
Peasants and Workers Party in 1927. From 1930 to 1934,
during the Chittagong Revolt the party activities were proscribed
by the govenrment regulations.
In 1934 the Communist Party of India gained recognition
as a branch of Communist International. The party adopted
badge of hammer and sickle. In the latter part of the 1930s the
Communist Party organized 'Kishan Sabha' as a part of the
peasant movement. From 1936 to Lg47 Kishan Sabhas were
orSanized in many villages of Chittagong.
On September 11, 1938, Dr Suresh Chandra Banarfi, a
prominent socialist leader visited to Chittagong. He was warmly
received at the railway station. At afternoon he addressed a
large meeting at the J M Sen Hall. He exchanged opinion with
the local leftist leaders regarding the manner of conducting party
activities.
During the Second World War the Comunist Party of India
supported the British government in its war against Nazism.
In l94l the government further relaxed the prohibitive
measures imposed on the Communist Party. As a result the
Chittagong District Communist Party emerged as a disciplined
and coherent political body. Many of the released detenus joined
the Comnrunist Party.
The formation of Students Federation in l93B was a
major step to put the Communist Party in a stronger positiotr.
In almost every higher educational institution Students
 Political Parties I I2I
Federation was formed to contest the students election.
The 'Adhikar', the chief spokesman newspaper of the
Chittagong district Communist Party was being published in
Lyall Road. In Septembers 1939, the paper was proscribed by
the government under 7(3) of the Indian Press Emergency
Powers, 1931. The 'Sangram' another newspaper pertaining to
communist ideology was published in Chittagong town. The
'sangram' was proscribed by the government on January 27,
t940.7
During the period between 1939 and 1941, a number of
bulletins on the communist ideology were circulated through-
out the district.
In the middle of the 1940s, the activities of the Commu-
nist Party were mainly centred on an agricultural movement
called tebhaga movement. In literal sense tebhaga means one
third. The tebhaga demanded for two thirds share of the crops
to be kept by the cultivators and one third for tlre zamindars.
The communists pleaded that the tebhaga would solve the
problems of the peasantry: Through the Kishan Sabha and the
tebhaga movement the communist activists could easily win
the heart and mind of the peasantry.
The Communist ParW became strong enough to contest
for seats in the provincial legislature. In 1946 election the popu-
larity of the party was proved by mass support. Some important
members of the Communist Party in the l94os were Kalpana
Dutta, Ranadhir Dasgupta, Purnendu Kanungo, Nanigopal
Sengupta, Kalpataru Sengupta, Comrade Abdus Sattar etc.
The Praja Samiti or the Krishak Praja Party. tn
1929 Nikhit Banga Praja Samiti was established to help the
cultivator class. Shortly after its foundation, the Samiti opened
a branch in Chittagong. The working committee (1930-31) of
the district Praja Samiti constituted as follows : president - Kl-ran
Bahadur Maulvi Abdus Sattar, general secretary-Abdul Latif ts
A B L, secretary-Debendra Das Chowdhury. The chief organizer
 I22 | A History of Chittagong

of the Samiti was Maulana Maniruzzarnan Islamabadi.

The activities of the Praja Samiti was slowed down during
the period from 1930 to f 934 on account of the government
restrictions irnposed on political activities.
In 1935 Praja Samiti was renamed Krishak Praja Party.
In 1936 Maulana Maniruzzarnan Islamabadi was president and
Ekramul Haq was general secretary of the district. Krishak Praja
Party. In 1937 Maulana Maniruzzaman Islamabadi was elected
to the provincial legislative assembly on the Krishak Praja Party
ticket.
On account of the weakness in central organization and
difference of opinion among the top leaders in the central body,
the popularity of the Krishak Praja Party sharply declined.
According to konard A Gordon, Fazlul Haq inclined towards the
Muslim League for support.
On Febnrary 16, 1939, a meeting of the district Krishak
Praja Party was held. The meeting advised the members to
propose the narne of Maulana Manirazzarnarr Islamabadi as
president of Nikhil Banga Krishak Praja Party.
The meeting proposed the names of following persons as
delegates to the next conference of the party. l. Maulana
Mohammad Maniruzzarrran Islamabadi, 2. Dr. Sanaullah, 3.
Maulvi Md. Ekramul Haq, 4. Maulvi Md. Abdul Monaem, 5. Al
Hajj Maulvi Nurll Afsar chowdhuri (Maghadia), 6. Maulvi Nurrl
Afsar Chowdhury (Mohammadpur),7. Maulvi Golam Sobhan, B.
Maulvi Farroktr Ahmad Nezampuri and others.B All of them were
the leading members of the district Krishak praja party.
In the beginning of the year l93g the ctrief minister and
president of the Krishak Praja Party Fazlul Haq paicl a visit to
chittagong. In 1941 Fazltrl Haq formed the progressive
coalition ministry. In 1943 trazh,rl Haq ministry was replaced by
suhrawardi Nazirnuddin rninistry. The Muslim League minis-
try dealt a great blow to the Krishak Prerja party. In 1946
election Krish:rk Praja Party secured only fbur seats in the
assembly. The political situation at the time made it difficult
 Political Parties I L23

for the Krishak Praja party to survive from the crisis.

The Muslim League. The Muslim kague was founded
by Nawab Salimullah in December, 1906. Its demand was at
that time separate electorate and reserved seats for the
Muslims in the provincial legislature. It opposed subversive
activities against the British government.
In the early stage the Muslirn trague was dominated by
the wealthy and upper class people. According to educationist
Abdur Rahman, Salamat Ali Khan the zaminclar of Dohazari
was one of the founding members of the Muslim kague.g
From 1906 to l93O Muslim kague conducted its polilical
activities in cooperation with other political parties and shared
with others in national movements.
During the Swadeshi and Boycott movements the
Muslim League lent its support to the anti government
agitation though it did not actively take part in political protest.
The Lucknow Pact concluded by the Congress and the
Muslim kague in l9 l6 gave high position to the Muslim trague
in relation to other Muslim political organizations. The pact
provided for the joint action against the British rule. On
September 7, l92O the Muslim League joined the Non
Cooperation and Khilafat movements.
According to t eonard A Gordon, "From the late l92os upto
about 1937....the Muslim League was weak as a national
organization."lo Thi" wanting in strength of the Muslim kague
was due to the predominance of nationalist Muslims as
representatives of the Muslim community. Many nationalist
Muslims, however, supported the Muslim trague and shared
their political views. In L92B the Muslim League presented
Fourteen Points. In spite of the Congress Parby's support to these
points, these were rejected by the government.
It is interesting to note that the district Muslim League
working committee, fornted at a meeting held at the Muslim
Hall on November l, L929 was dominated by either nationalist
Muslims or the Muslims of other political affiliation. Most of
L24 | A History of Chittagong

the Muslim Lrague politicians supported liberal relation with

other political parties. The following panel of office bearers shows
the fact. President : Maulvi Mohammad Nurul Afsar Chowdhury'
M.L.c. Assistant chairmen : Maulana Maniruzzaman
Islamabadi, Mr. Nur Ahmad, Md. Abdul Gani chowdhury, Asad
Ali, shaikh wazed Ali chowdhury, Muzaffar Ahmad chowdhury,
Nazir Ahmad chowdhury, Haji Nazu Meah saudagar,
Mohammad Ekramul Haq, Amanat Khan, Mohammad Ibrahim,
Mohammad Hossain. General secretary : Mv. Hakim Rafiq
Ahmad. Joint secretary : Mv. Golam Qader chowdhury. Assis-
tant secretaries : Syed FaizAhmad Chowdhury' S M Mofakkar'
lI
Jalal Ahmad, Abdul Monaem. cashier : Mv. Nur Ahmad-
on April 18, 1930 the Muslim kague joined the All Mus-
lim Conference held at the parade ground under the over all
guid ance of Maulana Mani r:ltzzaman I slamabadi.
In the early part of the l93os the Muslim League was
taking a shape of organized political parby. In l93l Maulvi Abdul
Khaleque, a retired sub judge and Shaikh Rafiuddin Siddiqie
were president and general secretary of the district Muslim
League respeectively. under their dynamic leadership the
recruitment activities geared up for playing stronger role in
provincial politics. They held their posts till 1937.
In the latter half of the t93Os the Muslim kague assumed
an aggressive role in establishing its ideology. The ideological
difference between the Muslim League and the nationalist
Muslims was becoming wider. The nationalist Muslims believed
in Muslim nationalism on all India basis. on the otherhand,
the Muslim League believed in separate identity of the
Muslims. The nationalist Muslims believed in heterogeneity
of culture. The Muslim lrague believed in homogeneity of the
Muslim culture anci the protection of Muslim interests'
Everywhere in the district the nationalist Muslims suffered ill
treatment by the aggressive Muslim leaguers'
The Krishak Praja Party became their next target of
 Political Parties I L25

attack. The Muslim League circulated pamphlets attacking

Maulana Maniruzzarnan Islamabadi in 1937.
The Muslim kague activists demonstrated discoutesy to
Professor HumaSrun Kabir, President of the Congress Socialist
Party while he was delivering his speech in a crowded meeting
held on July 9, 1938.
The coalition government formed by the Krishak Praja
and the Muslim kague (1939-41) ccntributed greatly to the
growing influence of the Muslim lrague.
The All Bengal Muslim Students kague played a vital role
in strengthening the Muslim kague in the district level. In
1941 Fazlul Qader Chowdhury was nominated general secre-
tary of All India Aligarh Muslim Students Federation. Later on,
he became the president of the Chittagong branch of All Bengal
Muslim Students League. Some of his associates were Abu Saleh
Muhammad Mofakkar of Chandgaon and Ziawl Islam
Chowdhury.
Mr. Mohammad Ali Jinnah made a clarion call to the
Muslims to observe the'Deliverance Day'on December 2, 1939.
His call was warrnly responded to by the Muslim kague.
In the Lahore conference of the Muslim League the
demand for the creation of a Muslim majority state was
presented. The demand of a separate state for the Muslims not
only roused much rejoicings among the Muslims but it changed
the course of action of the Muslim politics. From 1940 the
Muslim League inclined gradually to the separatist movement.
The post Second World War period witnessed rapid increase
in political activities of the Muslim League. The organizational
activities of the Muslim trague leader Abul Hashem contrib-
uted much to the strengthening o{'the N{uslim kague. He laid
stress on the nlass communication and decentralization of party
activities. Within a short time the organization was extendecl
to ttre subdivision and the thana level. "All District and
Subdivisional branches of the League were instructed to
126 | A History of Chittagong
l2 In thse
arrange their permanent party offices."
reorgani zational activities Abut Hashem was inspired by the
13
Communist Party of India-
In 1945 A K Khan and Fazlul Qader chowdhury were
nominatecl president and secretary of the district Muslim
kague respectively. Jahur Ahmed Chowdhury held the post of
publicity secretary.
^fhe'Azad" edited by Maulana Akram Khan was the chief
spokesrnan newspaper of the Muslim lrague. It was very much
popular among the Muslims of the district.
The Muslim kague ministry (1943-45) headed by Khwaja
Nazimuddin and H S Suhrawardi helped much to increase the
strength of the Muslim kague. On April 24, 1946 H S Suhrawardi
singularly formed kague ministry which lasted till 1947. In
1946 Shaikh Rafiuddin Siddiqi was elected president of the
district Muslim kague.
The Muslim League launched a vigorous election
campaign throughout the province against other Muslim
dorninated parties in order to achieve political dominance in
the assembly. The campai$n was amazingly successful. In
1946 election out of the l2l Muslim seats in the provincial
assembly the Muslim trague gained 115 seats.
The meeting of the council of the All India Muslim lrague
held on January 6, 1946 reasserted "the Muslim demand for
the establishrnent of a ['ull soverei$n Pakistan as the only
solution of the Indian constitutional problem."
Many of the Muslim l,eague leaders, however, were not
in favour of joinin$ Pakistan. Sarat Bose, H S Suhrawardi and
Abul Hashem aclvocated an independent and united tsengal.
Even "Mohammad Ali Jinnah is said to have given his blessing
to such a Inove."l4 B,rt the hard liner Muslim League metnbers
under the leadership of Khwaja Nazimuddin wanted to put
eastern Bengal united ',^rith Pakistan. Ultimately, they were
successful in winning the public mind and East tsengal changed
 Political Petrties I L2Z

to East Pakistan to be incorporated within pakistan.

The Hindu Mahasabha. The aim of the Hindu
Mahasabha was the protection and promotion of all that
contributed to the advancement of Hindu society and culture.
It also aimed at the establishment of a Hindu Rashtra.
The Bengal Provincial Hindu sabha as a distinct political
orgarization came into existence in early lg2Os. In the latter
part of l93os the orthodox section of the congress left it to join
thgHindu Mahasabha.
't
Tt.r. is no definite information about the formation of
the working committee of the district Hindu Mahasabha and
its functions. In 1936 the general secretary of the Mahasabha
was Jogesh Chandra Paul. one of the most prominent leaders
of the Hindu Mahasabha was Suresh chandra Bana{i.l5
under the Hindu Mahasabha's supervision the obhoy
Mitra's Smashan Ghat, the chief crematorium in the town for
the purpose of burning Hindu corpses was reconstructed.
The activities of the Hindu Mahasabha was not great
enough to notice its impact on the Hindu society of the district.
Jamiyat ul Ulema. The chittagong branch of the
Jamiyat ul ulema i Hind was founded by Maulana Maniruzzaman
Islamabadi in 1919. He was not only the principal adviser but
also he formulated principles for the guidance of the parLy. The
party was workir,.g in co-operation with the nationalist Mus-
lims and the Khilafatists during the Non Co-operation-Khilafat
movement (r92o-22) T}i'e Anjumane ulema merged into the
Jamiyat ul Ulema.16
Towards the end of the l92os the secretary of the Jamiyat
was Hakim Maulvi Rafiq Ahmad.lT
The Jamiyat ul ulema played a vital role in organizing All
Muslim conference held on April 18, lg3o.l8
In the latter part of the l93os the party took active part in
up holding the interests of the peasantry
128 | A History of Chittagong

In 1936 poet Muhammad Ibrahim was nominated

chairman of the district Jamiyat ul Ulema Party'
on January 16, 1938 a large public meeting was held in
Sarafbhata (Rangu nia LJpazilla) under the auspices of Jamiyat
ul Ulema. Poet Muhammad Ibrahim presided over the
meeting.
The Fotward Block. The Forward Block was founded
by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose. It may be mentioned that the
Forward Block was formed as a leftist $roup of the Congressrg
and supported the ideas and beliefs of socialism. The party
programmes were direct action in relation to the struggle for
independence, repudiation of all compromises and aimed at the
establishment of a socialistic state in India. The 'Forward' ed-
ited by Bhupendra Kumar Dutta was the spokesman paper of
the Forward Block.
It is not definitely known when the chittagong branch of
the Forward Block was opened. Many of the ex-detenus joined
the party. Maulana Maniru 7/,aman:I Islamabadi was an active
member of the Forward Block.
The Radical Democratic Party. At the time of the
out break of the Second World War M N Roy transformed his
small group the Irague of Radical Congressmen into a new
political party. In 194O, it was named Radical Democratic Party'
The aims and objects of the Radical Democratic Party have
been publicly announced in the written statement of the party
meeting held in Bombay in the last week of December, 1946'
The party had many things in common with the ideas of other
left wing political Parties.
Lokanath Baul of famous chittagong Armoury Raid
joined the Radical Democratic Party after his release from the
jail. He devoted himself to the organization of the party in
Chittagon$. The party, however, never gained public attention
on any scale.
 Political parties I t2g
Note :

I For details see s.B. eanungo, The chittagong Reuolt, rg3o-s4

2 Tll.e Deshoprtga, Jan Sl, 1939, p. 7
3 Thomas A Rusch' 'Role of the Congress Socialist party in the
Indian
National congress', qt. konard A Gordon, Bengal, The Nationalist
Moue_
ment, 1876-1940, p. 259
4 the Deshapriya, tS4S,p. Zs
5 T}ne Bangla Gazette, f929, p. 6
6 Gordon, op. cit., p. 193
7 shishir Kar' BntLsh shosane Bqiegapta Bangro Boi p. 323
8 T}:e Destnpnya, Feb. 19, f939
9 Abdur Rahman, Jatahtlq Mane pare
I O Gordon, op. cit, p. 27g

I I The Bangla gazette, tg2g

12 History oJ Bangladesh, j, S9t
13 lbid.., p. 392
14 Gordon, op. cit, p. 2gl
15 Ttre Panchqjanga, Autumn Number, lg36
16 T}ne Bangla Gozette. tg2g. No 15
17 lbid.. July, tg29
l8 lbrd, l93O
l9 The ftabosl f946, p. 422
 ChaPter 8
IndePendence Movement

The English acquired chittagong through a secret treaty

with the Mughals in which no mention was made of the
transfer of land by the Mughals to the English' But the English
began to assert authority to rule the district and gradually
tightened their grip over the district'
The people would not concede their political position to
the British imperialism. They believed that the English were
usurpers and they had no right of governing the country' This
adversarial feeling about the English authority $ave birth to
the resistance movement, the aim of which was to overthrow
the foreign domination and to establish the government by its
own people.
The freedom movement can be divided into two phases'
First, the revolts against British rule in the first half of the
nineteenth century in order to drive out the British people from
Indian soil. second, the independence movement in the first
half of the twentieth century characterrzed by nationalistic'
political and terroristiic activities'
The strong opposition to the British rule was manifested
in the wahabi movement, Fataizl movement, Titu Mir's
rebellion, Fakir sannyasi movement and the sepoy Mutiny' All
these revolts involved violence and were suppressed with
utmost crueltY.
The sepoy Mutiny , 1857. The British occupation of
the Indian subcontinent stimulated a stron$ anti-British and
anti-western feeling among the Indian recmits of the British
arrny. The Indian recruits called sepoys rose in rebellion in
L857 a$ainst the authoritative behaviour of the British
 Independence Movement I lgl
government.
The sepoy mutiny started at Barrackpore and at a rapid
rate it spread all over northern India. They killed a large num_
ber of British people and set fire to the British establishments.
According to Buckland, "chittagong was theatre of a
serious mutiny.'l At the time of the mutiny the 2nd, 3rd and
the 4th companies of the 34th Regiment Native Infantry were
garrisoned in chittagong. At the outbreak of the rebellion in
June the European inhabitants of the town became very much
paniclcy. According to the magistrate.w H Henderson, -... A
great many of the families have embarked upon vessels l,rnng
at anchor in the harbour, and have left their houses.'2 Accord-
ing to the report of the officiating commissioner, dated Nov. 19,
L857, "... the three companies of the 34th Regiment Native In-
fantry rose suddenly at I I p. m last evening, They released all
prisoners from the jail, killed one bark andaz (native constable),
carried away all the treasure, and left the station at 3 A M this
morning with three government elephants, ammunition and
treasure."3 The cornmissioner further writes, ..,...the mutiny
was evidently planned very suddenly and as suddenly carried
out."4
The mutineers after leaving chittagong marched
northwards, and on the 22nd Nov. they crossed the river Feni
and entered the territory of the Raja of t{ill Tipperah. Their
party, consisted in all of about b00 persons, including women,
children, and the persons set free from the jail.s
The leader of the mutineers in chittagong was Thakur
Br;x.
The Anti Partition and swadeshi Movement
The government's decision to divide tsengal presidency
into two provinces raised a storm of protest throughout the
province, particularly in the Bengalee predominant areas. This
protest gave rise to Anti-partition movement which is mani-
fested in the widespread political agitation, popularly called
132 | A History of Chittagong
Swadeshi movement-
The Anti-Partition movement within a short time turned
to Bengali nationalistic movement. The Bengali nationalism
is revealed in Swadeshi or love of one's owrl country and he has
a feeling that his country is better than any other. Thus the
Swadeshi ideologr is closely connected with nationalism.
Nationalism or patriotic feeling is basically an western
idea. The western educated middle class intelligentsia
propagated Swadeshi idealogy among the people'
In the swadeshi ideology Bengal has been conceived as
the mother of its inhabitants (Deshamatrika). Bangamata has
been personified deity of Bengal. To the Bengalees partition of
Bengal means to cut limbs from the body of Bangamata.
The awakening of Swadeshi ideas is manifested in the
patriotic writings related to the philosophical and theological
ideas. In chittagong, patriotic writings in the form of poetical
works of Nabin Chandra Sen, Shasanka Mohan Sen, Jibendra
Kumar Dutta, Bipin Behari Nandi created a wave of patriotism.
.Bande Mataram' (Mother, I bow to you). the first line of
the immortal song in praise of mother country, composed by
'mantra' of the
Bankim chandra chatterjee became a political
Swadeshi agitators. It was a conunon si$ht that thousands of
youths of all colrununities going in procession along the streets
singing this immortal song. Throughout the Independence
movement period 'Bande Mataram' becalne co[unon form of
greetings and salutation. It is said that Maulana Akram Khan
liked the singing of 'Bande Mataram"6
A number of writers of musical poems all over
Bengal composed innumerable Swadeshi son$s and lyrical po-
ems. The 'sr,vadeshi Gatha' written by Karnini Kumar
Bhatt.acharyf an(l published in Chittagong was proscribed on
March T, lgl 1.7,\ compilatory work on patriotic songs named
.Bande Mataram' written by Barada charan chakravorty and
Ramani Mohan Das was published in chittagong. The book was
pros.:ribed in 1911 t,nd the writers were officially penalised'8
 Independence Movement I ISS

In order to practise the singing of patriotic songs a music

school named Arya sangeet samiti was founded in 1906.
Throughout the period of the Independence movement this
music school and the great songster surendra Lal Dasgupta
sangeetacharya, one of the founders of the school, played an
important role in rousing patriotic feeling.
The swadeshi Jatra (open air drama) prayed an active and
important role in propagating swadeshi ideas among the rural
folk. Tarak chandra Roy, Durga charan pathak, Govinda Das
chowdhury were some of the well known swadeshi playwrights
of Chittagong.e
In spite of the great popularity of swadeshi dramas, all of
these could not be staged publicly. The district magistrate was
given authority to prohibit the performance of any play that
might incite feeling against the govenrment.
A number of ashrams or religious asyrums were founded
in different parts of the district. In these ashrams the sannyasis
(ascetics) taught their disciples to worship the mother country.
In fact, these ashrams were the centres of Swadeshi activi-
ties. The Jagatpur Ashram was established by purnananda
Paramahamsa about the year lgo2. Another political sanctu-
ary was Fateyabad Guhashram. It was burnt down by the police
during anti partition movement. The Medhas Muni Ashram
situated on the Karaldenga Hill Range was an important place
of gathering of militant patriots.
The chittagong Association, estabrished in lg75 was the
first organized body dealing with politics and public affairs. From
the beginning, the Association was very critical of the
government's policy of partitioning the province. The
Association boldly protested against the enactment of repres-
sive laws and upheld political privileges of an inclividual. The
Association made a vehement protest against the enactment
of the Code of Criminal Procedure Bill, lBgB.lo
Bncouragement of home industries and favouring the
134 I A History of Chittagong

homemade products were the two principal subjects of Swadeshi

ideologr. Nalini Kanta Sen, the enthusiastic young Swadeshi
agitator and his associates established an organization named
'shilpa Raksini Samiti' in 1896. The aim of the Samiti was to
implement such measures as abstaining from the
purchase of British manufactures, the encouragement of
indigenous manufacture and production of their substitutes.
The Swadeshi agitators of chittagong pleaded for the
establishment of national schools under private management
for educating the pupils usually of nationalistic spirit- The
renowned nationalist leader Harish Chandra Dutta founded the
National High School in Chittagong town in 1896. He was the
Headmaster of this institution for many years. Shah Badiul Alam
founded a school in his native village Ijjatnagar in 19O5. This
school never received government reco$nition.
The examples of chittagong nationalists inspired the
Swadeshis of Calcutta. The National Council of Education was
founded in Calcutta on march 11, 1906. The council urged the
nationalists to establish national school in their respective
arbas.
io make the youths desirous of reading, a book stall
named Chhatra Bhandar was established in Chittagong by
Nalini Chowdhury to supply books especially patriotic and
religious books to the Youths.
In July, l9O5 some influential merchants and zarnindars
started the Bengal Steam Navi$ation Company with a capital of
Rs I lac. The company successfully ran a passenger ship
service between Chittagong, Akyab and Rangoon despite stiff
competition from European companies.
In 1892 the government of India put up a proposal that
the Chittagong Division should be transferred from Bengal to
Assarn. In l896 the chief commissioner of Assam Sir William
Ward suggested that Chittagon$ Division should be transferred
to Assam. The goverrlment decision raised a storm of protest
all over the district.
 Independence Movement | 135

In the divisional conferences, held in different places of

Chittagong Division, a strong protest was expressed against the
decision of the government to transfer Chittagong to Assam.
The first Chittagong Divisional Conference was convened
on March 29 and 3O, l9O2 at the parade ground in the town.
The delegates expressed very strong disapproval of the
partition of Bengal.
On March 13 and 14, l9O3 the second Chittagong
Divisional Conference was held at Comilla town. Jatra Mohan
Sen, Shasanka Mohan Sen, Annada Charan Dutta, Maulvi
Kazerrr Ali were some of the leading delegates from
Chittago.rg.l I
The Third Chittagong Divisional Conference was held at
Noakhali on April 2 and 3, 1904. Jatra Mohan Sengupta
presided over the conference. The confeunce was attended by a
large group of delegates from Chitagong.
In all these divisional conferences the delegates expressed
strong opposition to the partition of Bengal.
The larger portion of the Muslims of Bengal took stand
agairlst the partition of Bengal. The Muslim Nationalist Party
opposed the partition. Syed Amir Ali was not in favour of the
partition. The Central National Muhammadan Association
opposed the partition. l2
An all communities conference was held at the parade
ground on October l, 1903. The conference was inaugurated by
Salamat Ali l(han and was presided over by Prasanna Kumar
Roy.t3 In this conference the speakers strongly protested against
the government action of partitioning Bengal.
On Sunday January 17, 1904 a mass protest
meeting was heid in the parade ground. The meeting was
presided over by Anwar Ali Khan, a member o1'the District
Board. ia The meeting was al.tended by such eminent Swadeshi
leaders as Kamala Kanta Sen, Jatramohan Sen, Kanta Prasad
Hazari, Obaidur Rahman Khan, Mia Reazuddin Ahrnad Munshi,
f 36 | A History of Chittagong
J R Percival, Nagendra Kumar Roy, Shasanka Mohan Sen,-Jagat
Chandra Raksit and others. The gathering was so very large
that the parade ground could not accomodate it. Firy speeches
were delivered against the proposed partition.
At the end of the meeting some of the leaders were
deputed to meet the divisional commissioner and to hand over
to him a memorandum containing the resolutions adopted in
the meeting.
A few days after, a body of delegates under the leadership
of Kamala Kanta Sen. Prasanna Kumar Roy, Maulvi Anwar Ali
Khan, Nagendra Kumar Roy started for calcutta to meet the Lt.
Governor. On the loth February they met Lt Gover-nor Sir
Andrew Fraser and handed over to him a copy of the resolutions
adopted in the meeting.
All these protests, however, could not move the govern-
ment back from the decision. In Novembbr, l9O3 Sir Andrew
Fraser, the Lt. Governor of Bengal wrote a note strongly
advocating the transfer of Chittagong Division to Assam.
On February 15, l9O4 Lord Curzon paid a visit to
chittagong and stayed for two days. He addressed a large public
meeting in which he explained the advantages of the creation
of the new provinces. He also exchanged opinions with local
leaders and comforted them \Mith the idea that the proposed
creation of the new province would make the port of Chittagong
more prosperous.
In August 1905, the Boycott movement united with the
Swadeshi movement to carry on struggle more vigorously against
partition of Bengal. Boycott movement means to abstain from
using and buyinS British goods. Boycott of British goods was the
negative side of the Swadeshi movement.
The Swadeshi and Boycott movements took turn to
militan. nationalism which is embodied in the formation of
samitis or associations.
The Anushilan Samiti was established on March24, IgO2.
 Independence Movement | 137

The Chittagong branch of the Anushilan Samiti was established

in 19O6 at the instance of Bipin Chandra Paul.15
The Jugantar Dal was founded by Dr. Bhupendra Nath
Dutta in the early part of 1906. The activities of the Jugantar
Dal had not been started in Chittagong before the t92Os.
The Chattagram Hitasadhani Samiti was founded by Jatra
Mohan Sen and his associates during the early period of the
Swadeshi movement. It was established for the purpose of trans-
forming Swadeshi ideas into practical experience of the work.
Though outwardly it was an organization aimed at the social
upliftment, in reality, it was linked with Swadeshi agitation.
The Hitasadhani Samiti was established in many progressive
villages.
An organization named chattagram Hindu Hitoishini
Sabha is referred to in the contemporary newspapers as a se-
cret organization.16 O.tt-ardly, the purpose of the organization
was to promote social being of the Hindu society. In reality, the
members of this organization worked together with the mili-
tant group.-

The Anti Partition a$itation was intensified by

degree from the, beginning of the year 1905. Swadeshi ideology
now turned to the revoltionary creed. It was manifested in the
counter strike against the government. The agitators openly
defied the government orders sometimes in an aggressive way.
The government of Bengal issued circular after circular
banning the public meetings and crying of anti $overnment
slogans. On October lO, l9O5 R W Carlisle promulgated a
circular declaring the slogan of Bande Mataram illegal. It also
prohibited to join an agitational procession.
On September lB, 1905, Bhupendra Nath Bose came
to Chittagong and delivered patriotic speeches in public
meetings.lT
It was decided that October 16, 1905, the date of the
execution of the proposed partition would be observed as black
f 38 | A History of Chittagong

day. The programme included arrangement of protest meetings,

to go to anti-goverrlment processions and crying of patriotic
slogans.
On December I l, l9O5 the agitators called for a transport
strike in protest against Lt Governor Bamfflde Fuller's visit to
Chittagong.
On March 15, f 906 a day long programme marked by go-
ing in procession along the streets, crying of patriotic stogans,
giving speeches in public meetings and burning of foreign goods
was arranged.
On April 20, 1906 the bust sculpture of Queen Victoria in
the Municipal Garden was blemished. Next day, Mr. Dixon, the
magistrate collector of Chittagong cleansed the sculpture.
The first May was observed as protest day. The workers
went on a strike against the oppressive actions of the
$overnment.
On September 2, 1906 Bipin Chandra Paul came to
Chittagong and gave Swadeshi speeches in a very strong
language for three successive days.
On October 16, the first anniversary of the partition of
Bengal was observed in memory of a painful event. A whole day
strike, Rakhi Bandhan and non cooking (fastin$ were some of
the programmes intended to remind the people of a sad event.
Throughout the Swadeshi movement period corps of
volunteers were formed in almost every village. These volun-
teers played a vital role in spreading Swadeshi ideas among
the masses.
The cornbative spirit of the volunteer corps could be
understood from the beginning of the year rgor. Their main
task was the encouragement of physical culture and distribu-
tion of inflamatory handbills. The volunteers distributed thirty
thousand handbills at a siva Ratri Mela (Sitakunda) held in
February, lgo7.lB rhe Police Report states that there were 5g
volunteers upto June, 1907.19 In reality, the size of the
 Independence Movement | 139

volunteer corps was much bigger than the number supplied by

the police.
In April , I9O7 , the District Conference (Chattagram
Sammilani) under the sponsorship of the Hitasadhani Samiti
was scheduled to be held at Quepara. An elaborate programme
was chalked out containing a week long exhibition and fair,
showing skill in physical exercises etc. Bipin Chandra Paul,
the chief guest was included among the principal speakers. At
the time of the starting of the meeting the police made an armed
raid without warning on the meeting and dispersed the
gathering with sticks.
The Muslim nationalists joined the Congress to work
together in conducting the Anti-Partition movement.
The militant nationalism gradually turned to
terrorism from the latter part of the year L9O7. However, there
was no terroristic activities in Chittagon$ throughout the
period of the Swadeshi movement.
The partition settlement was withdrawn in
December 191I in the face of strong opposition of the people.
The revocation may be viewed as a triumph of Bengalee
nationalism.
The Swadeshi movement was an extremely important
event in the history of the freedom movement. As a result of
this movement the Bengalees became conscious of their
common history, language and heritage which aided all the
people of all parts of the province in forming a national
identity.
The Bengal Provincial Conference was held on 6th and
7th April 1912 at the parade ground. The delegates expressed
their satisfaction at the repeal of the partition and thanked the
government for the steps taken in this direction.
Extremist activities. From l9L2 instances of secret
killing increased atarmingly. In most cases the informers and
those who sided with the government were the targets of
14O I A History of Chittagong

attack. In l9l2 Jatindra Ban, the mohanto of sitakunda was

assassinated. In 1913 a man named Sudhangsu was shot dead
in the town. Jagat chandra Ghosh a pleader in the patiya court
was assassinated.2o In Lg24 Premananda Dutta a young
revolutionary shot the police officer Mr. Prafulla Roy dead. The
motive of these secret killings was doubtful. The police and the
detective department do not help much to find out the causes of
the killings.
In 1913 Chandrasekhar De, a revolutionary was arrested
on the ground of his alleged connection with Rajabazar bomb
conspiracy. He was sentenced to life imprisonment. Chandra
sekhar was the first revolutionary who was connected with
violent conspiracy against government.
Political agitation. In 1916 Home Rule League was
established jointly by Dr. Annie Besant and Balagangadhar
Tilak. The Home Rule movement gave birth to self government
movement in r9l7- 18. within a short time it gained wide spread
popularity. In the public meetings organized by the agitators,
the speakers demanded greater share in the administration.
In l9l8 a group of young revolutionaries formed a secret
revolutionary organization. The prominent members of this
organization were Surya Sen, Anurup Chandra Sen, Charu
Bikash Dutta, Nagen Sen and Ananta Singh. The deep
difference of opinion within the organization led to the break
up of the organization.
The Montague Chelmsford Reform Bill failed to fulfil the
desire of the Indian people. Popular unrest spread out all over
the country. To suppress the agitation a severe legislation called
the Rowlatt Act was passed in lglg. It provided for arrest and
trial even without a show of normal legal procedure. on the
sixth April, l9l9 the whole country did go on strike in
protest of the Rowlatt Act.
To express their grievances a large number of people
gathered at the field of Jalian walabagh on the l3th April, lglg.
 Independence Movement I L4L

To disperse the agitators the police started firing of guns on the

innocent mob. As a result thousands of people were either killed
or wounded on the spot. This cruel action overcame the whole
nation \Mith grief and caused hatred against British rule all over
the country.
The Non Cooperation and Khilafat Movements
In l9l9 the Congress launched non violent non co-opera-
tion movement against colonial rule. Non Co-operation means
the refusal to co-operate with the British mlers in every field.
Its aim was to compel the British government of India to grant
self government.
Indian Muslims were very much concerned about the
conspiracy of the Allied Powers to dismantle the Turkish
sultan who was thought as the leader of the Muslim world. The
Allied Powers' plan of dismemberment of the Turkish empire
greatly offended the Muslims of all Muslim countries. In lgf g
the Khilafat Party started the Khilafat Movement all over India.
The Nationalist Muslims and the Jamiyat ul Ulema took part
with the Khilafat Party in conducting the movement. In 192O
the Muslim lrague joined the Khilafat movement. Throughout
the period of the movement Khilafat meetings were held
everywhere in the district. A market stall of swadeshi goods
called khilafat stores was opened by khilafat agitators of
Chittagong at Calcutta.
The Non Co-operation movement and the Khilafat
movement were a joint action against the authoritative rule.
Gandhiji condemned the British administration in India as
'Satanic Rule.' '"The Khilafat agitators openly described Great
Britain to be the arch enemy of Islam .-2r In Chittagong Jatra
Mohan Sen was giving an overall direction to the Non Co-op-
eration movement and Shaikh e Chatgam Mohammad Kazem
Ali was giving guidance to the Khilafatists. Maulana
Maniruzzaman Islamabadi was the chief organizer of the
Khilafat movement. The death of Jatra Mohan Sen in the early
period of the movement was an irreparable loss to the
I42 | A History of Chittagong
movement.
The Non Cooperation and the Khilafat leaders jointly
announced the following common actions. (a) resignation of titles
and honorary offices, (b) resignation of posts in the government
and government aided senrices, (c) refusal to pay taxes, (d) boy-
cott of government educational institutions, (e) resignation of
services in the police and in the army.
Jatindra Mohan Sengupta, Prasanna Kumar Sen, Moksada
Ranjan Kanungo, Mahim Chandra Das and host of other legal
practitioners gave up their legal profession. Professor Nripendra
Chandra Banarji relinquished his job as vice-principal of
Chittagong College and founded 'Saraswat Ashram'.
On the l4th March, 1921, Chittaranjan Das came to
Chittagong to preach the doctrine of Non Cooperation. He
delivered an eloquent speech in the town hall defending the
anti government agitation. In the suune platform Jatindra Mohan
Sengupta,I{azemAli, Pratap Chandra Guha Roy, Tripura Charan
Chowdhury, Prasanna Kumar Sen, Shamsuddin Ahmad, Shah
Badiul Alam and other leaders addressed the meeting.
Chittaranjan Das called on the youth to put an end to the
British rule and to establish Swaraj or self government.
Jatindra Mohan Sengupta resorted to strong measures
against the government. He called on the employees and
labourers to abstain from working in government workshops.
The employees of the Burmah Oil Company in collaboration with
Steam Navigation Company did go on strike on April 17 , L921.
On the lst May the labourers of all government establishments
abstained from work. On May 4, 1921 the people did go on strike
in protest of the imposition of 144 Act. In a public meeting, J M
Sengupta and other leaders delivered fiery speeches. The
district magistrate Mr Strong invited J M Sengupta and others
for a table talk but it ended in failure. Tea garden labourers
stopped working in the tea gardens. On the lTth and the l8th
May, the coolies at the steamer ghats refused to work. The
coolie strike brought the riverports to a complete deadlock.
 IndePendence Movement | 143

Tea garden strike and the exodus of coolies from the tea
gardens aggravated the situation. On the 20th and the 22nd
May the police made violent attacks on the assembled tea gar-
den coolies in the steamer ghats. The employees of the Assam
Bengal Railway did go on strike on the 24tl: and the 25th May.
These concerted refusal to work by the employees almost
paralysed the business transactions of the whole province.
To check the strikes and public meetings the government
undertook strong measures. Laws were enforced prohibiting all
kinds of anti government activities. On July 2, 1921, Jatindra
Mohan Sengupta, Mdhim Chandra Das and l6 others broke 144
and courted arrest and imprisonment. On July, 24, the police
forcefully dispersed a gathering of protesters at Pahartali- A
number of agitators were injured, some very seriously. Next
day the police enforced I44 Act in the city.
on July 27, on breaking I44 a mammoth gathering was
held at Gandhi Maidan. The police dispersed the meeting and
arrested Mrs. Nellie Sengupta and others.
Mahatma Gandhi accompanied with Maulana Mohammad
Ali came to Chittagong on Wednesday, August 31 , 1921, to preach
and expound the doctrine of Satyagraha and Khilafat ideology.
A mammoth meeting of about 20,000 people was held at Gandhi
Maidan. In this meeting Gandhiji ur$ed the audience to learn
how to spin with the help of 'charka'. Both the respected
leaders called for the deliverance of the country from forei$n
rule. In this meeting the young volunteers under the
leadership of Chandrasekhar De did praiseworthyjob. Gandhiji
stayed with Sengupta and was guided by Nripen Banarji.22 Next
day Gandhui and Mohammad Ali left Chittagong at 8 P M.
From ttre22nd to the 24th september, 1921 Urmila Devi,
sister of Chittaranjan Das gave a series of patriotic speeches
in a number of public meetings at different venue, in the town.
At this time the number of political arrests was speeded
up. On Sept. 23, I92I, the renowned Khilafat leader MaulviAbdul
144 -l A History of Chittagong

Karim was alTested and sentenced to one year imprisonment.

On Sept. 25, J M Sengupta along with a number of a$itators
was arTested. On Oct. 4, Professor Nripen Banarji and the well
known Sikh Guru Kripaldas Udasi were arresed and sentenced
to one year improsonment each.
On October 19, J M Sengupta and others were brought
before the court under Police Act, 151 Penal Code and Article
32. Each of them were sentenced to three months imprison-
ment. Kalisankar Chakravorty (editor of the Jyoti') Sukhendu
Bikash Sengupta, Premananda Dutta, Serajul Haq, Mahim
Chandra Das, Dinananda Swami and others received
punishment of imprisonment.
In order to restrain public excitement the authorities
decided to transfer J M Sengupta from Chittagon$ Jail to Alipore
Central jail. With this view the prisoners on the 2otl:r Octher,
I92I were taken to Chittagong Railway Station. A large
number of agitators gathered along the road and cried slogans
against the transfer. The news paper narrates the events that
developed afterwards.
The procession (of the agitators) having reached the
approaches of the railway station, a posse of Gurkhas
numbering about a hundred and armed with guns....
suddenly sprang upon innocent and peaceful persons with
all the savagery they could command. They assaulted right
and left anything and everSrthing that came in their way.... It
is reported, nearly a hundred persons got bleeding wounds
in different parts of their bodies and about 3OO persons
received aching blows.23
On the 24th October, the employees of Assam Bengal
Railway did go on strike.
Shortly afterwards, Maulvi Mohammad Kazerl Ali, presi-
dent of the Khilafat Party, Kalisankar Chakravorty (editor, the
Uyoti'), Md. Serajul Haq were arrested. Mohammad Kazem Ali
was sentenced to ten months imprisonment. Shah Badiul Alam,
Farrokh Ahmad Nezampuri were arrested and imprisoned.
 IndePendence Movement | 145

Prasanna Kumar Sen was sentenced to two and a half year im-
prisonment, Mokshada Ranjan Kanungo was sentenced to one
and half years imprisonment. Tripura charan chowdhury and
Umesh Chandra Guha were sentenced to one year imprison-
ment each. They were kept in Alipore jail. Ramesh charan
Raksit, Jamini Mohan BaSu, Ratneswar Chakraborty, Barada
Prasad Nandi, Dwijendra Mohan Kundu, Nazir Ahmad
24
Chowdhury suffered imprisonment.
During the Non Cooperation Khilafat movement about 610
persons courted alTest and 488 persons suffered imprisonment
of various terms.2S ln a very few other districts in the subcon-
tinent the act of arresting people on mass scale breaking
government regulation took place.
on February 12, 1922, Gandhiji called off the Non co-
operation Movement. In March he was arrested. The failure of
the Non- Cooperation Khalafat movement $ave rise to commu-
nal tension. On August 9, lord Lytton visited to Chittagong'
Growth of Extremism. The post Non-co-operation
period is marked by the $rowth of extremism in the struggle for
independence.
There were many factors that contributed to the growth of
extremism in Chitagon$. Some of these are as follows.
During the Non Co-operation movement the activities of
the agitators in defiance of government regulation and the cruel
measures taken by the government to deal with the agitators
brought both the parties face to face with terroristic activities
on both sides.
Publication of inflamatory books greatly contributed to the
growth of terroristic activites. Among these books' 'Bartaman
Rananiti' published by Abinash Chandra Bhattacharya was a
practical manual of the revolutionaries dealing with how to
make bombs and handting of fire u..-".26 The book has been
described by James campbell Kerr as "the principal revolution-
ary text b,ook.' Tarun Bangali' edited by Brajabehari Barman
 146 | A History of Chittagong

Roy, Uaubaner Dak', 'Fansir Ashirbad' written by pulakesh De

sarkar, 'Biplaber Boli', 'Taruner Abhisar' written by Bhupendra
Nath Raksit Roy, 'Biplaber Pathey Bharat', written by pulakesh
De sarkar were some of the inflamatory books published
during this period. All these books advocate armed rebellion
against British rule.
The Bolshevik Revolution in Lglz and the Irish Revolu-
tion in t9l9 through l92l greatly encouraged the youths to
engage themselves in violent activities.
Pramod Ranjan chowdhury and Rakhal De two young revo-
lutionaries of chittagong went to Calcutta to receive training
in manufacturing bombs at Daksineswar. According to
revoltinary charu Bikash Dutta, the biographer of pramod
Ranjan, the latter was one of the prinipal organizers of
Daksineswar bomb conspiracy ( r 925). He was arrested and
imprisoned. In collaboration with other prisoners he murdered
I B inspector Bhupendra chatterf i in thejailroom. pramod Ranjan
was sentenced to death and Rakhal De was sentenced to life
imprisonment. Pramod Ranjan was the first martyr who
sacrificed his life for the sake of his country's freedom.
Sukhendu Dutta another youth revolutionary joined
Deoghar conspiracy to overthrow the government. The plot was
leaked out and sukhendu along urith others was taken captive
by police and sentenced to seven years rigorous imprisonment.
The dominance of the political extremism was
obvious at the calcutta session of the congress held in 1g28. A
large delegation headed by surya sen attended the meeting. In
this meeting surya sen conversed with subhash chandra Bose
and some extremists about the political affairs of the district.
In 1928 the great revolutionary Trailolrya Maharaj came
to Chittagong for revolutionary purposes.
In Febru ary, 1929 an organization named the youth Asso-
ciation was founded by the extremists and Ganesh Ghosh was
its general secretary. Another organization named the Students
Association was founded at the same time and t okanath Baul
 Independence Movement | 147

was its general secretary. Possibly Surya Sen was the

president of these two organizations.
The conference arranged by the Chittagong District
Congress Committee on May I I through 13, 1929 indicates the
dominance of the extremist group. The conference was pre-
sided over by Subhash Chandra Bose. Surya Kumar Sen was
its general secretary. The reception committee was presided
over by Mahim Chandra Das. The conference was divided into
following three sessions. (a) The District Youth conference was
presided over by Professor Jyotish Chandra Ghosh and the
general secretary was Ganesh Ghosh (b) The district students
conference was presided over by Professor Nripendra Chandra
Bana{i and l,okanath Baul was the president of the reception
committee. (c) The district women conference was presided over
by Latika Bose. Charubala Duttagiupta and Suhasini Mukherji
were chief supervisors. Pritilata Wadeddar and Kalpana Dutta
were chiefs of the women volunteers. Speeches delivered in
the conference were the clear manifestation of the rebellious
mood.
According to the report of the armoury raid case, the
revolutionaries established six youth clubs in different parts of
the town to give training in physical exercises to the youths.
These clubs were situated in Sadarghat, Nalapara,
Rahamatganj, Brindaban Akhra, Chandanpura and Asadganj.
A Central Physical Culture Association was established
in the precincts of Municipal High School with the approval of
the chairman of the municipality. Ananta Singh was appointed
in January, 1929, its coach with a salary of Rs 50 per month.
Lokanath Baul started giving military training to the volun-
teers in the open space of the J M Sen HaIl.27
In the clubs revolutionary books and pamphlets were
secretly supplied to the youths. [n the club meetings the
revolutionary leaders pleaded for armed rebellion against the
British government. There were free discussions among the
club members about the preparation for war against the
L48 | A History of Chittagong

governmen t.
The revolutionary leaders laid emphasis on the manufac-
ture of bombs and grenades. Ramkrishna Biswas, Tarakswar
Dastidar and Ardhendu Dastidar took the responsibility of
making crackers.
Accordingi to the armoury raid case report, the house of
Ganesh Ghosh was used as a secret store house of weapons,
explosives and bombs.
The death of Jatin Das caused by hunger strike created
ftrrious excitement all over Bengal. On September 15, 1929 a
huge condolence rally was organized by the l'outh Association.
Surya Sen, Ganeh Ghosh, Ambika Chakravorby, Lokanaitl Baul,
Ananta Singh, Nirmal Sen, Tarakeswar Dastidar, Naresh Roy,
Tripura Sen and many others participated in this rally. The
procession carried bannars of revolutionary writings. In the
condolence meeting that followed inflamatory speeches were
given to the attendingi public.
On September 2l , 1929, the annual meeting of the
district Congress Party was held to appoint delegates to the
central committee. 1-he militant groups gained control over the
meer.-ing. Medical practioner Mahim Che-nCra Dasgupta was
elected president of the ciistrict Congress committee. About 3OO
volunteers armed with sticks were kept ready to face any
attack on the part of the opposition group.z8 A serious distur-
bance followed the conclusion of the meeting. During the
skirmish between the two iroups in the streets Sukhendu Dutta
was mortally wounded and a number of people were injured.
The moderate wing of the district congress Party orga-
nized meetings in support of the civil disobedience at several
places. The speakers asked the audience to revive swadeshi
spirit- and ti trnitedly resist the foreign domination. In a
meeting held irr ()ctober, 1929 at Shikarpur, l.ripura Charan
Chowdhury presided over the meeting. Charu Bikash Dutta,
Hirenlra lal Chowdhury, Mahim Chandra Das and others
 Independence Movement I L49

addressed the audience to boycott foreign goods.2g

From the beginning of the year 1930 the radical activi-
ties of the extremists were intensified by degree. The residence
of Ganesh Ghosh, the Sadarghat club and the Congress office
became the principal centres of secret activities.3o Besides the
above mentioned bases, the canteen of Abinash, situated near
Sadarghat club played an important part in the communication
among the revolutionaries.
In the meeting of the All India Congress Working
Committee held on January 2, 1930, "it was decided to observe
a day all over India as the Purna Swaraj Day and the 26t}:.
January, l93O was fixed for the purpose."
Accordingly on January 26, l93O the National Flag was
hoisted all over India including Chittagong. The brave youths
of Chittaogng came forward to translate the Congress declara-
tion for Independence into a reality.
Civil Disobedience and the Chittagong Revolt (1930-
34)
The Congress' started the civil disobedience movement
on January 26, 1930. Civil disobedience refers to any act of
public defiance of a law enforced by the government, to pay taxes
and the refusal to obey the administrative rules. Gandhiji clearly
states the precise nature of this movement in following words.
"A civil revolution, which, however, practised, would mean the
end of government authority and open defiance of government
and its laws."3l
The civil disobedience started as a nonviolent movement.
J M Sengupta courted arrest while he was reading 'Desher Dak',
a proscribed patriotic book in public.
Civil disobedience founcl its shape in salt satyagraha. In
the morning of AprTl 17, 1930 a band of salt satyagrahis started
for Kumira to break the Salt Law. The MusEfhs jontt$€ $oup
of salt satyagrahis.32 A number of satyagrahis were arrested
on ground of the defiance of government's orders.
15O I A History of Chittagong

The extremist group held the view that mere defiance of

civil laws was not bnough for the attainment of self govern-
ment; only by way of open rebellion India could be freed from
foreign bondage. With this object the extremist $roup
established an organization called revolutionary council. The
council organued a body of armed men and named it Indian
Republican Army.
The revolutionary council prepared a plan to conduct
offensive operations on government establishments. The time
and places of actions are also indicated in the plan. Every
operation was entrusted to a group and everyone was sworn to
Secrecy. Absolute secrecy was maintained in the revolutionary
affairs. The supreme authorities explained the plan of action to
the group members in detail. The plan of action was as follows.
(a) Cutting communication line - 'lhe task of cutting the
railway line at Laksam was entrusted to a group consisted of
BUoy Aich, Shankar Sarkar and Sushil De under the leader-
ship of Upendra Kumar Bhattacharya. Another group consisted
of Subodh Mitra, Sukumar Bhowmik, Sourindra Dutta
Chowdhury under the leadership of Lalmohan Sen was sent to
cut the railway and telegraph lines at Dhoom.
Another group consisted of Kalipada chakravorty, Ananda
Prasad Gupta, Dwijen Dastidar, Manindra Guha, Biren De,
Niranjan Roy under the leadership of Ambika Chakravorty was
deputed to conduct an attack on the telegraph office at town.
(b) Raid on the armouries - A group consisted of Himan$su
Sen, Saroj Guha, Haripada Mahajan, Devaprasad Gupta under
the joint leadership of Ananta Singh and Ganesh Ghosh was
entrusted to cclnduct raid on the police armoury.
Another group consisted of Rajat Sen, Subodh Chowdhury
Phanindra Nandi and Jiban Ghoshal under the joint leadership
of Nirmal Sen and Lokanath Baul was entrusted to capture the
arrnoury of the auxiliary forces at Pahartali.
(c) Attempt on tife of the Europeans in the European
club- - A group consisted of Tripura sen, Bidhu Bhattacharya,
 Independence Movernent I 15l

Manoranjan sen, Amarendra Nandi, Harigopal Baul under the

command of Naresh Roy was deputed to conduct a surprise
attack on the European club.
After the successful operations the revolutionaries
assembled in the open space near water works. They made
salutation in military gesture to their commander in chief. He
took the salute and acknor,vledged it. He praised the revolution-
aries for their daring performances. He then ordered to set fire
to the Union Jack and to hoist the national flrg. As a sign of
respect to the national flag fifty four musketry discharged
gunfire three times.
The amazing success of the chittagong revolutionaries
struck the people of the subcontinent with wonder. They were
surprised to find how a small group of daring youths could
perform such an unbelievable task. Both the press and plat-
form jubilantly congratulated the chittagong youths on their
historic s.rcc"ss.33
The revolutionaries then proceeded towards north and
encamped at Jalalabad hills. on April 22, lg}o they were sud_
denly surrounded by the government forces on three sides. Then
there followed firing from both sides. In this encounter about a
dozert youths were either mortally wounded or embraced mar-
tyrdom. The martyrs were Nirmal Lala, Harigopal Baul, Naresh
Roy, Bidhu Bhattacharya, pravash Baul, Jiten Dasgupta,
Ardhendu Dastidar, Tripura sen, pulin Ghosh, shasanka Dutta,
Madhusudan Dutta and Mati Kanungo.
on April 24, Amarendra Nandi a brave Jalalabad fighter
died in an encounter with the police. on the Sth and the 6th
May swadesh Roy, Deva prasad Gupta, Monoranjan sen and
Rajat sen embraced martyrdom in an encounter wiilr tlre
police. In september, lgs0, Jiban Ghoshal was shot dead by
the police at Chandan nagar.
on February 6, lgs2, Bina Das fired at the Lt. Governor
sir Stanley Jackson while he was deliver-ing the convocation
address in the calcutta university Hall. The Goverrror was savecl
I52 | A History of Chittagong

unhurt. Bina Das was arrested and sentenced to nine years

imprisonment.
on June 13, Lg32 Nirmal sen, a leading revolutionary
was shot dead in a serious encounter with the police.
In september 1932 a group of revolutionaries
under the leadership of Pritilata Waddedar conducted a surprise
raid on the Buropean club at Pahartali. A number of the
Europeans were either killed or injured. Pritilata committed
suicide to escape from police arrest.
In February 1933 Surya Sen and Tarakeswar Dastidar
were held caPtive.
Inordertocrushtheuprisingandtotakethe
revolutionaries captive the government employed a large
police force in every part of the district. A number of coercive
Acts were successively passed prescribing fines and imprison-
ment for alleged participation in the revolt. Severe penalties
including death sentence and transportation for life were
pronounced at random. The penal laws, enacted by the
authorities imposed civil disabilities on suspects and youths
all over the district. A large number of persons who were sus-
pected of anti$overrlment activities were put in jail for months
together but not brought to trial.
The revolutionary activities in chittagong began to
subside in the second hatf of the year 1934. The leadin$ revolu-
tionaries were either killed or captured. The large scale
arrests of the revolutionaries virtually brought the revolt to an
end.
The Chittagong revolt was a war of liberation, liberation
from the bondage of foreign rule. Revolutionary Ananda Gupta
very aptly writes, "our surcharged mind was hungry for a new
identity-an identity which is free from the curse of age old
cowardtce, which refuses to submit to the humiliation of
servile existenc.."34
Mass a$itation against the government's oppressive laws
 Independence Movernent | 153

and unjust taxation characterized the freedom movement in

the latter part of the l93os. An organization of agitators named
Chattagram Damanniti Birodhi Samiti was established in lg37
to put political pressure on the government to withdraw severe
laws and to release detenus.
A meeting of the samiti was held in November l93T at
the Bar Library. Major G L H Hyde presided over the meeting.
Early release of the political prisoners and providing relief mea-
sures for the families of released detenus were some of the
demands that have asked for.
Public meetings were held in different places of the
district to mobilize public opinion against unjust political and
economic policies of the government.
On January B, 1938 a large public protest meeting was
held at the J M sen Hall. The meeting was presided over by
Mahim chandra Das. The municipality chairman Mr. Nur
Ahmad, Golam Sobhan, Tripura Charan Chowdhury, Ambika
charan Das, Barada Prasad Nandi and other prominent
leaders addressed the meeting, sometime later a large
meeting of public protest was held at Patiya.
On January 22, 1938 a public meeting in support of the
campai$n against government policy was organized in the
village Habilasdwip. The meeting was presided over by Ekramul
Haq. The meeting was addressed by poet Muhammad Ibrahim,
Bankim Dutta, Ranadhir Dasgupta, Fakir Sen and others.
In all these meetings the speakers and the audience
urged the government to make an early release of the detenus
and to withdraw unfair and oppressive taxes.
The youth movement became more forceful during this
period. Establishment of the student Association and the
Student Federation was a great step towards revolutionizing
the youth movement. The Students Federation was founded in
1937. Its aim was to express strong objection against the edu-
cation cess. It also urged the government not to implenrent
154 | A History of Chittagong

Secondary Education Bill on which the people strongly disagreed

with the government.
The visit of Netaji subhash chandra Bose to chittagong
in June, 1938 imparted fresh vi$our to the Independence
movement. He addressed several meetings organized in his
honour by the Congress Party and youth fonrms. In each of the
meetings he paid tribute of praise to the revolutionary spirit of
the people of Chittagong.
on July 9, 1938 a student conference was held with the
participation of a large number of students. Professor Humalrun
Kabir, the president of the Congress Socialist Party and
Biswanath Mukherji, the secretary of the Bengal Provincial
Students Federation were invited to be present in the meeting'
Both of them accepted the invitation. Professor Humayun Kabir
delivered an inspiring speech at the meeting. Biswanath
Mukherji hoisted the flag of the Students Federation.
on July 23, 1938, Suresh Banarii, president of the All
tndia Trade Union Congress gave an eloquent speech on the
right to protest against $overnment action in a large meeting
called in honour of him in the J M Sen Hall-
Quit India Movement. The Independence movement
gained renewed vi$our in 1942. This movement is known as
Quit India movement. It was started by Gandhiji on the 9th
August, lg42 demanding that the British should quit India
transferring administrative power to the Indians. The
movement is also known as the August movement'
The Quit India resolution declared "that the
immediate ending of the British rule in India is an urgent
necessity, both for the sake of India and for the success of the
cause of the United Nations."35
The important leaders of the Quit India movement in
Chittagong were Jnanananda Swami, Barada Prasad Nandi'
Rajkumar Chakraborty, Sanjib Prasad Sen. They were arrested
by the police for breaking government regulation. On account
 Independence Movement I lb5

of the severe famine in the district the people did not take part
in greater number in this movement.
Besides the political movement, the leftists organized a
peasant movement called the Tebhaga Movement which was
directed in favour of the peasants' demand for greater share of
crops which they produce.
The Azad Hind Fauj. To free the country from the
British control a liberation army called Azad, Hind Fauj was
formed in south East Asia. The leader of the Azad Hind Fauj in
chittagong was Maulana Manir:uzzanlr,an Islamabadi. He
secretly met with Subhas Chandra Bose in Burma. The bases
for their activities were established in sitakunda and chakaria
with great secrecy.
The progress of the Azad Hind Fauj inside India caused
much rejoicings in the country. But the withdrawal of the
Japanese troops from the warfield made the situation difficult
and the Azad Hind Fauj was forced to retreat from the occupied
areas.

Note :

I Buckland, op. ctt., p. GT

2 Qt. Hunter, op.cit., p. L22
3 Hunter, op. cit., p. 122
4 lbid.
5 lbid.., p. 123
6 Shishir Kar, op. cit., p. 8O
7 lbid.., p. 263
B Education Gozette, lgl8, p. gg
9 Jugadharrna, July. lgBS, p. 23
l0 The Bengalee, Feb. 9, 1898, p. 86
II The Dhaka Prakash, Chaitra B, 13O9, p. 2
L2 Muntasir Mamun, Bangabharlga o purbabange pratkriga, p. 19
13 Indton Nation. Oct. 5, IgO3
f 56 | A History of Chittagong
14 TlrLe Panchajanga. 1345' P' lO5
BircxJthi' Andotane Chattagram' p' 35
15 S. B. Qanungo' BntLSh
16 The Educatton Gazette, Feb' 3' f 9l I
l'7 The Pancltajanga, 1345, P' lO5
lB The Bande Mataram, Feb, 27' LgO7" qt' Sumit Sarkar'
..... the Suadeshi Mouemgnt tn BengaL p' 377
19 Sumit Sarkar, oP. cit', P' 356
20 The Panchqianga, 1345
2l RAB, 1920' P. iii
22 Nripen Banarii, At the Crossroads' pp' 163-66
23 Tbe Young India, Nov' 3, 1921
24 The PanchqianAa, Autumn Nurnber' 1345
25 The Jgoti, 1336, No' I' P' 3l
26 Gordon' oP. cit.' P' 175
27 Armoury.Ratd Case RePort'
28 Ibid.
29 The Bangla Gazette, 1929
30 Annoury Raid' Case RePort
3l RAB. lg20 P' iv
32 The Bangla Gazette' 1930
33 The Suradhinata, Baisakh 1l' 1337
g4 Chatlenge, A Saga oJ Struggle Jor India's F-reedom' p' 88
35 J S Sharma, Indta's StruggLeJor Fleedom' III' Bl7
 Chapter 9
Education
chittagong has been a celebrated centre of learning since
a long time ago. In ancient period, the fame of the pandita
vihara as a seat of learning spread as far as Tibet. The
medieval period gave birth to such erudite scholars as pundarik
Vidyanidhi and Jatadhar Acharya.
Reterring to the system of elementary education
previous to the British rule, L S S O'Malley writes,
chittagong has long been a district in which indigenous
schools have flourished such as village pathsalas in which
children are taught reading, writing and a litile mathemat-
ics, maktabs in which Muhammadan children recite the
Koran by rote and Magh llyangs or monastic schools where a
Buddhist rauli or priest is the teacher.l
This system of education continued without any major change
to the early part of lB3Os.
In 1834 l,ord William Bentinck following the recommen-
dation of Lord Macaulay introduced the teaching of English in
schools.
To facilitate the English education in the district an
arganization named General Commitiee of public Instructions
was formed. Majority of the members were the Europeans who
pleaded for the establishment of an English school modelled on
Bngliish system as early as possible.
chittagong zilla English school. under the auspices
of General Committee of Public Instructions an English school
(commonly called chittagong zilla school) was established in
the town in 1836.2 Th. object of the establishment of the school
was the expansion of knowledge and the improvement of
qualities of mind by a course of formal education through the
158 | A History of Chittagong

medium of English. The school was an independent institution

and was managed by itself. The school achieved good reputa-
tion as the best educational institution in the district. Almost
all the renowned persons belonging to the nineteenth cenury
received education in this school. The school was affiliated with
the Calcutta University after its establishment in 1856.
In 1869 the school was upgraded in order to give teaching
in First Arts or college preparatory course to the students. Thus
the FA course was joined on to the entrance school (ZillaSchool)
and formed a part of it.
TWo non government schools were established in the be-
ginning of the 1B7Os. These were Albert English School and
Queens School. According to Hunter, 'The most important school
not under government is the Albert English school in the town
of Chittagong. It was started in order to relieve the pressure on
the Government Zilla school, which was not large enough for
the numbers who sought admission."3'W W Hunter did not give
detailed description of the Queens School.
Poet Nabin Chandra Sen the then Deputy Magistrate of
Chittagong was not in favour of the individu alized existence of
these two schools, which in his view were of poor quality in
regard to the method of teaching. He abolished these two schools
and allowed them to be amalgamated with the Chittagong High
School.a
Indigenous institutions. There were four categories of
indigenous institutions, all of which were free from government
control and were privately managed. W W Hunter $ives the
following description of the different types of indigenous
institutions that were in existence in the middle of the
nineteenth century.
A. Pathsala or Bengali elementary institution. In
l87L-72, "there were reported to be lO7 Bengali Pathsalas be-
yond the reach of inspection by the educational officers."5
Pathsalas existed in large number in central Chittagon$. Hunter
writes, "In the central police circles there is said to be hardly a
 Educ:ation I 159

village in which there is not at least one pathsala."6

B. Maktab or institution giving Muslim religious instruc-
tion. In I87l-72" there were reported to be 110 Persian or
Arabic maktabs....beyond the reach of inspection by the educa-
tional officers."T
In a madrasa, students go to receive higher learning for a
degree. One of the madrasas of good fame was Mir Yahya's
Madrasa which was established in the latter part of the f Sth
century. Mr Pogson while visiting this institution in 1831 saw
140 students taking instructions in Arabic and Persian.
C. Tol (institutions) for Sanskrit and Hindu religious
studies. Pandits who received higher education in Banaras,
Nabadwip and other noteworthy places of Sanskrit learning were
given preference in teaching the students in a tol. In l87l-72
'there were reported to be 2O Sanskrit tols beyond the reach of
inspection by the education officers."B
D. Tol for Buddhist education divided into two categaries;
(a) lqyang based institutions for the tribal Buddhists and (b) tol
for the Bengalee Buddhists. Regarding the Buddhist system of
education Hunter writes.
In Chittagong District there are also about 3O Magh Khiongs
where some 75O boys are taught by the rauli or priests; Iive
of the Khiongs are in the Sadar Subdivision among a Rajbansi
population; and in them Bengali is taught. The rest are in
the Cox's Bazar Subdivision and their construction and char-
acter is of the regular Burmese type.g
These institutions were neither government aided nor
government inspected.
Regarding the indigenous system of education, Hunter
quoted a passage from the commissioner's statement.
In 1874 th<' commissioner reported that there were then 'no
less tharr l48O indigenous and unaided schools of various
kinds, not under government superyision or control; and in
these schools no less than 23, 953 pupils receive instruc-
tion - that is about three times the number of pupils to be
160 | A History of Chittagong
ro
found in the inspected and aided schools of the district.
These institutions were conducted by private
individuals who taught their pupils usually at their own
residences. The medium of instruction was generally in Bengali
and in some cases in the local dialect. These schools were out
of government control. Government had nothing to do with the
fitness of the teachers.
The indigenous schooling underwent gradual
decline from the 1880s.. In 1891, 9303 pupils studied in 575
indigeneous schools.ll Itt lgol there were 745 pnvate institu-
tions with L4,O23 pupils.12 Follo*ing statistical information
gives evidence of the continuous decrease in the number of
'unrecognised' schools and the students studying at these
schools.l3
Year Number of Schools Number of PuPils
r92r-22 432 6888
1922-23 L64 3360
1,923-24 r47 22t6
1924-25 l13 2486
1925-26 207 4589
1926-27 19r 4666
1927-28 r30 4569
r928-29 rr8 3969
1929-30 143 26r3
1930-31 158 3992
Most of these unrecognized institutions were maktabs
Government aided vernacular schools. It was the
government policy to bring privately managed indigenous
schools under government supervision. This kind of schools
were known as vernacular schools. People of all communities
were very much pleased with the government's decision'
Regarding the Muslim participation in the vernacular school'
Hunter writes, "The Muhammadans attend the government
vernacular schools in considerable numbers and additional
 Education I 16 I

instruction in Persian and Arabic is provided for the benefit of

Muhammadans at the Chittagon$ District schools.'14
The failure of the government to give due attention to the
Buddhist tols gave rise to the discontentment amon$ the
Buddhist community. They urged the government to pay proper
attention to the Buddhist indigenous institutions. 'In 1938-39
the government sanctioned Rs SOOO/- for the Buddhist tols for
the lirst time.-15
There were a few advanced type of vernacular schools
called middle verrracular schools, which, however, lost popular-
ity with the students in l92os. The listlo of the $overnment
aided middle verrracular schools gives evidence of it-
Year Number of Schools Number of PuPils
r92r-22 286
1922-23 299
L923-24 139
L924-25 138
L925-26 r36
1926-27 138
Middle vernacular school ceased to exist after 1927.
Introduction of primary education
Government grant-in-aid primary schools. The
government placed special importance on elementary educa-
tion in l87Os. Sir George Campbell's scheme for the diffusion
of primary education marks the establishment of government
aided primary schools in ever increasing number in all parts of
the district. In the year I87L there were 38 grant in aid schools
attended by 1473 pupils. Upto the 3lst March, 1873 there
existed 45 schools with 1,512 attending pupils.lT In l88l the
total number of schools was 337 and the number of pupils was
12,31 I . In 189 I total number of schools rose to as many as I OO7
with the total number of pupils 32,686. In l90l there were
altogether 11O8 primary schools with an attendance of 43,182
pupils.ls
162 | A History of Chittagong

The following statistics l9 supplied by government records

show the upward trend in the establishment of primary schools
and the number of pupils.
Year Number of Schools Number of Pupils
l90l ro22
19 r I r20L
L92r-22 2062 67,785
Lg22-23 2324 73,746
L923-24 2725 82,290
L924-25 3083 97,783
t925-26 3r 15 98,964
L926-27 32lO 101,158
t927-28 33,84 103,753
t928-29 3475 108,575
1929-30 3657 tr5740
1930-31 372t L20373
From the time of the establishment of primary schools in
the l870s the number of schools was gradually increasing. In
the early part o the l93os almost all viltages were furnished
with one or two primary schools.
Primary schools were classified into two categories,
upper primary schools and lower primary schools. An upper
primary school was equivalent to a lower primary school with
two additional higher classes.
The primary schools in 1931 were categorrzed as follows :
managed by government-6, managed by municipalities and
District Board - 2O8, under private management but aided by
goverrrment and District and Municipal Boards - 3,296, under
private management and unaided -2Ll (Total-372\.2o
Compulsory free primary education. To provide
elementary education for the children without tuition fees, the
Chittagong municipality and the Chittagon$ district board did a
commendable job. Mr. Nur Ahmad, chainnan of the municipal-
ity and a member of the legislative council showed great
 Education I 163

capacity of making the primary education compulsory and free

in the Chittagong town
Since the introduction of primary education there has been
a gradual increase in the number of primary schools and at-
tending pupils in the town area.
In l9OO there were only seven primary schools for boys
attended by 28a pupils in Chittagong town. The municipality
granted Rs 49O to these schools.
In l9O5 a maktab for girls was established in Alkaran
mainly to teach the girls the recitation of the Holy Quran.
In 1923 the Chittagong town contained 32 schools for boys
and L2 schools for girls. The number of pupils attending the
schools were 1248 boys and 454 girls.
In 1925 the municipality took over the management of
the pflmary schcols to its own hanci. A scheme of iree primary
education was sent to the government to be granted. At that
time Mr. Nurul Islam chowdhury was sub inspector of educa-
tional institutions. He promised to Mv. Nur Ahmad, the
chairman of the municipality to look into the matter and
assured him of financial assistance in materializing the
scheme. In September, 1927, the scheme was granted by the
government. On January 2, 1928, free primary education was
introduced. For the proper management of the schools a school
committee was formed.2l According to the government report,
This municipality was the first to introduce free and compul-
sory primary education for boys within its area. The standard
of education imparted is reported to have considerably im-
proved. The number of boys in the higher classes has also
substantially increased during year und er report.22
There appeared many loopholes in implementing
compulsory primary education. People did not wholeheartedly
co-operate with the municipality authorites. Mv. Nur Ahmad
acknowledged his difficulties in this attempt. In the provincial
council he says, "From that date (1928) we have prosecuted
L6'4 | A History of Chittagong
about 3OO to 4OO defaulting persons every year but owing to
loopholes in that Act (The Bengal Primary Education Act) not a
single person could be punished.-23
Extra academic programmes such as boys scouting
annual sports, physical exercises, prize giving ceremony and
cultural functions were introduced in these schools.
Since the introduction of compulsory free primary
education in 1928 the number of boys attending the schools
increased from lO52 to 25OO and the girls increased from LO52
to 1332 in 1929.25
In its election manifesto in 1937 the Krishak Praja Party
declared their objective for compulsory free primary education.
In the election the party gained victory and formed ministry.
Mv. Nur Ahmad asked the education minister to give an
*for the introduction of the free and
approximate estimate
compulsory primary education in the rural areas of the
Chittagong Distri ct.-26
During the Second World War the government faced acute
financial stringency. The government could not provide finan-
cial assistance necessary for the maintenance of primary
schools. As a result a large number of primary schools were
closed down. In reply to Mv. Nur Ahmad's enquiry about the
number of the abolished institutions the minister replied that
"primarSr schools numbering lO83 have been abolishe d'.-27 Most
of the abolished primary schools, however, were reopened after
the world war was over.
Nonnal School.In order to improve the quality, method
and system of teaching in the primary schools, the government
established normal schools. The first normal school was
establishd in 'lhittagong towards the end of the lgth century
and it gainecl a good reputation. In later times normal school
was replaced by teachers training college.
District Primiiry Teachers Association. It was established
in I'136. A meeting cf the District Primary and Maqtab Teach-
 Education I t 65

ers Association was held in October, 1937 in the Municipal High

School premises. Various problems of the primary teaching were
discussed and some proposals were adopted in the meeting.
Middle English School. 'A Middle (English) School" writes
O'malley "represents all stages from the L,ower Primary to the
5th class of High Schools.... A Middle School is equivalent to an
Upper Primary School with two higher classes attached to it.-28
The following numerical information about the middle english
school as officially collected is given below.
Year Number of institutions Number of pupils
l90r L7
1911 28
L92L-22 M 5398
L922-23 60 530r
1923-24 56 5306
L924-25 57 5649
L925-26 61 6512
1926.27 5g 6430
t927-28 62 7202
1928-29 68 8042
1929-30 69 8239
1930-3 | 73 8366
The total number of middle english schools in l93r was
73. The different types of these institutions were classified as
follows : Managed by government- l; managed by municipalties
and District Board-2: under private management but aided by
government, District or Municipal Board-S5; under private
management and unaided -15.29
High English School. As regarcls the Fligh English school,
O'Malley writes,
The High English Schools teach upto the Entrance Examina-
tion of the calcutta university.... A High Schoor thus
166 | A History of Chittagong

represents all stages of instruction from the Lower Primary

, to the University Entrance Examination standard. In brief a
High School is a Middle School with four additional higher
classes.3o
In lgOf there were three categories of High English
Schools in Chittagong. (A) Government maintained High Schools
(B) Government aided High Schools and (C) unaided High
Schools. The number of High English Schools has increased as
follows.
l91l - ll
r92r - 34
r931 - 39
High English schools and Middle English schools "have
primary departments attached to them." En$lish was the
medium of both instruction and examination.
The number of High English Schools in 1931 were divided
into following categories. Managed by government-S; managed
by municipalties and District Board- l; under private manage-
ment but aided by goverrlment; District or Municipal Boarol-2l,
under private management and unaided-10.
Some of the High English Schools improved remarkably
in the quality of teaching and the students of those schools
scored good results in the Matriculation Examination.
District Teachers Association. This was a non-gov-
ernment organization of school teachers to safeguard the
teachers' interests. In 1930s Surya Kumar Sen of Patiya High
School and Moksada Ranjan Biswas were president and
secretary respectivelY.
Missionary Institutions. In order to provide
general and religious education for the Christian children,
Christian missionaries established missionary schools in
chittagong as early as the 18th century. In the 19th century
modern method of general education was introduced in these
schools.
 Education I L67

St. Placids School, the most important missionary

institution was established in 1841. Since that time dedicated
European missionaries are being appointed head of the
institution. Non Christian boys were allowed admission in the
institution. It was affiliated with the Calcutta University in the
beginning of the twentieth century. It gained reputation of
being an institution of good teaching and the system of rules
for conduct to be followed by the students. On January 27, 1938
members of the Boy Scouts of the school demonstrated their
skill on the occasion of the school ceremony. General Lindsoy
was present on this occasion.
In the latter part of the lgth century a girl school named
St. Scholasticus was established. It assumed an important role
in women's education in the urban area.
Throughout the lgth and 2oth centuries progressive
Bengalees shew interest in the quality of instruction in these
missionary institutions.
Women education. Female education movement was
started by the progressive social reformers in lB70s. Dr. Annada
Charan Khastagir acted as a pioneer in female education
especially in Chittagong.
According to W W Hunter, "the Chittagong Association
patronizes some five or six girls.schools in the interior of the
district."3l He, however, made no mention in his 'Accounts'
the places in which the girls schools were established.
Dr. Khastagir Girls School. The first girls school instruct-
ing in modern methods was established in 1878, under the
auspices of the elite society of the town. Dr. Annada Charan
Khastagir was connected with the foundation of the school. "lt
was raised to Middle English School in March 22, 1903."32
The academic extension needed the construction of new
buildings and the new construction required more land. The
land for construction of buildings was donated by Jatra Mohan
Sen. The school is named after Dr. Annada Charan Khastagir,
168 | A History of Chittagong

one of the foremost fighters of women's rights.

The status of a high English school was given to it in 1907.
There were, however, not many students in the higher classes.
In 1929 there were only nine students in class X.
More lands were acquired by the school in subsequent
times. In 1939 Maulvi NurAhmad, chairrnan of the municipal-
ity informed the legislaive council that "a piece of land was
acquired one year ago for the extension of the Dr. Khastagir
High English School.-33
People of the Chittagong town asked the government for
starting Intermediate (I A) classes in the school. The
municipatity authorities adopted a resolution expressing the
same view.34
TWo other girls English High Schools were established in
the early part of the twentieth century. The Aparna Charan
Girls High English School was established in 1927. The Gulezar
Begam High School was established in 1929. The number of
students in these girls schools was very much low. Girls
frequently dropped out from school while going to upper classes.
A few non-government girls high schools were established
in the rural areas of the district during the closing years of the
British rule. Owing to the absence of girls high schools girls
received their education at home under private tutors. Femaie
candidates for the Matriculation Examination had to appear at
the examination as private candidates.
The All India Moslem Educational Conference, held in
Calcutta in December 1939, adopted a resolution to establish a
senior madrasa for girls at Chittagong town. Maulvi Nur Ahmad
brought this resolution to the notice of the goverrrment.3s
The Chittagong municipality undertook a project for the
introduction of compulsory free primary education for girls in
the latter part of the t920s. The project, however, could not be
implemented owing to the strong opposition of the public,
especially its orthodox section. The municipality, however, did
 Education | 169

not abandon the project. According to the government report, in

1930 the Chittagong municipality was "trying to introduce a
scheme for free and compulsory primary education for gi.1"."36
In 1938 the primary education for girls of the age between
6 to 1o was made compulsory. People of all walks of life, govern-
ment and press praised chairman Nur Ahmad for his strenu-
ous efforts to diffuse primary education among the girls.
Co-educational system of education. Co-educational
schools are those where girls and boys are taught together.
Co-education is almost universal in primary and college levels,
but in secondary stage the system was neither popular nor
extensive. Among the co-educational schools Saroatali p C Sen
High English school is the most important institution. The
school was narned after its founder Barrister Purna Chandra
Sen a renowned social worker of his times.
Technical School. In l93l there were g technical
schools3T in Chittagong; under management of government- l,
under private management but aided by government-8.
Night School. Programmes for the extension of
educational opportunities to the adults especially belonging to
the labourer class were taken as early as the Swadeshi
period.38 It is stated that Keshab Chandra Sen, the great Brahma
leader in his residence first started night school for the benefit
of the labourer class. To spread education among the labourer
class a welfare organization named Sramajibi Shiksa Parishad
was established. Under its auspices night schools were
established in many villages.3e Th. Khademul Islam society
conducted a few night schools.4o M,r. Nur Ahmad, chairman of
the municipality pleaded for the establishment of night schools
to spread education among the labourer class.
Training school. In order to increase the efficiency of
the teachers and to train them for their profession training
schools were established. In 1931 there were two training
schools in Chittagong. All of these were managed by govern-
ment.4l To develop skills in their profession the teachers of
l7O I A History of Chittagong

indigenous elementary schools were given the opportunity for

receiving Gutr training course.
Goverrlment inspection. To supervise the educational
institutions the post of inspector of schools was created by the
goverrrment towards the end of the 19th century. According to
O'Malley, the office of Inspector of schools was established in
the town.a2 Under the inspector six sub inspectors of schools
and eleven inspecting Pandits were appointed. Middle
upper primary schools were under the supervision of the sub
inspectors. The indigenous schools were under the supervi-
sion of the inspecting Pandits.
Higher education. After passin$ Entrance Examination
students got themselves admitted in the colleges in order to
receive university degrees. Upto the end of the British rule
there were three colleges in Chittagong.
Chittagong College. In order to help the students to
receive higher education Chittagong College was established.
According to the Calcutta University Report, "In 1869 thre Zilla
School was upgraded to second grade College to provide
education upto First Arts. J C Bose rvas the first Principal of the
College."4s Jut u Mohan Sen was the first student who passed
F A from this institution. F A course was, however, discontin-
ued in lB72 owing to the financial crisis. At this time, poet
Nabin Chandra Sen was the deputy magistrate of the district.
Dr. Annada Charan Khastagir, the great social reformer put
pressure on Nabin Chandra Sen to help reopen the college. With
the help of the donation of money by Babu Golok Chandra Roy
Chowdhury and with the joint efforts of poet Nabin Chandra
Sen and Dr. Khastagir the college resumed its academic
activities in 1872 after a few months intermption.
From the beginning, chittagon$ college was under the
control of the government. The college was in reality an
upgradation of the government Zilla School. Therefore, the
college needed no forrnal announcement about its being as a
goverrrment-controlled institution.
 trducation I 17 L

Besides the Arts departments, there were provisions for

teaching law.
In 19Ol the teaching staff consisted of a principal and five
lecturers.
In l9O9 the science section of the college was opened to
admit students.
In l91O the college was given the status of a first grade
degree college. Graduation classes started in this year.
In 1919 Golden Jubilee of the college was celebrated.
There was steady increase of students during 1920s as is
evident in the following staistics.44
Year Number of students
r92r I gbg
1922 455
1923 &6
r924 537
r925 604
Syed Maqbul Husain expresses deep concern in the
lgislative council about the shortage of facilities in proportion
of "the ever increasing number of students- in the college.as
To improve the academic quality a 'Research
Societ5r'was established in January, L923. In the first two years
as many as thirty learned papers were read and discussed.46
A scheme was adopted by the government "for the improve-
ment and expansion of the science laboratory of the Chittagong
College." Its implication was, however, postponed owin$ to the
break up of the Second World War.47
The Chittagong College remained closed for about three
years due to the warlike preparations during the Second World
war. The college was reopened in the beginning of the year
I 945.
The Chittagong College may justly feel proud of its being
as one of the leading educational institutions of the province
L72 | A History of Chittagong

during the British period. Many of the notable persons of

Chittagong were the students of this institution.
Chittagong Islamic Intermediate College. The
Mohsenia Madrasa started giving English education in
1926-27 and opened up Intermediate in Arts to the students on
experimental basis. The institution was named Islamic
Intermediate College.
It required about a decade to make the intermediate stage
perrnanent. Mr H S Suhrawardi while replying to an enquiry
about the status of the college in 1939 said that 'the interrne-
diate classes attached to the Chittagong madrasah have been
made perrnanent."48
Sir Ashutosh College. This is in order of time, the scond
college in the district and the first college in the rural area. it
was established in the village Kanun$opara in 1939 to provide
education for the people in rural area. The degree classes were
started in 1941. In L944 Honours Course in a few subjects was
introduced. In 1945 science and commerce subjects were
included in the course of study. The college gained a reputa-
tion for creating an enlightened society in the attached area.
Indigenous institutions for higher Education
A. Madrasas of higher education. Madrasas of higher
learning were established in different parts of the district by
private enterprise. Reputed Muslim scholars were given appoint-
ment to teach the students. Academic degrees were conferred
on the successful students. Examination results were published
in the newspapers and the degrees were recognized by the
government.
The oldest madrasa giving modern method of
teaching was Mohsenia Madrasa which was founded in 1874
under the auspices of Haji Muhammad Mohsin Endowment
Fund. In 1913, 50 students passed their examinations. The
institution was converted to Islamic Intermediate College in
t926-27.
 Education I I73

In l90l there were three

advanced type of madrasas in
I in lg I 1.49
the district. The number of madrasas increased to I
"In l9 l5 Madrasas and Maktabs alike increased in number and
were more frequented than during the previous year."So So-.
of the madrasas of good reputation are mentioned below.
The Sitakunda Madrasa was established by Maulana
Obaidul Haq a renowrred educationist and social worker in the
beginning of the 2oth century. Shortly after wards, it was turned
to a senior madrasa. The results of the examinations were
published in the Education Gazette.
The Chittagong government Madrasa was established in
1909. The English method of teaching was introduced in the
madrasa and was renamed Chittagong Government Muslim
High School in 1916.
. in 19 f 3 was one of
The Dar ul Ulum Madrasa, established
the foremost madrasas in chittagong. According to the govern-
ment report, "this madrasa receives the highest grant among
old scheme Madrasa in Chittagong Division.'S2
Besides these, there were three other advanced'type of
madrasas which gained provincial repute. These are Hath azarr
Madrasa, Mirsarai Latifia Madrasa and Chunati Madrasa,
Satkania.
The New Scheme Madrasa system designed by Mr.
Stapleton gained government favour. In Chittagong many
madrasas adopted the new scheme madrasa system. In most
cases a madrasa was an autonomous institution which
managed its own affairs.
B. Sanskrit institutions for higher learning. There
were a few advanced type of Sanskrit institutions 'ilrith power to
grant degrees. The foremost among these institutions was
chittagong Sanskrit college, established in lgl4. Its founder
principal was Rajani Kanta sahityacharya, a sanskrit scholar
of high repute. karned teachers were engaged to instruct the
students. There was no bar of caste or creed of being admitted
L74 | A History of Chittagong

to the college. The course of teaching consisted of grammar

Vyakaran or Kalap), classical literature (Sahitya), logic (Nyaya),
theologr (Smriti), tarka (oratory) and Hindu philosophy (Darshan).
Three successive stages of Sanskrit teaching, Adya,
Madhya and Upadhi examinations were held in the month of
Chaitra (March) every year and titles were awarded to the
successful candidates every year. Honorific tittles were
ceremoniously conferred on eminent persons. Students and
teachers were provided with free food and lodging. The college
was govenment aided and government stipends were granted
to the meritorious students for their academic performance.
Lt. governor Lord Carmichael visited the college in 1916
and assured the college authorities of financial assistance to
the development of the college. Rajani Kanta Sahityacharya was
succeeded by Umacharan Tarkaratna. He held the post till his
death in 1938.53
The Jagatpur Ashram was a noteworthy Sanskrit educa-
tional institution which followed traditional course of study.sa
Basanti Devi (L284- 1349 BE) a student of brilliant academic
career in the tol of the Ashram was awarded highest title in
Sanskrit. The tol authorities gave her appointment as a teacher
in the tol. She was an erudite scholar and held superior posi-
tion in the teaching staff of the tol.55
Medical School. Establishment of a medical school was
a long standing demand of the people of Chittagong.
In August 1927 t}:re Lt. Governor while visiting the
district announced that a medical school was going to be
established in Chittagong. A sum of Rs 75OOO was allotted for
this purpose. But till July 1928 no construction work was un-
dertaken. Syed Maqbul Husain, a member of the legislative
council expressed his concern about the delay.56 The
provincial minister Kumar Shivashekhareswar Roy Bahadur
favourably responded to the demand of the member of the
council.ST The construction work of the medical school build-
ing began in November, 1928.58 The superintending engineer
 Education I L75

informed the civil surgeon that the construction of the building

would be cornpleted by March l93O and ready for teaching
service by July l93o.5e
On July 2, 1930 the medical school was formally opened
by the authorities. The successive courses of study were LMF,
Intermediate and Final. Candidates had to pass each stage of
study to achieve academic rank.6o
Residence for the students. In the beginning of the
twentieth century hvo residential hostels, one for the Hindu
and one for the Buddhist students were constructed attached to
the Chittagong College.Gl It is not known what type of buildings
these were. It seems that both these buildings ceased to exist
in early l93os.
In 1933 Rai Bahadur Kamini Kumar Das in the legisla-
tive council says that, '"There is no hostel at Chittagong for
Hindu students of the Chittagong Collegie." The representatives
of the Chittagong Association waited on the Director of Public
Instruction regarding the construction of a Hindu hostel shortly
before the council .session.62
In or around the year l9OO a boarding house for Muslim
students named Islamia Boarding was established by Maulvi
Abdul Aziz.
A student hostel for Muslim students of the Chittagong
in the month of February, L926.
College was officially opened
the hostel accomodated 60 students.63
A Buddhist hostel was constructed around the year 1940.
Mr. Dhirendra lal Barua in the legislative council requested
the government to increase requirement facilities for both school
and college student boarders.55
Conferences on education. The leading Muslim
citizens from time to time attended the conferences to discuss
the progress in education and to adopt resolutions to improve
the educational standards of the institutions.
In f899 an organization named Chittagong Education
176 | A History of Chittagong

Society was established by Maulvi Abdul Aziz, a prominent

social worker, aiming to help spread of education amon$ the
Muslim society.65
A meeting of Bengal Provincial Muhammadan Education
Conference was held at Chittagong on the l8th and l9th April,
1930. The follo'{ring resolutions were adopted in the meeting.
1. Introduction of religious education in all schools
2. Improvement of madrasa education (both old and new
scheme)
3. Setting apart in the annual budget a definite sum of
money annually for furtherance of Musalman education
4. Representation of the Muslims in the executive and
administrative bodies of the universities.
5. Creation of a faculty of Islamic studies
6. Representation of the Muslims in the tutorial staff of
the univerisities and in all government colleges and schools
7. Spending education fund of the District Board among
the different communities in proportion to their ratio in the
population of the district
8. Fixing the number of Muslims in the Training Colleges
9. Observing the month of Ramzan as holidays and urging
the university not to have any examination in that month
The above resolutions were communicated to Hon'ble
Khwaja Nazimuddin who assured the delegates of the
government support.66
In l93l the Muhammadan Education Society was
established to promote higher education among the Muslims.
The president of the society was Mr. Hodge, I.C.S. CIE and the
scretary was Khan Bahadur Jalaluddin Ahmad B A B L-
On the basis of the discussions in the meeting of the
Bouddha Mahasamiti held on March 12 and 13, 1938 the
following proposals related to the improvement of educational
facilities among the Buddhist community were adopted.
 Education | 177

1. To recognrze the Buddhist monastic education by the

grant of government subsidies
2.To encourage $eneral and vocational education amongst
the Buddhists by the provision of stipends and special
scholarships
3. To encourage women's education in the Buddhist
corununiff by the establishment of schools in predominantly
Buddhist villages
4. To give appropriate representation of the Buddhists in
the management committees of different educational
institutions
The meeting agreed to move these proposals to the
government for consideration. Dr. Arabinda Barua, a member
of the legislative council brought these proposals to the notice
of the government in 1939 and the minister assured him of the
favourable consideration.6T
The Chittagong Division Educational Week was
ceremoniously celebrated on the 4th April through the Bth April,
1937 at St. Placids School ground. The Bishop of Chittagong
inaugurated the ceremony. The district ma$istrate Mr.
Whitaker presided over the teachers conference held in this
connection. About 25O delegates from the schools of the
Chittag;ong Division attended the conference. An exhibition of
vocational training added attraction to the confe..rr"..ffi
Libraries contribute very much to the spread of education
zrmong the people of the district. A number of libraries were
established both in the town and in the progressive villages in
the early part of the 20th century. In these libraries books, news-
papers and periodicals were kept for people to read. Among the
academic libraries the Municipal Public Library was most
important. There were also a number of religious libraries.
Scriptural texts and religious books were stored in the rooms
attached to the kyangs and the mosques.
I7B I A History of Chittagong

Note :
I O'Malley, op. cit.
2 Hunter, op. cit., p. 219
3 lbid.. p. 22O
4 See the poet's autobiography
5 Hunter, op.cit., p. 22O
6 lbid.
7 rbid.
8 rbid.
9 tbid., pp 22O-2t
lO lbid., p 22O
I I O'Malley, op.cit
t2 lbid.
13 Chtttagong District Gazetteer, p. 19
L4 Hunter, op. cit., pp. 219-20
l5 ORBLC, 1939, pp. 314-15
16 CDG, p. 19
17 Hunter, op. ctt. p. 219
l8 O'Malley, op.ctt.
19 CDG, p. 19
20 lbid". p. 20
2l The Bangla Gazette, l93O
22 RAB, 1935-36, p. 89
23 ORBLC, 1941, pp. 426-27
24 T}:.e Bangla Gazette, l93O
25 rbid., 1929
26 ORBLC. 1939. p. 398
27 lbid., 1942, p. 19
28 O'Malley, op.cit.
29 CDG,p.20
30 O'Malley. op.ctt.
3l Hunter, op cit., p. 2ll
32 The Panchajanga, Autunrn Nunrber 1345, p. 105
33 ORBIT. rc39, p. 55
34 The Abhljan. 1938, p. t7
 Education | 179

35 ORBtf, 1940, pp. I l8-I19

36 RAB, 193O-31, p.49
37 CDG,p.20
38 T};e Btnndar. I3l2
39 The Gnhastha, Chaitra, 1319, p. 2Bl
40 T}:e Bangla Gazette, 1929
4I CDG
42 O'Malley, op.cit.
43 Hunter, op. cit, p. 219
44 CDG,Buol. p. l9
45 ORBLC, t927
46 Chittagorg CoLIege Magaztne, 1927
47 ORBI-C, 1942, p.2r
48 ORBLC,1939, p.455
49 Bengal District hzettee1 B uol. 19OO-19O1 to 191O-11, p. 26
50 RAB, 1914-15. p. r25
5l rbid, 1910-11
52 ORBlf, 1942, p.22
53 The Darnik Jgoti, Ig29: Educattort Gaz,ette, 1329
'Education
54 Gazette, 1916
55 SrrmsoLd Bargali Charitabhidhan
56 ORBtf. 1928, p. 44
57 The Bangla Gazette, I93O
58 RAB, r92B-29, p. 113
59 The Bangla Gazette, 1929
60 The Satgcrbarta, 1349 t1942)
6l O'Malley, op. cil.
62 ORBLC.1933, p. 2O5
63 RAB. t926-27, p. 2OO

64 ORBLC, 1942. pp. 179-BO

65 The Satyabarla. 1348. Etd Number, p. 43
66 ORBtf. 1931. p.27
67 lbid.. 1939, p. 4O0
68 The Pttrabi. 1344
 Chapter fO
Public Health
Public Health Department of the government deals
primarily with the protection of community health, control of
epidemic diseases, improvement of sanitary conditions and the
provision of health care.
Cholera, typhoid, malaria and small pox were the most
common florm of epidemic diseases in the district. Polio and
pneumonia were the two diseases which afflicted the children.
Ezrna was comrrton especially among the old and middle aged.
Outbreak of epidemic diseases was frequent during those
days of poor sanitary condition and ignorance of health hygiene.
According to W W Hunter, 'an epidemic of small pox took place
in l85o."l Malaria caused by the bite of mosquito was wide-
spread both in Chittagong City andin the rural areas. ta.rge
number of tanks in the city and marshes in the rural area
were the breeding grounds of mosquitos.
Government and the elite societSr recognized the neces-
sity of fighting the epidemic diseases and preventing the spread
of diseases. The establishment of the Bengal Public Health
Association in lg22 is a landmark in the history of the public
health is a philant'rropic organization jointly sponsored
"ar..2It
by public .'rnd private sector. Regarding the composition and
object of the Association the goverrrment reporter writes,
(The Association) is mainly composed of the public health
workers under government, local bodies and other authori-
ties in the province and other members of the public
interested i.-r public health. The object of the Association is
of comprehensive nature and practically touches all aspects
for the develc'pment of the public health organiz-ation, and
perhaps this i; the only body of its kind throu$hout lndia.
 Public Health I l8 I
Eminent sanitarians of the province are associated with it
and this body co-operates with the public health organisation
of the province in a most intimate and useful way. The local
government have decided to consult it relating to important
public health matters. The government have further allowed
their officers to join the Association. The resolutions passed
by this Association were found to be useful and at ttre
instance of this Association, the Government have taken
suitable steps in different administrative branches of public
health.3
'Malaria and small pox the two serious diseases were
brought under control during the early part of the 2}t}r century.
The use of quinine to treat malaria became familiar to the
people. In 1923-24 small pox vaccination was introduced to check
the spread of this disease.
The chief medical officer incharge of the public health of
the district is the civil surgeon. The post of civil surgeon v/as
created in early l87os.
Hospitals and dispensaries
Medical care programme included both the establishment
of new and the improvement of older hospitals. A few hospitals
existed during the British rule are mentioned below.
Medical Hospital. The Medical Hospital was
established in L897 for the diagnosis and treatment of chronic
diseases. The district magistrate Mr. Skrine inaugurated the
hospital on the lZtin March, L897.4
Chittagong General Hospital. The hospital was
established in 1901. It is likely that Nimai Charan Charitable
Dispensary was converted to Chittagong General Hospital. The
goverrrment used to pay annually a sum of money as subsidy to
the hospital. In 1929 government contribution to the General
Hospital was Rs l,OOB,7B.5 R" 2O,OOO in favpur of the hospital
was sent by the secretary of the Chittagong:school Founding
Committee in Lg2g.6 :

In the early 1930s training centres for,,junior nurses

.:.
I82 | A History of Chittagong
started at the General Hospital.T
In between 1929 and lg3l a sum of Rs ISOO was granted
to the chittagong General Hospital for the X'Ray installation.8
There was a growing demand for provincialuation of the
Chittagong General Hospital and Cox's Bazar Hospital. The two
hospitals, however, remained unprovin cialized till 1945.9
Clive Hospital. It is difficult to say when and by which
organization the hospital was established. Its extension
programme was undertaken in 1926-27.10
Police Hospital. I.he police hospital was established in
1915. It was, however, not regularly visited by the authorities
till 1934.
Chittagong Railway Hospital. The Chittagong railway
hospital was established in L925, mainly to give medical
treatment to the sick and injured railway employees and their
relatives.
Government supervision of the above hospitals was not
good enough for th€ purpose. Government reports admitted tha!
medical school, police hospital, and general hospital were not
regularly visited by the authorities.l I
Chittagong Veterinary Hospital. It was established
for the treatment of diseases and injuries of domestic animals
especially the cattle. Medical officers were appointed to treat
the diseased animals. On January lB, 1939 the provincial min-
ister of agriculture and animal department accompanied with
the director of veterinary department and Ksirod Chandra Roy
M L A and vice-Chairman of the District Board visited the
hospital and expressed satisfaction of the manaSement of the
hospital. i2
Rural Healt h Care. Government adopted active
measures to control the spread of diseases in the rural areas
as early as the I92Os. In 1927, a post of sanitary inspector for
each thana was created. His chief functions were to
investigate the causes of the outbreak of epidemic diseases, to
 Public Health | 183

conduct medical examinations among the diseased p.ersons and

to make suggestions for the improvement of hygienic condi-
tion of his locality. He was "in charge of rural health circles
which extend over one revenue thana area." His functions,
according to government report, were as follows : 'The activi-
ties of the sanitary Inspectors have been mainly confined to
the combating of outbreaks of epidemic diseases, such as
cholera and small pox and to the work in connection with the
adulteration of articles of food." 13 Th. appointment of sanitary
inspector so much pleased the people of the rural area that
they welcomed the government action warmly.
Sanitary inspectors, however, had not been given appoint-
ment in errr5r thana. In 1928 Syed Maqbul Husain complained
to the government about the insufficiency of the sanitary
inspectors. He says in the legislative council, "In my district of
Chittagong there are 22 or 23 thanas and we have uptill now
been able to provide only seven sanitary inspectors for seven
thanas."l4 A number of thanas remained without sanitary
inspectors till the end of the tsritish rule.
Charitable Dispensaries
Humanitarians took the initiative in establishing
medical dispensaries for the benefit of the local people. Most of
the charitable dispensaries were founded and financed by local
wealthy peopie. A few charitable dispensaries were subsidized
by the government.
"I'he first ctraritable dispensary according to W W Hunter
"was established in June, 1840." Referring to the medical treat-
merrt in this dispensary Hunter writes, "During the year IB7l,
I l7 indoor patients were treated by whom 93 were relieved or
recovered, l1 did not improve or ceased to attend, 12 died and
one remairrecl at the end of the year."15 This dispensary was
situated in Anderkilla of the town area.
In course of time a number of charitable dispensaries were
established in many villages to provide limited medical
treatment lbr the village folk.
LB4 | A History of Chittagong

Dispensaries were divided into three classes according to

the quality of services they could render, The first two class
type of dispensaries were not established any where in the
rural areas. This was due probably to the non availability of
qualified physicians or surgeons. A few village dispensaries
where people were given medical treatment are mentioned
below.
Up to the year 19l I class III dispensaries were established
in Chittagong town, Cox's Bazar town, Phatikchhari, Patiya,
Mahajan Hat, Kutubdia, Ptaozan, Satkania, Bani$ram, Pomara,
Hathazan, Sitakunda, Eidgaon and Paraikora (Sarat Shasi chari-
table dispensary)
During the period between l9l2 and 1930 the
following class III dispensaries were established in Abu Torab
(Raj Laksmi charitable dispensary), Barama (Jatra Mohan Sen
charitable dispensary). Dhorala (Bidhusekhar dispensary,
established by Satish Chandra Sen), Fatepur, Colonel Hat (Md.
Hakim Nazir charitable dispensary), Mahamuni (Pramathanath
dispensary), Datmara, Chakaria.
In reply to an enquiry by Mv. Nur Ahmad, the minister
says that the dispensary at Barabakia of Chakaria thana and
the Union Board dispensary at BPngura in Patiya thana were
not recommended as "eligible to the grant for village
dispensaries." l6
Fateyabad dispensary was established in 1944-45. Tlee
dispensary was named after Mr. M M Stuart, the then district
magistrate. l7
The construction works of the following dispensaries were
completed in 1934. Ramu Fatewa Dalal charitable dispensary,
Maheshkhali Prasanna Kumar charitable dispensary, Teknaaf
and Ukhia dispensaries.
The dispensaries of tsadarkhali, Jaldi, Kathirhat,
Rangunia, Kanchana, Adhunagar fWilkinsons charitable dis-
pensary) were constructed in between the years 1938 and
1940. l9 Nouptra Rajani Ranjan Sen Memorial Hospital was built
 Public Health | 185

by Sarala Bala Sen to commemorate the name of her husband,

the renowned poet Rajani Ranjan Sen. She gave a donation of
Rs 8OO0 to the construction fund of this work of charity in
t937.20
Missionary Hospitals. The European missionary
hospitals, established chiefly in the rural areas provided free
medical care for the sick. Highly qualified European mission-
ary doctors were employed at the hospitals. Their method of
treatment won popularity with the people.
Among the missionary hospitals, Chandraghona hospital
and Harbang hospital gained importance of careful medical
treatment.
Chittagong Medical Association. An organization of
medical practitioners, named the Medical Association of
Chittagong was established in 1933.21 Dr Beni Mohan Das Rai
Bahadur was its president; Dr Mohammad Omar was its
co-chairman and Dr. Harihar Dutta was its secretary. The aims
of the association were to protect the interests of the
physicians and to make medical facilities easier fOr the public,
All Bengal Health Conference. The fourth session of
All Bengal Flealth Conference was ceremoniously held in the J
M Sen Hall on the 26th December, L937. The conference was
inaugurated by Mr. A S Roy, Addl. Magistrate and was presided
over by Barrister Anwar ul Azim. Mr Badal Chandra Basu, health
officer was the chairman of the reception committee.
In the conference the government was urged to give an
appointment of sanitary inspector in each thana of Chittagong.
Measures so far adopted to prevent the spread of epidemic dis-
eases among the people were also reviewed and new proposals
were adopted in the meeting.22
Health trxhibitions. Health Exhibitions giving people
information about health care were regularly held in different
places of the district. The exhibitions played an important role
in making the people more conscious about diseases, personal
hygiene and how to stay healthy.
 186 | A History of Chittagong

The programme of health exhibitions for the first time

was included in the Annual Agricultural and Industrial Exhibi-
tions held in 1936.
Exclusive health exhibitions sponsored by the Bengal
Health Education Committee started in rgg8. Health exhibi-
tions were held successively at Kalipur, Rangamati, chittagong
town, Patiya and Kadhurkhil."23 From lg38 the health
exhibitions became an annual event.
In these exhibitions, improvement of environment of
residence, sanitary condition and other important objects were
demonstrated with the help of cinematograph, still photograph
and illustrative pictures. Rules of keeping good health, food
safety, methods of puri$ring drinking water, animal and plant
health and many other items were included among the
exhibits.
Homeopathic, Ayurvedic and Unani Treatments
Homeopathic medicine based on the chemical balance in the
body and using minute quantities of chemicals to restore ho-
meostasis caused by disease was administered by the doctors
who was specialized in homeopathic medicine. In the 1930s
there were a number of renowned homeopaths in chittagong.
some of them were Harish chandra Bhattacharya and his son
sasanka Mohan Bhattacharya, chandra Kumar Khastagir,
Zakir Husain Chowdhury etc.
Ayurvedic system of medical treatment is an ancient
Indian system which relies on herbs and disciptine of food and
personal habits. The person who treats illness using Ayurvedic
methods is called a Kabiraj. one of the renowned Ayurvedic
dispensaries where Ayurvedic medicines were prepared and
patients were treated was Chattagram Ayurvediya Ausadhalaya,
established in lBB0 at Jatindra Mohan Avenue. l'he notable
Ayurvedic physicians were Kabiraj Girija shankar Das
vidyanidhi M A, Kabiraj Kiran Lal shastri samkhyatirtha M.A,
Kabiraj Jayanta Kumar Das, Kabiraj Jatindra Mohan Raksit
Ayurvedacharya, Kabiraj Shyama Charan Sen Kabiratna.2a
 Public Health I I87

Hekimi or Unani medicinal system which originated in

the Middle East, became popular, particularly with the
Muslims.
Each of these systems of medicine is taught in
specialized institutions (colleges). Generally, these systems are
popular with the lower socio-economic groups.

Note :
I Hunter, op. cit., p. 231
2 RAB, 1922-23
3 Bengal htblic Health Report, 1941, p. 22
4 The PanchqjanAo- Autumn Number, 1342, p. lO2
5 Annua| Report on the Worktng oJ Hospttals and Dtspensaries under the
Gouentment of BengaL 1929
6 lbid.
7 Trienninl Report on the Working oJ Hospitals and Dispensartes, 1932-34,
p. 2L
B lbid,., t929-31, p. 2O
9 ORBLC, 1945, p.277
l0 RAB. 1926-27, p. r97
II TRWHD, 1932-34, p. 2r
12 The Deshapriya, Jan, 1939, p. 23
13 Bengal Public Health Report, 1940, p. lol
14 ORBIC, 1928, p. 44
15 Hunter, op. ctt., p.233
16 ORBLC, 1940, p. 62
17 lbid.., 1945, p. 86
l8 TRWHD, t932-34, p. 34
r9 rbid., r93B-40
20 The Deshapnga, Falgun 9, 1344, p. 15
2l The Purabr' 1343
22 The Deshapriga, Paush 19, 1344. p. 3
23 Annuol Report oJ the Indtan Red Cross Society, Bengal Proutncial Branch,
1938, p. 32
24 T}:e PanchqjanAa, Autumn Number, 1343
 Chapter 11
Disaster and Relief
The district of Chittagong is prone to natural
calamities such as tornado, cyclone, tidal bore, flood etc. The
district has also been victim of man made calamities such as
famine, wartime disaster and evacuee influx.
A. Natural Disasters
Referring to the natural disaster, differing in places,
Walter Hamilton writes that the coastal area is subjected to
terrible cyclones and tidal bores, "while those of the interior,
being subject to inundation from the mountain torrents which
rush down the hills."l
The natural disasters that frequently visit the
district are as follows :
1. Tornado, cyclone and tidal bore. Kalbaisakhi, the
Bengali name for tornado is a regular feature in the warrner
months of the year especially during April-May. The strong wind
that rises in the afternoon after day long heat is known as
kalbaisakhi. It is invariably accompanied with whirlwind, light-
ning and thunder. The cloud is usually dark because of its great
depth. The Kalbaisakhi is generally followed by hailstorm and
heavy showers.
Apart from the kalbaisakhi, cyclones of great strength
occasionally visit the district in any time of year. It is
associated with low depression created on the Bay of Bengal.
A cyclone always creates tidal bores in the coastal area
and follows high precipitation in the interrior of the district. A
very large ocean wave caused by cyclone destroys everything
in the coastal area. A short description of some worst type of
cyclones that visited Chittagong is given below.
 Disaster and Relief | 189

On September 30, 1737 a serious type of cyclone visited

the eastern coast of Bengal, causing thousands of death and
mass destruction of properties.2
On June 3, L795 cyclone of great magnitude, according
X
to the collector's report,d started at7 P M and continued to mid-
night. The roof of the kachari buildings was blown away. Only
five brick houses (some of which were badly damaged) escaped
from ravages. Heavy downpour washed away many houses
throughout the coastal area.
TWo years later on November 12, 1797, a furious hurri-
cane passed over the district. While narrating the damages
caused by the hurricane the collector reports. '....TWo vessels
lyrng in the port were sunk at their anchors. Others were driven
on shore, and almost every house belonging to the natives
within the circuit of this extensive and populous town having
been levelled to the ground. The sudder cutchery has been en-
tirely demolish ed."4
In October, 1872, a cyclone passed over the Cox's Bazar
sub division, inflicting heavy casualities of human and animal
lives. According to government report, 9 out of every lO trees in
reserve forests fell down.5
Four years later, on the 3lst October, 1876, a furious
cyclone visited Chittagong. It lashed the district from end to
end during the whole period of the night. The violent tidal bore
that accompanied it washed away the villages in the coastal
area. All the rivers even the Meghna were in spate. According
to government report, human casualties were l2,0OO but
according to non official report, the total casualties were one
lack seventy five thousand.6 Cholera epidemic broke out which
caused much loss of human lives. Almost all houses in the
affected areas raged on the ground. No sign of vegetation did
appear in the track next few years.
On October 31, 1886 a violent hurricane and a tidal bore
visited the coast of Chittagong and the areas around the mouth
of the Meghna. About one lack people lost their livesT and
19O I A History of Chittagong

thousands others became homeless. The hurricane left a trail

of destruction behind it over the greater part of the district.
The cyclone of October 22, lB97 (Unshat Maghir Tufan)
was one of the most disastrous on records. Coastal areas, espe-
cially the coastal islands such as Kutubdia and Maheshkhali
were heavily affected by its violence. According to government
report, 14,000 people lost their lives and 18,000 people died as a
result of the epidemic that followd the cyclone. The unofficial
account gives heavier loss of human lives. The cyclone followed
a severe famine throughout the district owing to the full-scale
destruction of foodgrain". B
In November, l9O4 a heavy storm visited the district. In
April, Lg22, a devastating cyclones caused great destruction
over a wide area specially in the Cox's Bazar subdivision. In
May, lg23,a terrible cyclone visited Cox's Bazar.l0 Itt Ig27 Cox's
Bazar sub division was ravaged by a terrible cyclone.ll
In the beginning of the 2}th century barometer system of
measuring atmospheric pressure was brought into use for
forecaqting weather above sea level. Flagstaffs were erected in
different places of the coastal area. "A flagstaff was erected near
Cox's Bazar for hoisting storrn warning si$nals for the benefit of
the fisherrnen at Sonadia island."12
It is only in the beginning of the 20th century that the
cyclone struck areas began to be officially declared as disaster
affected areas and were qualified to receive certain types of
governmental aid and relief supplies on emergency basis. But
these were quite inadequate to meet the affected people's needs.
2. Flood. The principal cause of flood is the result of the
inflow of river water. Innumerable streamlets (locally called
chhara) descending from the hills suddenly raised by heavy
downpour of rain in the hilly areas. The violent flow destroys
the food crops planted on both the banks of the stream. The
silting up of the river bed blocks the passages of running water
and causes overflowing of the river banks and innundation in
nearby villages.
 Disaster and Relief I 19 I

Smaller rivers like the Ichamati, Shilok, Dolu,

Matamuhuri etc. wrought disasters of great dimension when
they rechart their courses during hea'uy monsoon.
Continuous rainfall during the monsoon months causes
all the rivers in spate. It gives rise to the river flood which causes
extensive damage of crops and transport system. A few instances
of worst floods are cited below.
In September - October, L927, a terrible flood occured in
the Raozan Thana. While narrating the suffering of the people
Syed Maqbul Husain says in the provincial legislative council,
"....The flood continued for about 15 or 16 days as a result of
which all the crops were damaged, and the people are now
starving as the price of rice has increased very considerably.
Government immediately sanctioned Rs 40,000 relief." The aid
according to the Hon'ble member was "quite inadequate.-13
A heavy flood in 1937 devastaled almost all parts of the
district. Government sanctioned a sum of Rs 6,500 for distribu-
tion of agricultural loans in the affected areas of the district
and Rs 75O for gratuitous relief in Cox's Bazar sub division.14
Maulvi Nur Ahmad narrated the sufferings of the people of the
flood affected areas and expressed dissatisfaction at the
insufficiency of government relief.
In August 1939 a serious flood caused widespread
devastation in the Cox's Bazar sub division.
In l94O Mr. Nur Ahmad brought the sufferings of the
people of northern Chittagong, "owing to annual innundation",
to the notice of the government. The chief minister while
visiting the affected areas assured the people of excavating
silted up streams.lS
The terrible flood of f946 innundated a large area of
central Chittagong and caused hear4y damage of property and
lives. A flood committee was formd with Mrs. Nellie Sengupta
in the chair.
3. Flood tide. Coastal areas of the district are subjected
192 | A History of Chittagong

to flood tide especially during the full moon and the new moon
periods. During the British period a number of embankments
were built up in order to keep out the sea water from flooding
the agricultural land. Some of these embankmens were the
Kutubdia embankments, the Gandamara dykes, the Saral
embankments, the Bakkhali embankments, the Gahira
embankments, the embankments on the Buramchhara.
Violent tidal bores seriously damage these embankments which
have to be rebuilt after each calamity.
4. Blight. Plant disease caused by parasites and cater-
pillars damages the paddy crops especially in aman season.
Every year blight visits some parts or other of the district, which
became disastrous to the afflicted areas. The condition is more
acute where aman is the only crop of the year.
5. Earthquake. The district of Chittagong is located in
the volcanic belt. A mild to moderate form of earth tremor may
occur in any time of the year.
Among the powerful earthquakes on record the earth
quake of 1762 was the most disastrous. Serious cracks on the
surface of the earth did occur ever5rwhere in the district. The
reporter gives a detailed description of the extensive damage to
life and property.16
Earthquake of moderate type often shakes the
district. An earth tremor occured in the winter of 1865. On the
I2th June, l8g7 an earthquake shook the distri ct.L7
B. Man made disasters
1. Famine. Every natural calamity followed famine. The
occurence of cyclone, tidal bore, flood, blight, draught etc. left a
trail of famine behind each of them. Extreme scarcity of food
caused death from starvation. No food or any kind of relief was
given to the distressed people to relieve their misery. If the
food, shelter and medicine were given to the distressed people
in time then the suffering of the victims would be much
reduced.
 Disaster and Relief | 193

Though relief operation was one of the important

functions of the District Board, till the year fgll no relief
assistance was sent to the alllicted areas by the District Board.lS
To alleviate the distress of famine stricken people, the
Famine Code was enacted in 1913. This measure taken by the
government made efforts in a very limited scale to relieve
famine in affected areas. Famine Relief and Insurance was
framed on the recommendation of the goro.tttot.19
One of the most disastrous famines on government record
was the famine of 1942-43. The major causes of this famine
were low agricultural production as a result of war panic, sud-
den increase of population due to the influx of evacuees from
Burma, stoppage of the import of food stuffs from Burma, Assam
and Barisal, and wartime inflation.
Maulana Maniruzzarnan Islamabadi while explaining the
causes of the famine in Chittagong says in the legislative coun-
cil as follows
el cq-fi {Rl EqiX qs tlstk$ q{{lcs€ sqf$ cq.rclfr{ q{ IIcc-< cq-?rfs E-{
qt rq<fi? E{ rfc{< c{r<rs <tR{ qnrs qdtqgdrqn Re(g qNqTA qfl €s r

DUaT{ 6q-{r< ,[D qwrfrrs frr sqirqn s qrqrq ffirs sM sfu qf-< qd
S"nRi{ sRrt allfr\o rionrrt qNnft {t;t EIEzq< <l-{ ftftfu €o rfu uto <qrr<
q?co {rq< ersr< u3fl{ "Ffs RVe Ef$ qG-{tq rgq-cq-rt €p +q"rcr 1i o+
mro qfr$ q-+q<{t $ sRrtcR tgsrrr.'t3r qs flGm{ q{flil qr$-<l-Gr ?ffi I
ffiqR <-q ql{ Etrs qlqk$ E?qrf re El{ q-{13i okfl 6q'srt €qlcq r eR
qqw qq-{t c{q {rc{< Bqtfrrg mtF< E{< w,fs qtrTrq r tqr< E"r< frFrUftm-<
E"E-{ € eRrcq-< q;{I TITIIEFII XW fr{ti t...n2o

Mr Shahed Ali speaks in the House,

.... It (Chittagong District) had its food stuff imported from
Burma, it had then its food stuff imported from Assam and it
had also imported rice from Bakarganj. But unfortunately,
sir, we are not now getting any rice from Burma and it has
been prohibited by an order of the Government of Assam that
no rice should be imported from there to the province of
Bengal...'21
Mrs. Nellie Sengupta vividly describes the threat of wide
194 | A History of Chittagong
spread famine in Chittagong in the assembly on July lB, lg43
....As you know, we used to have a lot of rice, great deal of
rice from Burma. tn fact, many Chittagonians used to live
almost entirely on Rangoon rice. That rice has not been
forthcoming now for many months.
Another thing is that last year's crop was a very disappoint-
ing one, much less than we had hoped for. Another reason is
that two lacks of evacuees had come from Burma. They came
to the Chittagong district last year. They came with practi-
cally nothing, without money and certainly without food; and
they had to be given food.
Then there is the military.... But you can not go on feeding
the military at the expense of the civil population for all time
and that is what is happening in Chittagong.
Then again, there are so many families in Chittagong with
almost no earning members. Many of the menfolk are
political prisoners. Many of them are detenus and last year
several hundreds of people were killed. It means again there
are so many families with no earning member.
Then again there are the fishermen of Chittagong and they
are in the terrible crisis. As you know, boats have been
removed and consequently no boat can go into the Bay of
Bengal which means that the livelihood of fishermen has
gone.
Then again, I would draw your attention to the roving
beggars. They used to be fed by people but now every grain of
food counts and they cannot get anything. No one can give
any grain of food to these beggars. People are boiling the
leaves of mango trees and eating them and they are also
eating red potatoes which are undoubtedly very substantial
but not good for stomach....22
The price of rice jumped as high as Rs 30 to 32 per maund
according to government sources23 But the sufferers like the
present author witnessed the price of rice rose as high as 5O to
6O Rupees per maund in his locality.
The number of beggars rose in a higher degree, Men,
 Disaster and Relief I 195

women and children combed fields and forests, marshes and

hills to find a scrap of edible material. Mr Dhirendra l,al Barua
gives a touching narrative of the sufferings of the people in the
legislative council on July 15, 1943.2a Deaths from starvation
became a common scene both in the urban and in the rural
areas. Maulvi Nur Ahmad told the legislative council. "that many
deaths due to starvation har.e occured in Chittagong town and
rural areas and the number is daily on the increase."2s
In spite of much delay the government started
rescue operation. It provided cooked food for hunger stricken
people. Free kitchens were established in almcst every v"'ard in
the town and in every village in the rural areas. Free kitchening
continued upto 1944.
On September 15, 1943, H S Suhrawardi informed the
legislative council that 62,00O maunds of rice, 3O,O00 maunds
of bazra and 32,o00 maunds of dal (pulse) have been ordered to
be despatched froln Calcutta."26
Medical treatment to the distressed people was
undertaken on emergency basis. According to government
sources. *599 persons were treated in the hospitals and rescue
homes in Chitt agong."27
Non official food committees were formed in every village.
Volunteers for relief works were recruited from all sections of
the people.
Rationing system was introduced in Lg44 for "non-agri-
cultural poor people... It has started in Patiya and Boalkhali
from February, 1944."28 l, Chittagong town the rationing
system has been fully introduced" and according to the report of
the municipality chairman, "it is working there very
satisfactorily."2s
rn 1944 government opened controlled shops in the rural
areas. Rice, wheat, bazra, clothing, fuel and other provisions
were supplied to the people at cheap rate and in limited
quantity.
196 | A History of Chittagong

Among the non-official organizations that conducted

relief works among the distressed people 'Friends Ambulance
Unit' was most noteworthy and won high praise from the
public. It was formed in 1943 as a relief or$amzation. While
praising their benevolent works Khan Bahadur Fazlul Qader
Chowdhury states in the provincial assembly :
...I express deep gratitude to the 'Friends Ambulance unit
for opening severat free canteens particularly in the district
of chittagong and feeding loo orphans and destitute
children in each centre supplying them with milk and
vitamin pills and clothing. This great philanthropic work was
taken up by the Friends Ambulance Unit when all other
organizations ceased to function. They have earned
everlasting gratitude of the public.3o
In 1944 a number of 'food for work' Schemes were
undertaken by the government for the relief of the poor- One
important scheme was the reexcavation of canals. According to
goverrlment report, about thirty schemes of reexcavation of
canals were undertaken.3l
The effect of the famine of '43 was disastrous for the
corrunon people. Many poor peasants were compelled to sell their
paternal lands at a nominal price. Tbis gave,rise to the
landless labourers. The growing dissatisfaction of the peasants
lead to agricultural unrest which gained physical shape in the
Tebhaga movement.
2. Wartime disaster. The Second wor:ld war broke out
in 1939. ln L942 Chittagong became a theatre of war' Regular
bombing by the Japanese airships resulted in the extensive
loss of lives and properties of civil population. The Japanese
bombing in the Chittagong town made the people panicky and
led to the infl'rx of the town people to the rural areas' Law and
order greatl, deteriorated owing chiefly to the garrisoning of
the forces of the Allied Powers. Chittagong town was
officially declared unfit for living with family. All the educational
inst;i.utions were cJosed down to provide accomodation for the
 Disaster and Relief I L97

military troops. the Collegiate School was converted to the fire

brigade headquarters. Primary schools in the town were turned
to the residences of the soldiers. Business life in the town came
to a stand still.
It is true that the wartime preparations provided opportu-
nities for recruitment, but it was at the risk of being killed or
injured. During air attacks people were desperately seeking
shelter from bombing.
The war period witnessed an abnormal increase of prices
of commodities. The declining supply of goods in the market
was a major cause of the rise of price level. The price level of
every available commodity was so high that the people of low
income group could not purchase even the bare necessities of
life.
To prevent the spread of war time panic and to protect the
civilian population against enemy attack certain measures
were taken by the government. Some of these were as follows :
(a)During the war period a special civilian body was set up called
Air Raid Precaution (precisely ARP) to rescue people from air
attack. (b) All India Radio, Calcutta centre broadcast news and
bulletins at short intervals to allay panic and to boost morale.
(c) Frequent press notes and communiques were issued.
(d) Pamphlets were circulated advising the people to take
precautionary measures in order to save lives from bomb
attacks. (e) Trenches and bunkers were dug in the roadside
and open spaces adjacent to buildings.
The country wide civil defence programme kept the people
safe from too many deaths.
3. Burmese evacuee influx. The outbreak of the
Second World War and the subsequent Japanese occupation of
Burma put the life and property of the Indian migrants in great
danger. A large number of natives of Chittagong were employed
in professional jobs in Burma. The pressing danger forced the
Bengalee residents to flee their houses and to take shelter in
Chittagong.
r98 | A History of Chittagong
The basic responsibility to take care of the evacuees rests
\Mith the authorities of the country of asylum. Unfortunately no
government measures to relieve the agony of the evacuees were
taken. The government practically did nothing regarding the
repatriation of the evacuees from Burma.
On September 15, 1943 Maulvi Nur Ahmad asked the
Home Department to inform the council about the relief given
to the evacuees of Burma. He requested the goverrrment to start
relief assistance to the victims without further delay.32 Th.
Home Minister Sir Khwaja Nazimuddin replied, *The govern-
ment of India have accepted the responsibility for rendering
financial and other assistance to the evacuees from the
Eastern War 7-ones."33 It i", however, not known what kind of
assistance was ever given to the evacuees.
Chittagong was passing through a very hard time when
the man made disasters like famin'e, war crisis, evacuee
influex concurrently acted destructively upon the social life.
Mr. Dhirendra Lal Barua in the provincial legislature vividly
narrates the extreme sufferings of the people as follows :
One like me cannot but feel wonder t.hat public attention
has hardly been drawn to the silent but terrible distress of
the people of Chittagong.... arising partly from large influx of
evacuees from Burma and further India, financially ruined
and literally penniless, partly from the dislocation of trade
and traffic due to the war situation and repeated enemy ac-
tion and mainly from the scarcity of essential food stuffs and
the outbreak of malaria, dysentery and cholera in an epi-
demic form.... From a personal and intimate knowledge of
the terrible plight which confronts them I can inform this
House that unless both the government and the public
co-operate in sending abundant quantities of food stuffs,
medicines, diet. 50,000 of starving and half starving people
will die at the onset of the next winter. not to speak of those
who have already died during the past three months, whose
number one need not be astonished, may exceed half a
Iack....34
 Disaster and Relief | 199

Note :

I Hamrlton's Htndustart
2 Gentleman's Magazine uol WII
3 Memorandum, p. 229
4 lbid.
5 Hunter, op. ctt., p.184
6 The Panch4janAa, Autumn Number, 1342, p. l0l
7 The Naua Jiban, l29l
8 See the poet's autobiography
9 RAB, 1922-23, p. 3
lO p. 43
Ibi.d.., 1923-24,
II lbid. 1926-27. p. 68
12 lbid., 1916-17, p. 77
13 ORBLC, 1928. p. 44
L4 lbid. 1937. p. 744
l5 lbtd... 1940; pp. 36-37
16 JASB, 1762
17 The Panchqjanga, Autumn Number 1342, p- LO2

l8 D.istrtct Gazetteer, 1901 11, p. 20

l9 ORBLC, 1927, p. 531
20 lbtd., 23.2, 1943, p. 245
2I lbid., 1943, p"22
22 ORBlf, July 13, 1943, p. 34O
23 lbid., 1944, p. 1344
24 lbid., 1943, pp. 133 34
25 lbtd., 1944. p. 22
26 IbId.. 1943,p. 7r
27 lbid., 1944, p. 968
28 lbid., p. 1344
29 lbtd., p. rO47 48
30 lttid., 1945. p" 83
3l lbtd., t944. p 735
32 lbid., 1943, p. 25
33 II:id.. p. 2
34 tbid., p. r44
 Chapter L2
Social Welfare
Social welfare in modern times means governmental and
private charitable services rendered to those who are
illiterate, socially backward, people living in extreme poverty,
physically and mentally handicapped, victims of natural and
man made disasters, children and women of poorer class.
The charitable works in the district were started by the
European missionaries in the beginning of the nineteenth
century. During the latter part of the nineteenth century,
western concept of humanitarianism and liberalism greatly,
influenced the enlightened class many of whom became
zealously active in the promotion of human welfare.
Maternity care and child welfare. The condition of
child population was in no case good. Male children in the rural
areas were employed in the fields and pastures. Girl child was
exposed to all sorts of discrimination, abuse and exploitation.
Girl children suffered early marriage and motherhood.
Obviously, teen aged mothers were not capable to look after
their children. Cases of maltreatment to step children by step
mother were common. Children of divclrced wives were
subjected to miserable condition.
The mounting problem of neglected children
required legislation to deal with the problem. In order to
furthering the child welfare following laws were enacted. (a) In
lB90 Guardians and Wards Act was pssed. (b) The enactment of
the tsengal Children Act, L922 was a major step for the welfare
of children. By this Act parents or other family members are
required to assume the responsibility for the care of their wards.
(c) Ttre Declaration of the Right of Children, 1924, states firmly
that children are endowed with human rights. (d) The Child
 Social Welfare | 2OL

Marriage Restraint Act, 1929 declares the child marriage an

illegal act. (e) Employment of Children Act, 1938, clearly states
that the employment of minor boys and girls in industrial
establishments is prohibited.
All these laws have merits no doubt but their
application was very much limited.
The high rate of infant mortality and child birth mortality
was a great concern to the socially conscious people. It created
a movement for the establishment of child welfare and
maternity hospital in the town. The government responded
favourably to the public demand and agreed to establish a
maternity centre in the town. While replying to an enquiry made
by Maulvi Nur Ahmad about the progress of the construction of
the proposed maternity centre the minister replies as follows :
The scheme for establishing a maternity and child welfare
centre was forwarded by the commission of the Chittagong
Division to the Director of Public Health in the beginning of
January l94l and is now being examined by him. It is re-
ported that a sum of Rs 7, 9O2 has been realised out of the
promised amount of Rs IO,OOO. The plan and estimates of
the Maternity and Child Welfare Centre have been sent to
the Director of Public Health.I
Referring to the construction of the Maternity
Centre, Maulvi Nur Ahmad informs the House that "the work of
the Maternity and Child Welfare Centre has already commenced
with the annual contribution of Rs l OOO and more from the
Chittagong municipality and services of a very efficient
European Health Visitor has been obtained."2 The hospital was
named Jemison Maternity and Child Welfare Centre to
commemorate Mr. T G Jemison the then magistrate collector
who was closely connected with the construction of the
building.
Deaf and Dumb School. The children that were
insensible to hearing and unable to speak evoked the feeling of
sorrow and sympathy of the public. In the early 1930s Chittagong
2O2 | A History of Chittagong
municipality leased out a piece of land for erecting a house for
the Deaf and Dumb School. In reply to an enquiry by Rai Bahadur
Kamini Kumar Das with regard to the construction of the
proposed building W D R Prentice replied that unless Chittagong
people co-operate with government in uprootin$ terrorist
activities no step could be taken.3 Thi" meant that the
establishment of a humanitarian institution depended on the
fulfilment of a political demand, which was beyond the capacity
of people in general.
Orphanages. A few orphanages concerning with the
well-being of children particularly children suffering from the
effects of poverty or lacking normal parental care were
established by individual enterprise. Two more important
orphanages are mentioned below.
1. Chittagong Islam Mission Etimkhana. In reply to
an inquiry in the legislative council Khwaja Nazimucldin said
that the Chittagong Etimkhana came into being in l93l.a The
founder of the Etimkhana was Maulana Manirvzzaman
Islamabadi, a great philanthropist of his times. He acted as its
secretary till his death. The Etimkhana was supported by chari-
table contributions.
2. Deshabandhu Anath Ashram. It was founded in
1928 at Chandanpura. Satish Chandra Nag was its chief
orSanizer and principal. The Dhar family of Dabua donated a
building along with sorne landed properties valued 50,O0O
rupees to this institution. In 1936 Tripura Charan Chowdhury
and Nalini Kanta Das were its president and secretary
respectively.S
Women Welfare. In the middle of the nineteenth
century humanitarians started thinking of wotnen welfare. The
social workers paid their attention to the removal of all kinds of
discriminations and restrictions imposed on the female
society. A few organizations for the promotion of' women
welfare are cited below.
 Social Welfare I 2O3

1. Helping Hand Society. It was founded in 1936 through

efforts of Mrs. H G Wait. During the whole time of her staying in
Chittagong she exerted herself for the well-being of the
womenfolk of Chittagong.
The District Judge Mr H E Wait was the principal patron
of the society. He assigned a portion of his residence to be used
by the society. Mrs H G Wait was its first president and Mrs S L
Khastagir was the first general s.ecretary. Mr Ahmedur Rahman
Seth a well known social worker was one of the members of the
working committee.
In October, L937, the society organved an exhibition of
handicrafts made by the members of the society. It was held at
the residence of Mrs Wait. The Handicrafts consisted of
embroidery, wrapper, mat, cushion, table cloth etc. The designs
and quality of the exhibits were praised by all sections of the
visitors.6
In cooperation with Satsangha Nari Shilpashram the
Helping Hand Society made efforts to provide career of
employment for the girls and widows.
The Helping Hand Society also launched a programme of
assisting patients in the hospitals.
2. Satsangha Nari Shilpashram. It was founded in
the middle of the t93os. The principal and secretar5r in 1936
were Swarnalata Devi and Indu blushan Dasgupta respectively.
The organization provided free assistance for the help-
less women especially the widows to live a self supported life.
In the ashram various types of garments were
designed and embroidered. These were put on display in
different exhibitions.
3. Women's Protection [,eagu€. In many cases when
a husband died in his early age his family was left completely
destitute. Humanitarians pleaded for the protection and safety
of women who needed it much. With this view in mind the
humanitarians established Women's Protection League. In
 2O4 | A History of Chittagong

1936, the president and the secretary were Barrister S L

Khastagir and Umesh Chandra Gupta respectively.
4. Widow Remarriage Association. The enlightened
section of the society strongly pleaded for the remarriage of
young widows. with this view they formed an organizattonnamed
widow Remarriage Association. In lg36 Jatindra Lal Dutta was
the secretary of the association.
Chattagram Mahila Samiti. The Samiti was founded
in 1931. The president and the secretary were Mrs N N Roy
chowdhury and Mrs Mohsin Ali respectively. In 1936 Mrs p B
Rudra and Mrs Hubert seyne were the president and the
secretary respectively.
Members of the Mahila samiti assembled regularly at the
Public Library Hall on every sunday afternoon. The programme
included the cultivation of music, needle and embroidery works,
reading of articles before the gathering, newspaper reading,
exchange of views etc. sunday was declared as women's day in
the Public Library.7
Youth Welfare. Youth welfare included a series of
cultural, social, recreational, vocational and counselling
programmes. Boy Scouts, Girl Guides, Young Men Christian
Association, Byayam Samiti were some of the important
organizations exclusively devoted to the youth welfare.
Assistance to the Political Sufferers. During the
Chittagong Revolt hundreds of patriots who were
either active revolutionaries or suspects were taken prisoner.
In the later part of the 193os many of these prisoners were
released from jail custody. After their release they found
thenrselves in a wretched condition. Most of them belonged to
the families of low income group. There was no opportunity of
employment, no source of income from any quarters. To help
the unfortunate detenus an organizationcalled Rajbandi Sahajya
Samiti (association for the rehabilitation of detenus and
political sufferers) was established on December 19, 1937. In
 Social Welfare | 2O5

the inaugural meeting held at the J M Sen Hall an appeal was

made to the public to help rehabilitation of the political
sufferers.
On January B, 1938, a mammoth meeting attended by
such prominent persons as the municipality chairman Nur
Ahmad, district Congress president Mahim Chandra Das, Golam
Sobhan, Tripura Charan Chowdhury, Ambika Charan Das was
held at the J M Sen Hall. The meeting urged the government to
take immediate steps regarding the rehabilitation of the
released detenus
Meetings of Rajbandi Sahajya Samiti were held in almost
every village. In the meetings earnest plea was made to the
public to help the political sufferers to overcome their
hardship.
Labour Welfare. Labour welfare aims at betterment of
the conditions of life of workers and their families. No labour
welfare programmes either by the government or by the
employers were undertaken for the improvement of the condi-
tions of work and the livelihood of the labourers.
Trade Union for protection of labourer interests was formed
in a very loose form in 1938. On July 23, 1938, Suresh Banarji,
president of All India Trade Union Congress presided over a
large meeting of labourers and corunon people held at the J M
Sen Hall. In the meeting he urged the government to take
necessary steps for the social well being of the labourer class.
Indian Red Cross Society. Bengal provincial branch.
Red Cross Society was the leading humanitarian organization
which offered various types of humanitarian sevices to the
sufferers of natural disasters.
The Bengal branch of Indian Red Cross Society rendered
substantial help to the medical institutions by supplying bed-
ding comfort etc. and in addition paying the salaries of nurses.
From 1929 to 1938, the General Hospital received a grant
of Rs 2,4OO annually from the Red Cross Society.S In 1932 Red
2OG I A History of Chittagong
cross society granted Rs 5oo for treating illness at Sitakunda
Mela.9 In1938 cox's Bazar Hospital received a grant of money
from the Red Cross Society.lo
The activities of the Junior Red Cross Society were ex-
tended to chittagong. The activities were primarily confined
among the groups of school students. The object of the Junior
Red Cross movement was "to improve the health of the
members of the groups, to teach them simple hygiene and to
encourage them to aim at better sanitary conditions in their
schools and in their homes."ll The following institutions were
affiliated to the junior branch of the Red Cross Society in 1g37.
(a) Government Madrasa, [b) Government Middle English School,
(c) Chittagong Collegiate School, (d) Municipal High English
School, (e) Government Muslim High School.12
The Chittagong Association. Among all the
humanitarian organizations, the Chittagong Association was
the first and foremost in position. It was established at Calcutta
in lB74 by Dr. Annada Charan Khastagir, the great social re-
former and his associates under the name of Chittagong People's
Association. According to W W Hunter, "....the Association is
composed of educated natives of Chittagong living in Calcutta."13
The first president of the Association was Kamala Kanta Sen.
In the next year the Association was transferred from
Calcutta to Chittagong. It was inaugurated by the Lt. Goverrlor
of Bengal while he was visiting Chittagong in January, 1875.
The objects of the Association, according to Hunter, were
"to promote the good of the district", "to bring to the notice of
Government or of the local authorities any reform that may be
considered desirable', and "to promote female education."l4 It
also recommended to the goverrlment time befitting measures
to inrprove the social condition of the people.
The membership of the Association was open to all
progressive minded and socially conscious people irrespective
of caste or creed. In fact, almost all progressive people joined
 Social Welfare | 2OT

this association
Throughout the period of its existence from L875 to 195O
the Association was connected with all kinds of social and
humanitarian works.
Within a very short time of its establishment about five
or six girls schools were established in the urban and rural
areas.lS Frorn that time down to the first quarter of the twenti-
eth century a number of educational institutions were built
under the patronage of the Chittagong Association.
The Chittagong Association provided humanitarian aid
for the famine and flood stricken people and the people affected
by the world wars. The Association urged the government to
treat the imprisoned revolutionaries fairly and not in a cruel
way.
In 1925 the Association celebrated its golden jubilee.
Islam Association (variously called Moslem
Association, Mohammadan Association) Chittagpng
Branch. The Association was established in lg08 (?). The
pulpose of the organization was the development of religion,
society, education and the country by establishing unity and
fraternity among the Muslims. Almost all the Muslim elite were
either members of the Association or connected with the
charitable activities of the Association. The members made
efforts to deal urith social problems according to the current
socio-political beliefs.
Chattagram Musalman Chhatra Samiti. The Samiti
was the district branch of province wide organization. It was
established in L924 for the purpose of welfare activities. The
organization was also connected with political movements.
Chattagram Zllla Juba Samiti. On October 29, Lg2g a
large gathering, presided over by the divisional commissioner
Mr. Abdul Momen was held at the Muslim Hall. A proposal to
establish a youth organization to be named as Chattagram ziLla
Jubo Samiti was adopted unanimously in the meetfhg.16
2O8 | A History of Chittagong

Mohammad Ekramul Haq and Dr. M A Hashem were

president and secretary respectively of the Juba Samiti.
The Jubo Samiti rendered valuable service to the All
Muslim Conference held at the Parade Ground on April 18,
lg30.l7
The Nizampur Central Moslem Youngmen's Association
established in 1929 was the most influential youth
orgarlization in northern Chittagong. The chief patrons of the
Association were S. Nader Ali, Mv. Farrokh Ahmad Nezampuri
and others.
On December 24, 1938 an organ:.z;ation named the United
Muslim Youth Association was established at the instance of
eminent persons. It seems that Chattagram Musalman Chhatra
Samiti and Chattagram Zilla Jubo Samiti joined together to
form one large organization. Its aim was to render social
service among the backward section of the society.tS
Tarun Bouddha Samiti. The Buddhist youths formed
this organization, the purpose of which was the welfare of the
younger generation of the Buddhist society. Jyotiratna Barra
was its nominated president. Mahima Ranjan Barua was one
of the prominent members of the samiti.
European Association - The object of the Association
was to look after the social well-being of the European
residents of the town. In l93l Mr Nolan was the president of
theAssociation. He held this post till 1937. MrA C Westwas its
secretary. In the meetings of the Association members
exchanged their views on diverse subjects especially business
and current politics.
Residential Welfare Institutions. There are some
educational institutions requiring the students to live in the
same building. The students are given religious instruction
and training in social work. These institutions are controlled
by the ascetics and run by charity and public subscription.
Among many residential institutions following three are
noteworthy.
 Social Welfare | 2Og

Jagatpur Ashram. The Ashram was established by

Purnananda Paramahamsa Dev in 19O3. During the Swadeshi
movement period it was a residential institution of the
community of the patriot sannyasis. Jogesh Brahmachari, a
revolutionary received institutional training in this Ashram.
In the l92Os it became a reputed centre of Sanskrit learning.
In the l93Os it afforded shelter to the orphans and helpless
women.
Pravartak Ashram. It was established by the great
revolutionary Matilal Roy in 1921. Originally it was a welfare
institution devoted primarily to educational and vocational
training. Resident students were required to perform religious
duties and welfare works among the residents.
Ramkrishna Sevashram. It was established in the later
part of the 1920s primarily as residential educational institu-
tion. The boarder students were given training in philanthropic
and charitable works. In the latter part of l93Os Rasik Chandra
Hazan and Devendra Lal Das were its president and secretary
respectively. On May 8, 1938 the annual meeting was ceremo-
niously held. It was presided over by Barrister S L Khastagir.
Co-operative Society and Co-operative Credit So-
ciety.
The co-operative movement involves doing social welfare
work together in order to improve the condition of the common
people and to develop the rural areas.
The co-operative movement increased its activity in the
late l92os. In almost every advanced village, co-operative soci-
et5r was established and ran by the local enterprising persons.

In 1920 the municipal sweepers established a coopera-

tive societ5/, "which has rescued them from the moneylenders
g.ip."19
In 1927 the co-operative society of Kodhurkhil
village was established. It helped establishment of High School,
weaving society, charitable dispensary, library etc. The
2lO I A History of Chittagong

prograrnme of financial assistance to the poor students was also

adopted by the co-operative society. The co-operative society of
Kodhurkhil provided a model for other co-operative societies of
trral areas.
The co-operative societ5r related to the agriculturists was
known as Samabaya Krishi Samiti. By the Government of In-
dia Act, 1919, the co-operative department was provinciabzed
and brought under government supervision. The district coop-
erative society known as Chattagram Zilla Samabaya Krishi
Samiti was established in 1926. 'Maulvi Abdul Jabbar, inspec-
tor, Co-operative societ5l, Chittagong was placed in charge of
the Chattagram Zilla Samabaya Krishi Samiti Ltd. in February
193O.-2o Owing to the mismanagement, many of the co-opera-
tive socities were wound up. The government report states,
*Three societies out of five under the said Samiti have gone
into liquidation.-2l
Co-operative credit is that branch of welfare economics
that concerns with the welfare of the people especially tJre poorer
section. The Co-operative Act, passed'in 1904 provided for the
starting of rural as well as urban credit societies. As a result a
number of co-operative banks were established in the rural
areas to provide capital for needy villagers on easy terms and
allow the borrower to pay by instalments.
Rural Welfare. After the government had relaxed the
severity of laws controlling the formation of committees in 1936,
rural welfare committees under the various names of Palli
Unnayan Samiti, Gram Samiti, Gram Unnayan Samiti were
established almost in every village. The aim of these commit-
tees was to provide assistance for people that needed it. The
members of these committees were enthusiastic about the
development of their respective villages.
Movement against Social Barrier. Gandhiji started
campaign against caste segregation throu$hout India in l92Os.
He named the scheduled caste as Harijan.
 Social Welfare | zLL

A meeting to discuss the improvement of the Harijan class

was held on September 15, 1938. Swami Jnanananda a social-
ist leader, revolutionary Jatin Raksit and many other
prominent persons attended the meeting. Swami Jnanananda
spoke on the curse of untouchability. A proposal to remove
social barriers on the Harijans was adopted. The meeting voted
to accept the formation of an organization named Chattagram
Harijan Samgha.

Note :
L ORBL C, l94 r
2 lbid. p. L3O
3 lbid. 1933.p.79
4 lbid".. p. 337
5 The Dourrk JgotL 1929: The Sa@abarta. 1344
6 'I\e DeshnpriAa- 2O Agralngarv 1344. p. 12
7 lbid-. I August. 1938
8 Annual Report on the Working of Hospitals and Di-spensaries under the
Gouentment oJ BengaL 1929-38
9 rbid_., 1932
lO lbid., 1938, p. L7
I I Annunl Report oJ tle Indio,n Red Cross hcietg, Bengal Prouitrcinl Bro.nch-
1937. p. 34
12 lbid.pp. 34-39
13 Hunter, op. ctt., p. 2ll
t4 lbid.
l5 Ibid.
16 The Bangla Gazette, 1929
t7 lbid.. 1930
18 The Abhijan, 1938, p. 15
l9 RAB. l9l9-2o. p. 45
20 ORBIT. 1935. p. 339
2r tbid.
 Chapter 13
Literature and Literary Organizations
The term literature applies to a variety of literary
compositions suclr as poems, novels, plays, literary criticisms,
itineraries etc. In all these branches of literature, Chittagong
makes commendable contributions. Much of the compositions
either in prose or in verse written during the British period
have lasting quality and artistic merit.
The latter part of the nineteenth century and the early
part of the twentieth century witness a revolutionary change
in politics, religion and society. This change has charactertzed
the contemporary literary composition.
Contact with the English learning brought a change in
Bengali style of writing. The English poets anci writers greatly
influenced the Bengali poets and prose writers in the same
degree.
Establishment of printing press provided an opportunity of
printing and publication for a writer's compositions.
It is not possible to give a detailed description of literary
works in a short space Only a brief study on the literary
activities during the British period is permitted here.
Chittagong has a glorious tradition of the cultivation of
classical litel'at.ure such as Sanskrit, Pali and Persian. Culti-
vation of Sanskrit literature goes as far back as the ancient
period. A nur .ber of distinguished Sanskrit scholars during the
British period wrote many Sanskrit works among whom the
following writers are noteworthy. Rajani Kanta Chakravorty
Sahityacharya wrcte 'Chattal Bilapam' in praise of literary per-
Chandra Bhattacharya Vidyavinod
son . rges of C hittago 19. J agat
vi, ,te a biographice I work named 'Srivatsya Charitam' which
 Literature and Literary Organizations | 2L3

has some historical value. Dr. Jatindra Bimal Chowdhury a

foreign educated Sanskrit scholar showed considerable talent
in writing philosophical and religious books in Sanskrit. He also
wrote a number of books and articles on the literary
qualities of ancient Sanskrit works. He wrote dramas in
Sanskrit for the stage performance.
Pali is the sacred language of the Buddhists. It eventually
became a dignified international language of the Buddhists.
Chittagong has a reputation of vigorous activities in
Persian literature since medieval period.l Cultivation of
Persian literature received fresh impetus during the nineteenth
century and in the early part of the twentieth century. Some of
the Persian poets along \Mith their works may be mentioned
here. Ajiullah, 'Gham i Aam' (poem in elegiac metre); Maulana
Akbar Ali, 'Minhajul Mumni'; Abdul Awwal, 'Aattahkatual
Khatira', 'Al Jawame ul Qadriya'; Majharul Haq Majhar, 'Inshah
e Majhar'; Shah Jahangir, 'Masnavi Ganj e Raj', Abul Mohsin
Foujul Kabir Shah, 'Fujujat e Gausia', 'Al Faujul Azim fi Maulud
un Nabi Karim, Abul Fateh Ahsanullah, 'Ahsanul Insha'.
Some Characteristic traits that marked the Bengali
literary works during the British period can be described as
follows:
[,ove of mother counly characterizes many of the poems.
The patriotric writings are aimed at arousing love of one's coun-
try. The 'Palashir Juddha' of Nabin Chandra Sen, the 'Sikh' of
Bipin Bihari Nandi are the two specimens of patriotic poems.
Expressions of political views and opinions characterize
many of the prose writings. Generally, the politfcal writings
were published either in the newspapers or in the periodicals.
Revolutionary ideolog5r, narration of revolutionary events,
martyrdom of the patriots characterized the revolutionary writ-
ings of the period. writings on the Bolshevic Revolution, Irish
Revolution and other revolutionary events were included in this
class of writings.
2L4 | A History of Chittagong

Expression of romanticism and the beauty of nature

charactertzed most of the poetical works. The poets are lovers
of nature and make an effort to transfuse the love of nature to
the readers.
The latter half of the nineteenth century is the great age
of religious revival. Religious beliefs and ethical principles have
been expressed in the writings of the poets and prose writers.
Poets and poetry
Some of the poets of remarkable ability during the British
period may be mentioned here.
Nabin Chandra Sen (1846-1909). His works demonstrate
variety of themes, spontaneity in composition and variation in
rhyming.
Nabin Chandra Das, Kabigunakar ( 1853- 19 14) was a poet
of great ability, a proficient translator and a successful editor of
a literary periodical.
Bipin Bihari Nandi (IB7O-1937) poetized the historical,
semihistorical and legendary events.
Sasanka Mohan Sen (1873'1928). His works are marked
by imagination and lyricism. Many poems manifest devotion to
divine being and appreciation of natural objects.
Jibendra Kumar Dutta (1883- l92l), a prolific poet, wrote
about a dozenbooks of poems and about 300 poems. He was also
an accomplished essayist and a biographer.
Hemanta Bala Dutta (1889-1916). Subject matter of her
poems is mostly divine thinking. Composition is graceful and
pleasing. Her poetries are consecrated to the services of the
divine being.
Besides these flifted poets, there were other poets whose
compositions have the qualities of poetry. Sotne of them are
Abu Ma'Ali Mohammad Hamid Ali ('Jainaloddhar Kavya', 'Sohrab
Badh Kar,ya'), Muhammad lbrahim, Abdus Salam ('Anchar'),
Rahimunnesa Khanam ('Bhratribilap')
 Literature and Literary Organizations | 2I5

Poetical works of' the poets of Chittagong may be

classified as follows :

(a) Lyric poems. The chief characteristic of the lyric

poems is the expression of intense personal emotion usually
in short poems divided into stanzas. A few speeimens of lyric
poems may be cited. 'Abakash Ranjini' of Nabin Chandra Sen,
'Shoka Giti' (Elegiac peoms) of Nabin Chandra Das, 'Sindhu
Sangit', 'Saila Sangit' of Sasanka Mohan Sen, 'Arghya' of Bipin
Bihari Nandi.
The lyric poems of Jibendra Kumar Dutta present grace
and subtleness. Besides his important lyric works 'Anjali',
'Dhyanalok', Tapobon', 'Matrisok' etc., he wrote a number of
lyric poems which were published in different periodicals. 'Maa'
and 'Mandire' are two reputed books of lfic poems of Mohini
Ranjan Sen.
(b) trpic poems. Epic is "a long narrative poem
conceived on a grand scale telling a story of great or heroic
deeds. .... The style of the epic is marked by a diction rich in
circumlocutions, epithets etc."2 Warfare and the.courts of kings
supply its materials.
Though there was no epic in et5rmological sense, some of
the works written on a grand scale are tlpical of an epic. The
most famous poetical composition having the features of an
epic is the 'Sapta Kanda Rajasthan', written by Bipin Bihari
Naudi. It is a narrative poem recounting heroic deeds of Rajput
princes. 'Palashir Juddha' of Nabin Chandra Sen has charac-
teristics of an epic.Raibatak','Kuruksetra' and'Pravas' of Nabin
Chandra Sen jointly form an epic, the subject matter of which
books is the divine activities of l,ord Krishna.
(c) Long Poems. ktng Poem is narration in details about
the zrctions of remarkable men and women, land scape,
remarkable incident etc. Some of the long poems are mentioned
below.
'Cleopatra', 'Rangamati', 'Amitabha' of Nabin Chandra Sen.
216 | A History of Chittagong

Alt of these poems are written in Bengali.

'The story of Ekasringa', 'Rukmavati', 'The story of
Jyotishka', The story of Srigupta', "The story of Adin Punya' of
Nabin Chandra Das. All of these poems are written in English.
Novels. "The novel is an imaginative prose narrative of
some length usually concerrred with human experien""."3 Th.
first half of the twentieth century was the most productive
period of novel writing. Some of the celebrated novelists along
with their works are mentioned below.
Girish Chandra Barua Vidyabinod ('Andher Jasthi')
Mahbub Alam ('Mafijan'), Abdur Rashid Siddiqu (Zarina') Syed
Waliullah ('Lal Salu', 'Chander Amabasya'), Abul FazaI
('Chouchir'), Ohidul Alam ('Karnafulir Majhi')
Satirical writings. This branch of literature is "a-
composition holding up vice or fofly to ridicule or lampooning
individuals."4 Sometime a satire is written to expose the views
and follies of society. Ahsabuddin Ahmad in his book 'Bande
Votaram' (in English) uses humour to show the faults of the
politicians. His other work is 'Ser Ek Anna Matra'. 'Gof Sandesh'
of Mahbub Alam is a successful satirical writing.
Translatory works. In translating ori$inal poetical works
into another language poets of Chittagong show excellence.
In translating Sanskrit classical works into English and
Bengali verse Kabi Gunakar Nabin Chandra Das surpassed all
others. He translated poet Magha's 'Shishupal Baclha', poet
Kalidasa's'Raghuvamsa', poet Bharabi'S'Kiratarjuniyam', poet
Ksemendra's 'Charucharyasataka' into Bengali verse. All
these translatory works show the poet's great skill and
accomplishment.
Jibendra Kumar Dutta translated some of the poems of
Hafij int.o Bengali verse.
Buddhist scriptural text 'Dhammapada' was tratrslated
partly or wholly by a number of Buddhist litterateurs. Birendra
Lal Mutsuddi's translation was highly appreciated by readers.
 Literature and Literary Organizations | 2L7

Prajnalok Mahasthavir translated 'Milinda Panho' in two vol-

umes. The book was also translated by Rev. Dharmadhara
Mahasthavir. Dr. Benimadhab Barua translated 'Madhyama
Nikaya'. Ramchandra Barua translated'Mahasatipathana Sutra'
into Bengali. Pali text'Diggiha Nikaya'was translated into Bengali
by Dhammavansa Mahasthavir.
Biographical writings. Biography has been
defined as the history of the lives of the individuals. Biographi-
cal composition in the form of puthi dates back to the medieval
period. Those biographical puthis were in most cases based on
fictitious tales and romances.
Since the middle of the nineteenth century there has been
a change in the style of writing biography. Some of the biogra-
phers along with their works are cited below.
Forrokh Ahmad Nezampuri, 'Khaled bin Walid' 'HazratAbu
Hanifa', 'Hazrat Belal', 'Rabeya Basri'
Mohammad Abdul Monaem,'Sultan a Razia'
Sarbananda Barua,'Amitabha'
Nur Ahmad, 'Fort5/ great men and women of Islam.'
Comrade Muzaffar Ahmad, 'Qazi Nazrul Islam Smriti
Katha.'
Autobiographical writings. Autobiography is de{ined by
the Oxford Dictionary as "the writing of one's own history, the
story of one's life written by himself."
The most famous autobiographical work in the Bengali
literature is the 'Amar Jiban'of poet Nabin ('lrandra Sen. It is a
vivid account of the life and times of the pott Il also gives many
valuable information about the contempol-tll'\' tltctn of letters of
Bengal.
In the middle of the 20th century some reputed writers
wrote the story of his owrt life. These works contain many of
the writers' owrl experiences. Some autobiographical works are
cited below.
2I8 I A History of Chittagong

Jibendra Kumar Dutta, 'smritir Surabhi'; Mahbub Alam,

'Paltan Jibaner Smriti'; Abul Fazal, 'Rekhachitra';
Maniruzzaman Islamabadi,'Atmakatha'; Abdur Rahman,
'Jatatuku Mane Pare'.
Philosophical and Religious writings. The
object of these kinds of writings was to tell the people about the
philosophy, especially the moral philosophy. The names of the
writers and their works are noted below.
Saman Punnananda Sami, 'Ratnamala'; Sridhar Chandra
Barua, 'Abhi Sambuddha'; Khemesh Chandra Raksit, 'Uttar
Gitacchaya','Pandava Gita'; Ven. Bangshadip Mahasthavir,
'Kacchayana','Bhiksu Pratimoksa','Buddha Bandana', Nabaraj'
'Barua, 'Buddha Parichaya'; Beni madhav Barua. A History of
Buddhist Philosophy', The Ajivikas', A History of Pre-Buddhist
Philosophy'; Roma Chowdhury,'Nimbarka Darshan','Vedanta
Darshan', 'sufism and Vednta'; Aggasar Mahasthavir, 'Buddha
Bhajana','Gatha Samgraha','Simhali Pujavali','Dhammapad
Atthakatha'; Syed Ainuddin', 'Tafsir'; Abdur Rahman, 'Koran O
Jiban Darshan'; Maulana Nurul Haq, 'Marefat'.
Essays, historical works and literary criticisms.
There are a nuutber of works written by men of letters which
contain articles about his own belief, historical events, literary
criticism and other relaled subjects. A few examples are cited
below.
The greatest writer of literary criticism and one of the
outstanding representatives of Bengal Renaissance was H M
Percival. He earned reputation as a 'Shakespearean scholar'.
He edited with learned skill almost all the works of Shakespeare.
Maulana Maniruzzarrran Islamabadi was a reputed scholar
and a prolific writer. Some ol'his important books are 'Bharate
Islam Prachar','Musalmaner Abhyutthan','Samaj Sanskar',
'Bhugol Shastre Musalman', 'Khagol Shastre Musalman',
'Qurane Swadhinatar Bani', 'Bangla Sahitye Musalman'
(presidential address in the Basirhat conference)
 Literature and Literary Organizations | 2Lg

Abdur Rashid Siddiqi, 'Chattagram Rosain Tattva'. The

book is an ethnological study of Chittagon$ Muslims and
Arakanese Muslims.
Jibendra Kumar Dutta wrote a praiseworthy criticism on
Nabin Chandra Sen's Shailaja in which he shows originality of
thinking and variety of presentation.
Maulvi Nur Ahmad wrote a number of books on the
.A
glorious past of Islam. Some of these are 'Rising Islam', Short
History of two hundred Muslim Historians', 'Glories of Islam.'
Dr. Beni Madhab Barua wrote a number of scholarly books
and articles. Some of these are 'Inscriptions of Asoka', 'Ceylon
kctures', 'sahasra Barsher Bouddha Sahitya'.
'Arakan Rajsabhaya Bangla Sahitya' is a monumental
workjointly written by Dr. Enamul Haq and Abdul karim Sahitya
Visharad
Dr. Jatindra Bimal Chowdhury was well versed in
Sanskrit and wrote a number of scholarly books. Some of these
are 'Contributions of Muslims to Sanskrit Literature',
'Baisnabder Sanskrita Sahitye Dan'.
The early part of the twentieth century witnesses a vig-
orous study of local history. A number of able writers composed
a good number of local history of good quality. Some of these are
Tarikh i Chatgam' by Hamidullah Khan, 'Chattagramer Itihas'
by Tarak Chandra Dasgupta ,'Hathaz.arir Itibritta' by Syed Ahmad
Chowdhury, 'Chattagramer ltihas' by Purna Chandra
Chowdhury.
The great historian of subcontinental fame Professor
Kalika Ranjan Qanungo showed great skill in writing historical
works about heroic figures and memorable events.
Revolutionary writings. Chittagong was closely con-
nected with revolutionary movements against British rule. The
Chittagong uprising in the early 1930s is a memorable event
in the history of the freedom movement. A number of books
were written by the revolutionaries themselves. The following
22O I A History of Chittagong

works deserve special mention for the information of this great

event. 'Agnigarbha Chattagram' by Ananta Singh, 'Rajdrohir
Jabanbandi', 'Biplabi Bir Pramod Ranjan'by Charr bikash Dutta,
'Chittagong Armoury Raiders : Reminiscence' by Kalpana Dutta.
Revolutionary writings were in most cases subject to
government proscription.
Itineraries. Itineraries mean a record or account of a
journey.
The most celebrated writer of travel books was Rai Sarat
Chanra Das Bahadur. His most important work is 'Journey to
Lhasa and Central Tibet.' The book is written in the form of a
diary in which the author writes down his everyday experiences.
While expressing warm approbation of the travel book the
lnndon Times writes that, *...the subject may be fairly said to
be the most important book on Tibet."5 His another work
entitled 'Narrative of a Journey to Tashi Lhumpo' with an
introduction written by Sir Alfred Croft, vice-chancellor of the
Calcutta University was published in the 'Journal of Buddhist
Text Society.' These books supply interesting and valuable
accounts of the topography and natural scenery of the
mountanous region of the Himalayas.
Dr Francis Buchanan Hamilton (1762-1820) made an
extensive tour during which time he visited several different
places of the district of Chittagong. He wrote an account of his
journey in diary form. The book entitled 'South East Ben$al' not
merely narrates the route of his journey but gives valuable
ethnological description of the tribesmen and social condition
of the Bengalees of Chittagong.
Other books of travel such as 'Bilat Deshti Matir' (in
Bengali) of Jyotirmoyee Roy Chowdhury and 'Safar nama' (in
Persian) of Maulana Abdul Hakim deserve praise.
Literary works in English. Some poets of Chittagong
had a good command of the art of writin$ poetry in English
language. A few of the poets may be mentioned here.
 Literature and Literary Organizations | 22I

Ramkinu Dutta (l8Ol-1894) an influential native of

Chittagong was the first poet of the district who could write
English poem fluently. He was called by his British friends 'Byron
of Bengal'. 'Manipur Tragedy' is his noteworthy published work.
Poet Nabin Chandra Das wrote English poems in lucid
style. His two works 'Miracles of Buddha' and The Antiquity of
the Ramayana' have been highly acclaimed by the literati of
bclth India and Europe.
Another gifted poet was Rajani Ranjan Sen, whose three
poetical works bear deep poetic qualities. These are Triumph
of Valmiki', 'Glimpses of Bengal Life', The Cosmic Dust.'
Collection and editing of manuscript puthis and
folk poems. Antiquarians began to explore the folk lores to-
wards the end of the nineteenth century. Folk lores and puthis
have many common features. Both these items are based on
traditions and stories related to either an individual or a
community.
The first scholar who showed great interest in
finding out folk lores of Chittagong was J D Anderson the mag-
istrate collector of Chittagong (L894-97). He had a good com-
mand of Bengali language and Chittagong dialect. He with the
help of Raj Chandra Dutta collected a number of Chittagong
proverbs and folk poems.
Poet Jibendra Kumar Dutta collected a considerable
number of poems and songs of past period.
Ashutosh Chowdhury made a significant contribution to
the restoration of puthi literature. He collected a large number
of medieval poems, ballads and folklore.
By far the greatest explorer of medieval puthis was Abdul
Karim Sahitya Visharad who found out hundreds of puthis of
old time from different parts of Chittagong. He studied every
puthi and wrote comments on this sometime in detail.
Literary Associations
A Bengali literary association is a body of persons
222 | A History of Chittagong

orSanized for studying, appreciating and writing literary works.

A number of literary associations grew up during the British
period. The history of these associations, however, is not happy.
Many of these organizations were financially handicapped and
without adequate number of office bearers. Membership was
not considerable and income from subscription was so low that
even necessary expenditure could not be adequately met with.
Adhyayan Sammilani. The Adhyayan Sammilani was
probably the first literary organization in Chittagon$. It was
established by an enthusiasitc educated group of youths under
the leadership of Nalini Kanta Sen, an illustrious son of a
distinguished father Kamala Kanta Sen. Nalini Kanta's younger
brother Jamini Kanta actively participated in this enterprise.
The first meeting of the Sammilani was held in June, 1896.
The proceedings of 1898 session was briefly published in the
'Anjali' (October, 1898). The untimely death of Nalini Kanta
brought the activities of the Sammilani to an end.
Chattagram Sahitya Parishad. The most renowned
literary organization in Bengal was Bangiya Sahitya Parishat
established in Calcutta in 1894. Poet Nabin Chandra Sen and
Rai Sarat Chandra Das Bahadur of Chittagong were its found-
ing members. Many of the literati and the intellectuals of
Chittagong were enlisted as its members.
The Bangiya Sahitya Parishat in one of its sessions
adopted a resolution that branches of the Parishat should be
established at every important district sadar. The aim of the
branch Parishat would be the enhancement of the cultivation
of Bengali literature, restoration of old manuscripts and
collection of folk lores.
Justice Sarada Charan Mitra, a renowrled scholar and a
literary man while visiting chittagong in 13l8 BE (1911)
proposed in a meeting of the local elite that a branch of the
Sahitya Parishat should be established at Chittagong and named
Kabi Gunakar Nabin Chandra Das as its president desi$nate.
 Literature and Literary Organizations | 223

According to its proceedings, the Chattagram Sahitya

Parishad was established on Shravan 30, 13lB B. E (August 15,
19l 1). The first working committee of the Parishad was consti-
tuted as follows : president : Nabin Chandra Das, Kabi Gunakar,
M A, B L; vice-president : Nabin Chandra Dutta, Rai Bahadur;
civil surgeon (Rtd); secretary : Bipin Chandra Guha; joint
secretar5r : Jibendra Kumar Dutta, poet; members - 8.
Membership of the Parishad was open to all. Within a very
short time more than a hundred persons were enlisted as
members of the Parishad who were entitled to take part in the
activities of the Parishad.
The first general meeting of the Parishad was held on
January l, l912.Ilwas proposed that the parishad should meet
once a month.
In the monthly meeting held in Agrahayan, 1319 a
resolution was adopted by the Parishad to publish a quarterly
literary periodical, which was to be named 'Prabhat'. The
'Prabhat' was first published in January lgl3. Only selective
articles and poems read in the parishad meetings were
published in the 'Prabhat.'
Unfortunately, the proceedings of either the monthly
meetings or annual literary conferences are not available to
us. Newspapers and literary personages in past years complained
that no steps were taken to preserwe the proceedings of the
meetings and conferences.
The first annual literary conference under the auspices
of the Chattagram Sahitya Parishad was held in 1324 ( 19 I 7l at
Fateabad. The conference was presided over by Rajeswar Gupta.
A literary conference was held at Satkania in the same
year. It was presided over by poet Shasanka Mohan Sen. Sarada
Charan Khastagir was nominated chairman of the reception
committee.
The next annual conference (sammelan) of the
Chattagram Sahitya Parishad was held in 1325 (tgl8) at
224 | A History of Chittagong

Noapara near the crematorium of poet Nabin Chandra Sen. The

conference was presided over by poet Bipin Bihari Nandi.
The next annual conference of the Chattagram Sahitya
Parishad was held in the village Saroatali in 1326 BE (1919).
The conference was jointly sponsored by the intellectuals of
Saroatali, Dhorala and Kanungopara. The conference was
presided over by Sarada Charan Khastagir.
The conference held in 1332 B E (1925) was attended by a
large number of literary persons. In this conference 2l articles
were read and discussed. A new working committee of the
Parishad was formed. Professor Surendra Nath Dasgupta and
Sukhendu Bikash Roy were nominated president and generai
secretary respectively.
The annual Sahitya Parishad conference was held on
Friday, I lth Falgun, l34O B E (1933). It was attended by
eminent litterateurs and journalists. The confeience was
presided over by Ramananda Chattopadhyaya, the founder
editor of the 'Prabasi'. Dr. Mahammad Enamul Haq was
nominated president of the reception committee.
In the annual meeting of the Sahitya Parishad held in
1935 the working committee of the next year was formed.
Nagendra Nath Roy Chowdhury and Sushil Chowdhury were
nominated president and general secretary respectively.
The annual conference of the Chattagram Sahitya
Parishad was held on the sixth October, L937 (L344 BE) at the J
M Sen Hall. In absence of Nagendra Nath Roy Chwodhury, the
president of the Parishad, Sailendra Bhushan Dutta, the vice
president presided over the meeting which was attended by dis-
tinguished members of the Parishad. In the business session
of the conference the working committee for the next year
(1938)7 was constituted as follows : chairman : Nagendra Nath
Roy Chowdhury; co-chairman : Sailendra Bhushan Dutta and
Abdul Monaem; general secretary : Hirendra lal Chowdhury;
joint secretary : Sachindra Nath Dutta: treasurer : Nalini Kanta
Das.
 Literature and Literary Organizations | 225

The annual conference of the Chattagram Sahitya

Parishad held in the village Kadhurkhil on April I 5, l93B ( 1345
BE) had great importance to the audience. The presence of the
famous litterateur Annada Shankar Roy,the district
magistrate added grace to the conference. The conference was
presided over by Professor Janardan Chakravorty. The chair-
man of the reception committee was Anukul Chandra Das. The
inaugural speech was delivered by Maulvi Abdul Karim Sahitya
Visharad. Professor Janardan Chakravort5r, Dr. Jatindra Bimal
Chowdhury Professor Jogesh Chandra Sinha, Ashutosh
Chowdhury, Maulvi Maqbul Alam, Birendra lal Das delivered
valuable speeches in the conference. The literary session,
presided over by the district pagistrate Annada Shankar Roy,
was held in an open space under the shade of a banyan tree.8
His valuable speech was published in the news media.9
The next annual Sahitya Parishad meeting was held on
Friday, Januar5r 6, 1939 at the J M Sen Hall. The president of
the Sahitya Parishad presided over the meeting.
In l94O-41 Abdul Karim Sahitya Visharad was nominated
president of the Sahitya Parishad. He held this post till 1950.
The monthly meetings of the Sahitya Parishad were held
regularly. In each meeting learned papers were read and po-
ems were recited. People of literary interests attended the
meetings and discussed their views. The meetings were usu-
ally presided over by the chairman of the Parishad.
Besides the annual and monthly meetings, the Sahitya
Parishad in co-operation with the local elite groups organized
special literary sessions, obserwed condolence meetings on the
death of illustrious persons and arranged cultural functions to
provide entertainment for the audience.
On Friday, October 2l, 1937 Rabindra Sammelan was held
in the J M Sen Hall. The meeting was presided over by the
SDO.
On Friday, December 3, 1937 in the monthly meeting of
226 | A History of Chittagong

the Parishad held at the J M Sen Hall homage was paid to the
great scientist Jagadish Chandra Bose.
In January. 1938 a condolence meeting on the death of
Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyaya was held in the J M Sen Hall.
The meeting was jointly organized by the Sahitya Parishad and
the Sahitya Majlis.
On February 3, 1939 the death anniversary of poet Nabin
Chandra Sen was held at the J M Sen Hall under the auspices
of the Sahitya Parishad. The Arya Sangeet Samiti conducted
the musical soire and Mrs Ashalata Mukherjee presented
vocal music. Presided over by Mahim Chandra Das, the
meeting was attended by a large number of literary persons.
Professor Jogesh Chandra Sinha delivered a valuable speech
on the literary composition of the great poet.
In l94O the Rabindra Jayanti in honour of the great poet
was celebrated at Patiya. The SDO Sailendra Mitra made
necessary arrangements f<lr the celebration. Acharya Ksiti
Mohan Sen, the renowned Rabindra scholar was invited to
preside over the conference.
The Chattagram Sahitya Parishad Library was a pride
possession of the Parishad. The library had no building of its
own. It was housed at the Public Library building. The library
was enriched by the donation of books by the local elite. In 1925
the total number of volumes in the library was 637.10
Chattagram Musalman Sahitya Parishad. It was
established in the early part of the 1940s. The purpose of this
orSanization was to promote the literary pursuits of the
Muslim writers. The Muslim landlords and merchants
generously helped the Parishad.
According to the news report, the annual literary confer-
ences under the auspiecs of the Parishad were usually held on
large scale. Literary persons of the other parts of the province
were invited to participate in the conference. In 1945, a two
days long literary conference was ceremoniously held at the
 Literature and Literary Organizations I 227

Muslim Hall. The monthly and weekly literary meetings were

regularly held. Writing of poems; recitation etc. were offered for
competition among the youths and the successful competitors
were rewarded.l I
i

Sahitya Majlis. An enlightened group of Muslims headed

by Professor Abul Fazal established this literary society in 1934.
Members of the Majlis met together regularly to discuss
the work of literature especially poems and articles. The Majlis
organized annual conferences at which local literary persons
participated. In f 935 Dr. M. A. Hashem was joint secretary of
the annual conference.
In 1936-37 the working committrrr2 of the Majlis was
constituted as follows : president : Sirajul Islam (munsif),
general secretary : Abul Fazal,joint secretary : Abdus Salam.
The Majlis encouraged literary cultivation and played an
important role in developing literary awareness among the
Muslims. The Majlis won praise from the literary circles.
Chittagong Culture and Fellowship Society. This
was an organization formed by a group of elite having a com-
mon interest in literature. Dr. Sailendra Bhushan Dutta took
the responsibility of the management of the society's affairs.
He was the president and Mr. S N Dutta was the secretary of
the society's working committee.
On November 5, 1938, a literary meeting under the
auspices of the society was held at the residence of Sailendra
Bhushan Dutta. Members of the local literary organizations
joined the meeting which was presided over by Janaki Nath
Das. Ven. Dharmavansa Mahasthavir recited frorn scriptural
text in the beginning of the meeting.
The chief attr:rction of the meet ing was the
presence of famous litterateur Annada Shankar Roy, the then
district magistrate of Chittagong. He gave a thoughtlul speech
on 'Bangla Sahityer Bhasha.' The attending literary persons
enjoyed the qualities of the speech.
228 | A History of Chittagong

Pragati kkhak Samgha. This literary association of

progressive minded young writers was established in 1938.
The inaugural session of the Lekhak Samigha was held
on June l, 1938 at the Municipal High School campus.
Ashutosh Chowdhrrry presided over the meeting. General sec-
retary Sudhansu Shekhar Sarka.r read a note on the purpose of
the kkhak Samgha. Ohidul Alam and Kalpataru Sengupta read
articles in the meeting. Surendra Mohan Shastri, Birendra
Kumar Raksit, Ananta [,al Barua, Farrokh Ahmad Nezampuri
were some of the distinguished persons who participated in the
discussion. Shortly afterwards, the Association published a
monograph named'Pragati. 13
On August 3O, f 938 the kkhak Samgha observed the birth
anniversary of Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyaya at the J M
Sen Hall. Professor Jogesh Chandra Sinha presided over the
meeting. 'Bankim Chandra O Samyabad' was the leading
article read in the meeting. ta
Assam Bengal Railway Institute Literary
Association.'It was established in l94O to provide an
opportunity for the cultivation of literary faculty of its mem-
bers. Literary meetings were held annually. Persons of literar5r
distinctions were invited to deliver lectures and to participate
in the discussio.r.15
Provincial Literary Conferences
Two provincial literary conferences on a large scale
attended by many renolrned literary personages were held in
Chittagong.
(A) Ba ngiya Sahitya Sammilan, Sixth Conference,
13f 8. The sixth conference of the Bangiya Sahitya Sammilan,
sponsored I y t.he Bangiya Sahitya Parishat was held in
Chittagong on Lhe,22nd and 23rd March, 19 t I ( 13 t8 BE). Many
prominent members of the Parishat, local elite and persons of
titerary distinctiorr joined this conference. The conference was
pre,ided over by Aksov Chandra Sarkar. The chairman of the
 Literature and Literary Organizations | 229

reception committee was Jatra Mohan Sengupta.

A considerable number of articles on various
subjects especially literary were read and discussed. For the
first time the session was divided into arts and science sec-
tions. The morning session of the second day was assigned to
the science section. Acharya Prafulla Chandra Roy presided over
the science seminar.
About three poems written by poetesses of Chittagong were
presented at the conference. These, however, were read by the
male delegates.
In the afternoon session of the second day a number of
learned papers on the history and literature of Chittagong were
read by the reputed local writers.
Four proposals with regard to the academic study of
dialect and ethnologl of Chittagong were submitted before the
conference for consideration. All of them were accepted.16
(B) Bangiya Musalman Sahitya Sammilan, Third
Conference, L325. The third conference of the Musalman
Sahitya Sammilan was held in Chittagong on the 29th and the
S0th December, 1918 (1325). This was for the first time that
the provincial conference of Musalman Sahitya Samiti was held
outside Calcutta. The venue of this conference was the open.
space near Anderkilla. The number of the delegates from other
districts was 83. An audience of 3.000 watched the procedure of
the conference.
The conference was presided over by Maulana Akram
Khan. Maulvi Abdul Karim was elected president of the
reception committee. A number of illuminating articles were
read and discussed in the conference.
Two important resolutions were adopted in this
conference. 'I'he first was writing a history of Bengal during the
Muslim period based on Persian sources. The second was the
formation of 'Chattagram Pratnatattva Udghatan Samiti.'
23O I A History of Chittagong

The conference expressed thanks to Maulana

Maniruzzaman Islamabadi, Maulvi Abdus Sattar, Chowdh.try
Siddiq Ahmad and Chowdhury Nazir Ahmad for their endeavours
to make the conference successful. The conference was
terminated by vote of thanks read by maulvi Nur Ahmad
M A, B L.I7
Purabi Literary Conference, 1938. The conference
was jointly organized by the Purabi magazine and the Pragati
Lekhak Samgha. Abdul Karim Sahitya Visharad was nominatd
chairman of the reception committee. Qazi Abdul Wadud
presided over the conference. Abdul Karim Sahitya Visharad
and Jagat Chandra Bhattacharya were honoured by
ceremonious reception.
The seminar part of the conference was held under three
separate sessions. In each of the sessions valuable articles were
read and discussed. The history seminar was presided over by
Dr. Muhammad Enamul Haq.
The conference was a grand success. The audience
cheered the deliberations of the speakers by frequently
clapping their hands. The conference was remembered by the
audience for many y..t".lB

The literary conferences either on large scale or on

limited scale encouraged the writers to pursue their literary
activities. Poets and critics zealously participated in these
conferences. Their writings undoubteclly enriched the Bengali
literature.
In these conferences articles and poems were read and
opinions were expressed on them. There was much scope fbr
interchange of views and opinions about literary subjects. These
conferences undoubtedly encouraged the tsengali literary
activities in the district.

Note :
I Ttre BangLodesh Asiattc Soctetg Patrtka. l9B3 p- 127
 Literature and Literary Organizations I 231

2 Webster's Dicticsnary
3 rbid.
4 OxJord Dictiorruru
5 Qt. Jounral o-f Buddhist Text Society, VoL. 1, Pt. il, 1894, App. tti-
6 Bangtya Sahitya Parislwt, 1894, Proceedings
7 The Deshapriyla, ll October, 1937, p. l3
B Th.e Purabu 1345
9 The Deshapnya, No. 5, 1938
t 0 Bangilla Sahitga Parishat, Proceedings, 1332

I I Saptahik Kohtnoor, 1952. p. 179

12 The Satyabarta, 1344
13 The Deshapnga, June, l93B
14 The Purabr. 1345
15 The Aryaft, l94O
16 Sixth CoryBrerLce of the Bangtga Sahitya Parishat, a booklet pubtished. bg
the Parishat
17 The Batryiya Mu^sahnan Sahttga Patrtka, Maglt 1325: the Saogat, Magh,
.t325
lB 'fhe Purabi. l93B
 Chapter L4
Journalisrn
Newspapers and periodicals were the only newsmedia
when no other media existed during the British period. News-
papers of various sizes contained news, articles, advertisements
etc. and published everyday or every week. Periodicals were
published in interval of week, fortnight, month and year.
Periodicals were concerned chiefly with literary and academic
subjects. Most of the newspapers and periodicals were
spokesman papers of particular political parties, associations
and commercial concerns.
Periodicals published during the British period may be
classified into three categories according to their subject
matter; (a) news based, (b) literary, and (c) religion based. News
based periodicals contained political information. Literary
periodicals contained the collection of literary compositions such
as poems and essays. Religion based periodicals contained
compositions connected with the rituals and philosophy of a
specific religion.
The spread of literacy created reading public.
Establishment of a number of printing press was helpful for the
publication of periodicals. In some cases, the owner of a
printing press also edited and published a periodical.
During the early part of the 2}th century a large number
of newspapers and periodicals were published in Chittagong. In
respect. of the publication of newspapers and news magzvines
Chittagong was placed next to Calcutta. There is, however, no
depenCable inlormation regarding the ntrmber of ptrblished
newspapers and periodicals. According to one source the total
number of different kinds of periodicals published in Chittagong
upto 1905 were as follows : weekly-4, fortnightlv-2, and
 Journalism I 233

monthly-6, The following is the list of newspapers and periodi-

cals that were either published in Chittagong or edited by the
people of Chittagong at other places during the British period.
(The) 'Abhijan' : weekly. Edited and published jointly by
Umesh Chandra Chowdhury and Ashutosh Ghose and printed
at the Kohinoor Electric Press. It was first published on
December 27, 1938.
(The) 'Adhikar' : a left-leaning monthly. It was
edited by Nanigopal Sengupta and was published in Lyall Road,
Chittagong. The aim of the publication of this news magazine
was to spread communist ideologr. The 7th September, l93g
issue was proscribed by the government.
(The) 'Advance' : daily newspaper based on current
political affairs. It was edited by Deshapriya Jatindra Mohan
Sengupta and was published in Calcutta. It appeared in 1929.
The paper aimed at reflecting the political views of the
Congress Party, party politics and the activities of the
politicians.
(The) 'Alo' : monthly literary magazine. It was
edited by Nalini Kanta Sen and published by Amar Nath Dutta
in the Eden Hindu Hostel, Calcutta. The rrragazirre was first
published in Bhadra, 1306 (August, 1899). The writers lbr the
rnagazirre were mostly students and youths. The Swadeshi spirit
was expressed in the compositions contained in the periodical.
(The) 'Anjali' : monthly educational rrragazirre. It was
edited by Rajeswar Gupta and was first published in Baisakh,
l3O5 (April, 1B9B) from Anjali Karyalaya, Chittagong. Its aim,
according to the periodical was "to give moral training to boys
and girls."l P.inted for circulation-lO8 copies, price-2 annas,
pages lO6. Rabindra Nath Tagore praises the periodical very
highly. High opinion was expressed by the contemporary elite
about the quality of the periodical.
'Anjali' : quarterly literary magazine. It was the
(The)
spokesman paper of the Assam Bengal Railway Indian
234 | A History of Chittagong

Institute. It was first published in 1339 (1932). It maintained

high standards all through its existence.
(The) 'Annesa' : monthly periodical. First published in
April, L92I. Edited by Mosammat Safia Khatun. it was the first
ever periodical published by a woman.
(The) 'Bangla Gazette' : news based weekly. It was
edited successively by Maulana Farrokh Ahmad Nezampuri
(1929-31) and Khorshed Alam Chowdhury (L932-42). The peri-
odical was published in Strand Road, Rangoon. The chief patron
was Maulvi Abdul Bari Chowdhury the well known merchant of
Rangoon. Presentation of news, news commentaries and the
printing and binding won high praise of the readers.
(The) 'Bharatb?si' : weekly. Edited by Prasanna Kumar
Kar. First published in 1882.
(The) 'Bibhakar' : quarterly. This literary periodical was
jointly edited by Nabin Chandra l)as and his elder brother Sarat
Chandra Das while they were students of the Presidency
College, Calcutta. It was first published in lB72-73.
(The) 'Bouddha Bandhu' : monthly. The periodical was
first published in Baisakh, l29l (April, l8B4). From the
beginning its publication was never regular. After an interval
of three years it appeared again in 1887, edited by Krishna
Chandra Chowdhury. But shortly afterwards it again ceased to
exist. In l268 Maghi Era (13f 3 B.S. 1906A. D.) it reappeared. In
this issue it was announced that the aim of the journal was
the "religious, educational and social development." This issue
was published by the Bouddha Samiti. After some time it stopped
publication. It reappeared in L322 (19 l6) being edited by Saman
Punnananda Sami from 46/7 Harrison Road, Calcutta.
(The) 'Bouddha Patrika' : monthly. The periodical was
{irst publisl-red in l3 I 2 IlS. ( 1905) as a spokesmatr paper of the
Bor-rddha Vihara of Chittagong. The first five issues were edited
and published by Bipin Chandra Barua. The sixth and seventh
issues were edited by poet Sarbananda Barua, the joint editor
 Journalism | 235

was Bipin Chandra Barua. Lalit Kumar Barua and Upendra Lal
Barua were secretary and joint secretary respectively.
(The) 'Chandrasekhar' : a religion based monthly. It was
first published in L878.2
'Chattal Gazette' : weekly. The periodical was ed-
(The)
ited by Aksay Kumar Gupta. According to Brajendra Nath
Bandyopadhyaya, it was first published in 1888 A.D. The 'Dhaka
Prakash' while praising its good qualities mentioned the date
of its publication as l8B7.s According to the government report,
it was Iirst published in 1887.4 It -a" a renowrred newsperiodical
containing useful facts about current events and academic
affairs.
(The) 'Chattala': This literary periodical was
published by the Postal and RMS Employees Union. It was first
published in 1937. The quality of the periodical has owned praise
of the public.5
(The) 'Cox's Bazar Hitaishi' : edited by Abdur Rashid
Siddiqi, it was first published in 1946.
(The) 'Deshapriya; : weekly newspaper. This popular
newspaper was first published in 1937. Hirendra Lal Chowdhury
was its editor and Subrata Das was joint editor. The'Deshapriya'
belonged to the 'Panchajanya' newspaper group. An important
characteristic of this newspaper was the presentation of news
of rural areas in greater amount. It also contained articles on
political views and news of politcical and cultural meetings held
both in rural and urban areas.
(The) 'East Echo' : English fortnightly. Edited by Kalipada
Bhattacharya. First published in 1938 under the sponsorship of
the Bast Press Alliance.
(The) 'Gairika' : half yearly periodical. It was first pub-
lished in 1936. The name of the journal was given by Rabindra
Nath Tagore. The journal was edited by Prabhat Kusum Dewan
and was published under the auspices of Rani Binita Roy of
Chakma royal family.
236. I A History of Chittagong
(The) 'Ganabani' : edited by comrade Muzaffar Ahmad
and first published in 1926.
(The) 'Hitabarta' : weekly newspaper. It was first pub-
lished in l3to B E. Its new series appeared in the 193Os and
was edited by Birendra t al Dasgupta.
(The) 'Islamabad' : weekly. It was edited by Farrokh
Ahmad Nezampuri. After his going away to Rangoon Khorshed
Alam Chowdhury became its editor.
(The) 'Jagajyoti' : It was the spokesman paper of the
Bengal Buddhist Association, Calcutta. It was edited by Ven.
Gunalankar Mahasthavir. It played a very important role in the
revitabzation of the Buddhist society.
(The) 'Janamat' : weekly nationalist paper.
Edited by Abdul Monayem. It was first published in 1343 BE.
(The) 'Jugadharma' : weekly news magazine.
Edited by Jyotish Chandra Kar. It gained popularity so long it
continued to exist.
(The)'Juger Alo' : Edited by poet Didarul Alam it was
published in Fare Street, Rangoon. It was liberal and progres-
sive in ideologz.
(The) 'Juger Jyoti' : It started its publication in 1934.
Editor was Syedur Rahman.
(The) 'Jyoti' : a news based paper. Its founder
editor was Kalishankar Chakravorty. From l9l I to 1929 it was
published as weekly magazine. l,ater on, it was published as a
daily by Mahim Chandra Das. The paper was always very
critical of government policy. In 1929 the Jyoti was proscribed
by government ordinance.
tThe) 'Kohinoor' : monthly. It was the spokesman paper
of Jamaat e Ahle Sunnat and was published in 51, Ghat Farhad
Beg, Chittagong.
(The) 'Madina' : It was edited by Nazir Ahmad Chowdhury,
a renowrled freedom fighter.
 Journalism | 237

(The) 'Moslem Jagat'. : It was first published in 1929 in

Calcutta. The editor was Abdur Rashid Siddiqi.
(The) 'Muhammadan Observer.' : It was first published
in 1882 in Calcutta. Its founder editor was Shah Badiul Alam.
The paper showed boldness in presentin$ the political views.
(The) 'Nalanda' : Itwas jointly edited byVen. Dharmadhar
Mahasthavir and Dr. Arabinda Barua.
(The) 'Naya Bangla' : It was edited by Ali Ahmad Oli
Islamabadi, a revolutionary politician of his times.
(The) 'Panchajanya' : Being edited by Mahim Chandra
Das it was published as a weekly during the Swadeshi
movement period. The 'Panchajanya' was the spokesman
paper of the destrict Congress Party. It was subjected to
frequent government warning. The 'Desh' praised the
'Panchajanya' as a noteworthy local newspap.t.6 Th. circula-
tion of the newspaper, edited by Arnbika Charan Das was the
largest in the district during the l94os.
(The) 'Paramita' : edited by Asoke Barua
(The) 'Parvani' : annual literary journal. Subodh Ranjan
Roy edited the journal while he was still a university student.
It was first published in 1345 BE (1938) with major literary
compositions. Many contemporary leading writers contributed
articles and poems to this journal. Paper and printing deserve
praise.
(The) 'Prabhat' : quarterly literaryjournal. It was a spokes-
man paper of the Chattagram Sahitya Parishad. The editor was
Nabin Chandra Das, Kabi Gunakar who was also the president
of the Sahitya Parishad. It was first published in January, 1913.
The joint editor was poet Jibendra Kumar Dutta. The patrons
were Rai Sarat Chandra Das Bahadur C I E and Rai Prasanna
Kumar Roy Bahadur. The journal was printed at Chittagong
lmperial Press. Compared to other contemporary peredicals its
stanedard was high.
238 | A History of Chittagong

The periodical was published only for two years ( 1320 and
1321). The publication of the periodical discontinued after the
death of the editor.
'Prantabasi' : The periodical is referred to by Purna
(The)
Chandra Chowdhury in his 'Chattagramer Itihas'.
(The) 'Pratibha' : monthly periodical edited by Umesh
Chandra Mutsuddi.
(The) 'Pujari' : monthly. First published in 1928. It was
edited jointly by Abdul Karim Sahitya Visharad and Manindra
L,al Chowdhury.
(The) 'Purabi' : a literary periodical. First published in
I 343 B E ( I 936) . It was joinfly edied by Ohidul Alam and Ashutosh
Chowdhury. Both of them were members of the Pragati lrkhak
Samgha. Preference was given to the members of the lrkhak
Samgha in publishing their compositions. The periodical is of
high standard in consideration of published materials, paper
and printing.
(The) 'Purb.a Darpan' : edited by Janab Ahmadullah. First
published in 1885. Circulation of the number of copies of this
paper was 7007 which suggests its popularity.
(The)'Purba Pratiddhani' : fortnightly periodical. It was
edited by Chandrakanta Chakravorty and printed in the press
established by Kamalakanta Sen. It was the first news based
periodical published in Chittagong. The periodical was published
for the first time in Baisakh, 1286 (1879). In 1883, 474 copies
were either sold or distributed.s
(The) 'Rashtrabarta' : editor Mohammad Lokman Khan
Sherwani
(The)'Rishitattva' : This religion based monthly periodi-
cal was first published in l88l, edited by Annada Charan
Saraswati.9
(The) 'Sadhana' : monthly literary periodical. [t was
edited by Abdur Rashid Siddiqi. The periodical was first
 Llou.rrralism | 239

published in 1326 BE ( l9 l9).

The Sadhana was a periodical of high standard. Composi-
tions of contemporary renowned writers added to the good
quality of the periodical.
(The)'Sahityik' : It was edited by Ali Ahmad Oli Islamabadi
(The) 'Sakha' : monthly literary periodical. Edited by
Prasanna Kumar Chowdhury and Kali Shankar Chakravorty.l0
(The) 'Sambodhi' : monthly. It was edited jointly by
Gajendra LaL Chowdhury and Dhirendra Lal Barua. The
periodical was first published in 1331 Btr (1924) under the
sponsorship of Bouddha Vihara, Chittagong. The compositions
published in this periodical are of high quality.
(The) 'Sammilani' : It was first published in 1924 and
continued titl L928. The periodical was edited by Abdul Monayem
and published in Rangoon. It was the spokesman paper of Burma
Labour Association.
(The)'Sangram' : The periodical was established to spread
the doctrine of cornmunism. It was edited joint.ly by Nanigopal
Sengupta and Kalpataru Sengupta. The issue of 23rd Decem-
ber, 1939 was proscribed by the government.
(The) 'Samghasakti' : It was edited by Prajnalok
Mahasthavir. It was first published on the Aswini Purnima day,
1929. The periodical was the spokesman paper of the Buddhist
Mission in Rangoon. The periodical won high estimation of such
eminent persorls as Rabindra Nath Tagore, Bimala Charan
Laha and others.
(The) 'Sangsodhani' :It was the spokesman
paper ol'the local Brahma Sama.j. The periodical was first pub-
lished in Jaistha, I2B3 (1876) as a fortnightly journal. In t286
it was converted to a weekly magazine. The periodical was
eclited by renowned educationist Kashi Chandra Gupta. The
paper, printing arrd the contents of the periodical were of high
standard and soon it became one of the most widely circulated
24O I A History of Chittagong

periodicals of the province. It won high praise of the

progressive section of the society. According to the government
report, the periodical, "....seems to be designed for educational
purposes and promises to be a useful publication." I I
(The) 'Satyabarta' : weekly news based periodical. This
was the spokesmanpaper of the nationalist Muslims. At first it
was edited and published by Dr. Mohammad Omar. Afterwards,
Ghulam Sobhan Chowdhury became its editor and publisher.
Poet Rabindra Nath Tagore complimented the paper on its good
quality.l2
(The) 'Soltan' : edited by Maulana Maniruzzaman
Islamabadi. It was published in Chittagong at the beginning of
the 20th century. After some time the publishing office was
transferred to Calcutta.l3 Th" 'soltan'played a remarkable role
in the socio-political revival of the Muslim society.
(The) 'Sukhi Pakhi' : monthly. The periodical was edited
by Pyari Mohan Chowdhrry.14
(The) 'Suniti': fortnightly. The periodical was
established in 1920s. Khan Bahadur Aman Ali was its editor.
In 1936 Barrister Anwarul Azim succeeded him as the editor of
the journal.
(The) 'Swadesh' : weekly. The periodical was jointly ed-
ited by Krishnendu Narayan Bhowmik and Murari Mohan
Bhattacharya.
Editing of a periodical was a difficult job at that time. An
editor was responsible for all the works relating to the planning
and publication of the periodical. He had to revise the writings
by checking and correcting the text and himself wrote editorial
and some other kinds of articles. In cases he had to bear a
portion of publication cost.
'lhroughout thc tsritish rule journalisrn sullered severe
govemment restrictions. A number of Acts were passed from
time to time to control press and publication" Arnong t-hese Acts,
the Vernacular Press Act, the Seditious Writings Act, the
 Journalism | 241

Indian Penal Code 124 A, the Indian Press (trmergency Powers)

Act, 193 I , Newspaper Control Order, 1942 are noteworthy. Press
censorship was strictly imposed on the newspapers and the
periodicals. Any writings which were considered ofl-ensive were
proscribed. Government policy was responsible for the dissolu-
tion of a number of newspapers and periodicals.
Increase of literacy undoubtedly widened the circle of
newspaper readers; but the increase of newspaper readers does
not necessarily mean the proportionate increase of purchas-
ers or subscribers. The rising ci-'st of the production of news
periodicals could not be met with the income from selling the
periodicals. The shortage of funds was responsible for the
dissolution of many periodicals.

Note :

I Brajendra Nath Bandyopadhyaya, Bctnqla Samrryik Patrct

2 Purna chandra Chowdhury, Chattaglranrcr ltihas; thc Panclrcfioru1a. Att
tumrr .fVtrrrtber. 1936
D
.) The Dhaktt Prakaslt, 30 November, lB87
4 Reporl on Newspaper, No 48. IBBT
5 The Deslropriya, 1344
6 Tl're Desh
7 RNP, No 12. LBBS
B Bangla So,nlc.l4k Patra, 11,28: RNP, No, 39, lBB3
9 Bangla Somagik Patra, II, 34
l0 Pancltaianttla" Autumn. Nunrber 1936
1l RNP, 1879
T2 Tl-re Satyabarta, 1344
l3 TLre Saogat, l{t47
t4 'lher Panchajanula, Autwnrt ly'umberr 1936
 Chapter 15
Art and Culture
From the latter part of the nineteenth century there was
a new development in the cultivation of art and culture. A brief
study of art and culture during the latter part of the British
period may be made under the following heads.
Painting. A painter designs and creates artistic
compositions employing various media and technique.
Painting material in past ages consisted of a liquid substance
consisting of a suspension of a pigment in oil or water.
The upper class people had a liking for portraying of
persons by drawing or painting. Portrait of eminent persons was
installed in the educational institutions, libraries, private
houses etc.
Landscape painting gained much popularity in the
twentieth century. It also included scenery painting, which was
an essential part of theatre stage.
The most renowned painter during the l92os and l93os
was Suren Roy. He studied painting in Calcutta for some years.
He was specialized in the painting of natural scenery chiefly
for theatrical stage. He was awarded many certificates and
medals in recognition of his skill on the subject. His picture
gallery house named Art House was situatecl at Lyall Road in
Chittagong town. In this hall he taught the apprentices practi-
cal skill. His paintings were much admired by the elite of the
town.
A painter also executc illustrations and clesigns lor books
and periodicals.
Designing interior decoration of religious edifices, public
buildings and private residential houses were other functions
 Art and Culture | 243

of a painter. Well to do people liked to have the surface of walls

of their residence painted. In fact, every structure of their
residential quarters were decorated with painting.
one of the celebrated art critic in the first half of the
twentieth century was Jamini Kanta Sen. He studied art
especially painting at Santiniketan. His famous book 'Art O
Ahitagni' (in Bengali) is a masterpiece of art criticism. He was
specialized in the subject of the Indo Muslim painting and wrote
a large number of valuable articles on this theme. Another noted
art critic was Ranjan Lal Sen.
ArChiteCtUre. The European design influenced the con-
struction of native buildings in the later part of the nineteenth
and the early part of the twentieth century. The most impres-
sive building constructed during the British period is the
Circuit House which was desi$ned after the architectural style
of the Victorian era. Both brick and decorative wooden blocks
were used as material in this building. Tiles are used for
covering roofs.
The work of building in the rrral areas was traditionally
entrusted to a carpenter (barui) and a earth worker ($haraja).
They were skilled in construction work. They were capable of
designing an entire structure according to the wishes of the
family.
Sculpture. the sculpture is defined in the Oxford
Dictionary as "a work of art that is a solid figure or object made
by carving clr shaping wood, stone, clay, metal etc." The
technique of sculpture is principally evident in making images
of deities. The figures are shaped from clay. The surface is
painted in order to make it look more attractive. Images are
essential part of F{indu worship of deities.
The act of sculpture also include making of jewellery,
carving of statue, making child's toy in the shape of a person or
an animal.
Theatre. A theatre is "a building or open space where
244 | A Flistory of Chittagong

dramatic perormances are given furnished with a stage for the

actors and seats for the audience." Modern theatrical system
in Chittagong started in the beginning of the twentieth
century.
The subject matter of most of the theatrical performances
were mytholog5r, divine activities of the deities and social
problems.
Producer, director and actors jointly contribute to the
staging a drama. A producer is responsible for production of the
theatre show. A director is expected to arrange suitable scen-
ery designs, sound and lighting effects, costumes etc. during
the perforrnance of a play. He also instructs the actors. Actors
are the most important personalities in drama production. They
rehearse the parts and interpret role by speech and gesture.
Songs are essential parts of theatrical perforrnances.
The Swadeshi period witnessed the phenomenal growth
of theatrical entertainment. The government restrictions on
the performance of Swadeshi dramas, however, made it
Cifficult for performing a patriotic play.
The post First World War period brought about changes in
the methods of theatrical presentations. The stage director read
manuscripts to the actors. Stage construction, dressing rooiris,
scenery, costumes, background music etc. became vital parts
of the new methods of theatrical presentation.
Mr. Suresh Chandra Ghatak, the deputy magistrate and
collector in the 1920s w;rs an enthusiastic patron of cultural
activities in Chittagong. He wrote a drama named 'Sati tirtha'
which was stlccessfully staged at the K C Dey Institute on the
occasir-rn of farewell ceremony of Mr A F{ Clayton, the magis-
trate collector of Chittagong. The performance was held in 1326
tsE (1920).I
In July, 1932 Shishir Bhaduri and his troup staged a
drama, which was highly applauded by the audience.
 Art and Culture I 245

Theatrical performances received fresh impetus during

the latter part of the l93os. On the sixth October, 1937,
'Jugabheri' was staged at the premises of the Municipal School.
The famous drama 'Vidya Sundar' was successfully staged at
Cinema Palace t{all on the 22nd, and 23rd November, Lg37 .2
Theatrical presentations were also held in the
residences of well-to-do people. On the lsth October, 1937,
'Gurudaksina' was staged at 'Prasanna Dham' in the town. It
was rounded up by cultural functions and entertainments. On
the24thApril, 1938'Patibrata'was staged at the campus of the
residence of Nirmal Chandra Ghosal by the Bani Mandir. The
performance of the actors worr high praise from the audience.
On the 14th and lsth January, 1939 a drama named
'Srikrishna'was successfully staged at the BOC club
auditiorium.
During the early part of the 2}thcentury Shakespearean
plays became very much popular with the English educated
Bengalees. In the beginning of 1930s shakespearean plays were
successfully staged in the auditorium of Assam Bengal Railway
Institute. The European officers cooperated with the actors and
producers of the plays.3
There were no structures specifically built for
dramatic performance. An auditorium built by Kamala Kanta
sen during the swadeshi period was used as theatre hall. It
became known as Kamal Babu's Theatre Hall. Some of the other
buildings in which theatrical shows were held were K c Dey
Institute, B O C Club, Railway Institute, J M Sen Hall etc.
The presentation of plays on stage became very much
popular in the rural areas in the latter part of the l930s. There
was hardly any village where at least one drama had not been
staged in eactr year. Bank builctings, club halls, school ground
were used as theatre halls in the rural areas. The acting in
plays was performed by the local people who did it to give
enjoyment to the village folk.
246 | A History of Chittagong

. Playing of dramas on the stage by school and

college students was gradually becoming popular from the
beginning of the twentieth century.
Jatra or open space theatre. The Jatra is an indig-
enous theatrical performance consisting of a dramatic text
combined with singing and playing on instruments. Through-
out the period of the freedom movement, the patriotic Jatra
was staged to arouse the patriotic feeling of the people against
foreign rule.
Music. Music is an art which is combinely produced by
the voice and the musical instruments. There were four kinds
of music which were practised by the musicians of Chittagong.
These were (a) religious such as kirtan, bhajan etc.,
(b) classical based on ragas, (c) patriotic, based on Swadeshi
spirit, and (d) Rabindra Sangeet.
Musical Institutions. In the first half of the twentieth
century a number of institutions, connected with the cultiva-
tion of music were established. Some of them are mentioned
below.
1. Arya Sangeet Samiti. The Arya Sangeet Samiti was
the first and foremost musical society of Chittagong. It was
established on August 23, 1906 (The Janmashtami, Bhadra,
l3l3 BE) during the Swadeshi movement. Its aim was to arouse
patriotic feeling by presenting Swadeshi songs.
From the year of its establishment down to the end of the
British rule the Arya Sangeet Samiti was the leading music
organization in Chittagong. The patronage and cooperation of
the elite group gave the organization an orderly structure.
During this period the presidents ol the Samiti sucessively were
Rajani Kanta Rai Dastidar, Rai Nabin Chandra Dutta Bahadur,
Rai Saheb Lalit Kumar Sen, Tripura Charan Chowdhury, Suresh
Chandra Basu, Bagala Prasanna Chakravorty, Tripura Charan
Chowdhury (second time).
The Arya Sangeet Sanriti started giving schooling to the
 Art and Culture | 247

persons especially the yesng groups in early 1920s. In the month

of Aswin, 1329 (L922) the Samiti opened its training branch
named Vidyapith to teach the trainees the technique in music
and dance. The art of acting was also included in the curricu-
lum. In later times the course of systematic instmction was
introduced.
The chief programmes of the Arya Sangeet Samiti are
playing on instruments, vocal songs, arranging musical
programmes, conducting rehearsals and public perforrnances.
The Arya Sangeet Samiti achieved a virtual monopoly in
the public presentation of patriotic, Rabindra, Nazrul, classical
and folk songs.
2. Music Training Centre. It was established in 1934
by Mrs B Mukherji, a renowrled artist of her times, in order to
give training to the girl students who had gained admission to
the institution to learn music and dance. The artists of the
institution performed cultural flunctions in the public halls on
arranged occasions.
3. Sangeet Parishad. This musical organization was
founded jointly by Gangapada Acharya and his brother Sripada
Acharya. Sourindra Lal Das Gupta (Chulu Babu) the renowned
musician joined this organization as music teacher in early
1940s. The institution earned reputation as a place of learning
skill in music.
4. Bani Mandir. It was established in 1937 by group of
"
young artistes.4 Performance in cultural functions and staging
of dramas were its principal programmes. On June 10, l93B it
presented patriotic songs in the J M Sen Hall on the occasion of
the reception given to Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. The Asso-
ciat.ion conducted musical programmes in the meeting of the
Students Federation held on July 9, 1938 in the J M Sen Hall.
Musicians. A number of musicians spent their
illustrious lives in different times of the British period. Some
of the talented singers are mentioned below.
248 | A History of Chittagong

Shyama Charan Khastagir, the youngest brottrer of Dr.

Annada Charan Khastagir was a skilled singer of devcltional
songs and showed proficieney in playing on musical instru-
ments. He was a very popular artiste during his times.S Poet
Nabin Chandra Sen was full of praise for the talent of Shyama
Charan.
Bipin Chandra Dutta was the youngest son of Ramkinu
Dutta. On account of his talent in vocal music Keshab Chandra
Sen named him "the youn$ bird of Chittagong."
Mohini Mohan Das was the greatest singer of
patriotic songs cluring the Swadeshi period. In most cases he
himself wrote songs in order to sing them in public.
Suren Das and Dhiren Das, the two brothers were reputed
classical singers.
Gangapada Acharya won high reputation in sitar recital
as well as in vocal music in the l93Os. His younger brother
Sripada Acharya was also an illustrious singer.
Gopal Dasgupta Banitirtha, a $ifted.musician gained
reputation as a great musical talent and renowned composer
during his times. His role as music director of stage show was
most often highly applauded by the audience.
Dhyanendra Nath Sen was a reputed singer during t93Os.
A number of his songs were reproduced on gramophone disc.
Rukmini Ranjan Acharya Goswami was a celebrated
kirtan singer.
Salamat Ali Dewan had the reputation of being a renowned
instmmentalist and vocal singer.
upendra Lal chowdhury received trainin$ in vocal music
in Calcutta. I{e was appointed rnusic teacher of Ctrakrna Raj
family.
Jyotsna sen receivecl training in vocal music in the Arya
Sangeet Samiti. She was specialised in classical songs, Kheyal,
Kirtan and Bhajan.
 Art and Culture | 249

One of the most talented vocal musicians was Gaurikedar

Bhattach arya.A large number of his songs have been recorded
on gramophone disc. His programme on stage show gave much
enjoyment to the audience.
Mohammad Nasir received trainin$ in music in the Arya
Sangeet school of music and gained mastery of folk son$s and
regional songs. Sourinda Lal Dasgupta was well versed in
singing. Priyada Ranjan Sengupta was skilled in different types
of music.
Some noted vocal musicians of 1940s were Anil Kumar
Guha, Shiv Shankar Mitra, Jiban Das, Bimal Dutta,
Bidhubhushan Chowdhury, Kalisankar Das, Shasanka Dhar,
Dhiren Sen, Binod Chakravorty, Professor (Dr.) Subodh Ranjan
Roy, Sudhamoy Sen.
trolk songs. These songs are written by local
poets and are being sung in the traditional style. Folk songs
are of two types, religious and secular. Religious songs include
Agamani songs Maijbhandari Gan, Buddha Samkirtan etc. Secu-
lar songs include nuptial son$s, Chaitra Sankranti songs etc.
One of the most popular dramatised form of
musical performance is kabi songs or kabir gan. It is, in fact, a
tlpe of spoken dialogue in versified form. Usually, two kabis
take part in the contest. They can readily compose poem to be
sung at the function. Their poetical contest brighten up the
audience. Some of the noted kabis in the twentieth century
were Ramesh Sil, F ani Barua, Raigopal Das. Their contribu-
tions to kabi songs are so vast that their achievement can not
be discussed in short space.
Instrumental music. A person when plays a musical
instrument alone is called soloist. He, however, is supported by
other instrument.alists.
There were a number of musicians who were
specialized in playrng on particular instrurnent such as sitar,
sarod, sarangi, bina, flute, sanai, tabla, mridangam, pakhwaj,
25O I A History of Chittagong

ektara, dotara, harmonium.

Concert Music. Concerted music was generally
connected with an orchestra. An orchestra is a group of people
who play on various musical instruments together. The
orchestrator determines instruments to be employed in the
performance.
Orchestra. Orchestra became much popular in late
1930s. Presentation of orchestra was an essential part of
cultural functions. Renowned musicians and intrumentalists
participated in the orchestra.
The most celebrated orchestra director was
Sangeetacharya Suren Das, the founder of Arya orchestra. He
conducted a number of orchestral perforrnances in public func-
tions both in Chittagong and in Calcutta. Another renowned
musician connected with orchestral music was Siddeswar
Dasgupta.
Opera. An opera is a *dramatic work in which all or most
of the words are sung to music." Music is an essential part in
opefa and opera is an essential part in theatrical perforrnances.
In the early part of the twentieth century there were a number
of opera parties which provided entertainment for the
listeners.
Band party. Band music was essential in the
performance especially of Jatra plays. A concert room was
assigned to the band party adjacent to the stage on which the
Jatra plays were exhibited.
Dance. Indian dance is the symbolic expression of some
ideas through rhythmic movement of limbs. Three types of
dances gained currency in the early part of the twentieth
century. (A) Classical dance includes bharat natyam, katttak,
kathakali, manipuri etc. In classical dance Sfesture and
stylistic expression are the chief ctraracteristics. (B) In solo
dance the artist expresses the experience through harmoni-
ous physical movement. (C) Group dance symbolises various
 Art and Culture | 251

themes of social life, such as struggle for independence,

planting of food plants, harvesting of crops, rowing by the crew,
observation of marriage ceremony etc. These types of dance
became popular in early 194Os. All types of dance are accompa-
nied by orchestras.
Nritya natya or dance drama. Nritya natya or
dramatised production of music appears to have gained popu-
larity in late nineteen thirties and forties. On the l4th and the
l Sth January, 1939 a dance drama named 'Devdasi' was staged
at the BOC club sponsored by BOC authorities-6
Among the renowned dancers Bulbul Chowdhury occupies
foremost position. While he was a I A student in the Presidency
College he joined the dance troup of Sadhana Bose. I"ater on he
organized a dance troup independently which presented a
number of public show in Calcutta. In the following years he
along with his troup travelled in the Europeail cities and staged
exhibitions of Indian dance in the local theatre halls. Move with
rhythmical steps, classical gestures and expression of feelings
through physical movements characterized his perforrnances.
Tagore dance drama. It is characterized by moving body
in a rhythmical way to the music composed by Rabindra Nath
Tagore. Rabindra nritya natya $ained growing pnpularity in the
post First World War period.
Tagore dance drama is of two tlrpes. First, performed to
narrate a story; second, performed to narrat-e a particular
seasonal theme. Rabindra nritya natya was appreciated more
for its aesthetic ideas.
In 1934 the Music Trainin$ Centre staged Barsha Mangal,
a musical dance drama of Tagore in the Railway Institute Hall.
It gained much praise frort both press antl public-
On the sixth and the seventh May, 1935 the Music
Training Centre stagecl 'Basanta Utsav'at K C Dey lnstitute on
the occasion ofjubilee celebration of the rei$n of Emperor George
V. The police super in tendent Mr. Kelley and his wife,
252 | A History of ChiLtagong

additional super intendent of police Mr Cook and his wife and a

large number of distinguished $uests witnessed the
performa,'t"c.7
In 1941 Uday Sankar a dancer of high distinction and his
partner performer Simki presented a dance sequence at the
stage of Cinerna Palace. Their performance was greatly cheered
by the audience.
Kanaklata, the sister of Uday Sankar scored sepctacular
-success in her dance performance on the 22nd through the
24th January, 1938. The performance was staged at jubilee
cinema hall. The background music was directed by Suren l)as.
Folk theme in dance. A $reat variety of folk and
popular regional dances were current in the rural areas. The
most popular dance form was Gajan nritya used to be held as
year ending festival dance. On this occasion the, per{brmers
with the hellt of mask and make up provided a variety of
spectacular acts for the entertainment of spect.ators.

Note:

I Tlre Srrcilrana, JoLstlw, 1327, P. 57

2 'fire Deshapriga. 1344
J The Arycrli. 134O, p. 192
4 The Deshapilla. MaY, 19138,P. 26
5 Tlrc Jrgad.lurmta. 23 JuIg, 1935; Nabin Chandra sen, Anrrr Jibart
6 The We:elcly Deslwpriga. 24 Jztnuaty. 1939' p. 22
7 The Jtgadltaranta, JulY, i935. 1':'. 7
 Chapter f 6
Econornic Condition
A stucly of econornic condition is connected with the
a$riculture, industry, trade, transport and development of
wealth.
Classification of land. Land is the chief source of
living and of earning rent. W W Hunter refers to three descrip-
tions of land in Chittagong. (a) Abadi or cultivable land. These
are classified into three denominations i.e., taraf, lakhiraj and
khas. Taraf is the systern ol the ownership of large tract of land
being vested in a land lord. Lakhiraj means 'rent free land'.
Khas land means the 'estates retainecl in the hand of govern-
ment.' (b) Noabad means newly cultivated land. (c) Waste land
(muddat or Khilah) means an area of land that cannot be used
lbr growing crops on but is used fbr other pllrposes.
There are plenf of cultivable (abacli) land everywhere in
the district. Referring to the statement of the Board of Revenue,
Hunter writ.es that large area of cultivable land was not brought
under cultivation till the middle of the nineteenth century.l In
1931 the percentage of the total cultivable area was 54.3
percent and the percentage of the cultivated area was 43.3.2
A. Agriculture
Agriculture was the principal economic act.ivity in past
times. It was related to the production of consumers goods, raw
material for indtrstry, and export earnin$s.
Food grains: Among the foocl grains rice and pulses are
important. Buchanan Hamilton praises the fertility of soil in
central Chittagong and says that "in favourable seasons, they
are enabled in these fields to have annually t.hree crops of rice."3
According to the Bengal census report of tg3 L, 92.5 per cent of
254 | A History of Chittagong

cultivated area was under rice production. Pulses are the

edible seeds of various leguminous crops. A variety of pulses,
such as mung, musuri, mash kalai, felon were produced
abundantly in the district. Food grains after having been
harvested were stored in golas (bamboo made ware houses) and
in matkas (earthen jars)
Vegetables. Countless number of vegetables were growrl
especially during winter season. The edible portions are leaf,
root, the flower buds in cases. Potat.o, tomato and spinach
cultivation was introduced in the latter part of the nineteenth
century. Onions and garlics were widely used as vegetables and
for flavouring various culinary preparations. These were gen-
erally cultivated as winter crops. Various types of pepper were
produced in the district. The most widely cultivated pepper was
the chilli type of pepper. Chilli in green form was used along
with vegetables. Dried chilli was used as a flavouring in
cooking.
F ruit crops. The n-rajor fruit crops that are being
cultivated since very ancient times are man$o, jackfruit,
coconut, batabi, banana, black berry, kamran$a, papaya,
sweetsop, lemon, litchi, t.atnarind etc. Pine apple (anaras) and
guava plantation was introduced by the Portuguese as early as
the seventeenth century.
Sugar plants. Sugarcane and date palm are the princi-
pal sources of sugar and molasses. Sugar in the form of gran-
ules was not rnuch f,amiliar to the people till the nineteenth
century. f)r Buchanan Hamilton (1798), saw extensive cultiva-
tion of sugar cane and manufacture of molasses. During his
journey through the clistrict he "heard ttre cracking of several
o1 the mills employed in expressin$ the juice."4 W W Flunter
wriies, "sllgar appears to be nowherc tnanufactured in the
district; molasses are made both lrom su{arcane and dilte palm
juice."5 Date palm trees were cultivated throughotrt the
district. The thick date palm syrup of dark brown in colour after
boiling is very much popular especialiy wtren eaten with
 Economic Condition | 255

various kinds of food made from a mixture of poydered rice,

sugar, molasses etc. that is prepared in an oven.
Oil seeds. Various types of oil seeds were grown both for
cooking and for fuelling of lamps. Castor seed (reri) yields
castor oil which is used pharmaceutically and as laxative.
According to Buchanan Hamilton, "this (castor seed) by the
natives is used for the lamp."6
Mustard is cultivated chiefly for edible oil. According to
the Bengal District Gazetteer Report, '2000 acres of land in,
Chittagong were under mustard seed cultivation in 1930-31."
Tea plantation. The condition of soil and climate is
favourable for tea plantation. The green leaves, plucked from
the garden are dried and tea is prepared by different processes.
Tea plantation was introduced in Chittagong by the
European tea planters in the middle of the nineteenth century.
One Mr. Squashi established a tea garden in the sadar sub-
division in 184O. It was named Pioneer Tea Garden.T In 1843
for the first time black tea was prepared from the green leaves
plucked from the gard.n.B
Since that time tea plantation has been increased con-
siderably. According to the administrative report, tea was "the
most important article of manufacture in Chittagong."g The
report writes that the number of tea gardens in Chittagong was
24 arrd the total acreage under tea plantation was 4,128 Almost
all the tea gardens were under European management.
The tea plantation continued to be thriving during the
successive years. According to the Bengal District Gazetteer,
in Chittagong, 6l OO acres of land were covered with tea plants
during the year l93O-31.
The prospect of tea market attracted the rich
native individuals to invest their surplus money in tea planta-
tion.
The important tea gardens of Chittagong towards the end
of the British rule were located in Baramasia, Udalia,
256 | A History of Chittagong

Andharmanik, Halda, Rangapani, Karaldenga, Datmara'

Chandranagore, Koyachhara, Fanoon (Fenua), Thandachhari,
Kodala, Patiya, Sanguvalley.l I
Betel nut and betel leaves. Betel nut is the seed of a
palm like plant which grows luxuriantly everywhere in
Chittagong. Buchanan Hamilton (1798) saw betel nut
plantations in several places of Chittagong.12 B"t.l leaves, a
climbing plant grow abundantly mainly in the plains. Betel nut,
cut into small pieces wraped in the betel leaves is chewed by
people.
Tobacco. Tobacco is native to tropical America. It was
brought into Chittagong by the Portuguese in the sixteenth
century. Since that time it is bein$ widely cultivated for its
leaves which are used for smoking. Buchanan Hamilton ( 1798)
Saw "plantations of tobcco" in Several places of Chittagong.13
According to the Agricultural statistics of 1930-31, 2,60O acres
of land were under tobacco plantation.la
Cotton. The fibre around its seeds is used to make thread.
Cotton cloths were manufactured from the cotton hairs imported
from Chittagong Hill Tracts. Imported cotton was kept in the
stores (gola) situated at Kapasgola in Chittagong town.
Indigo. It is a blue dye obtained from indigo plants, which
were cultivated in the district as early as the ei$hteenth cen-
tury. Mr Sumner, while he was the collector of chittagong in
l78O gave "a grant of land to one John Gray for the cultivation
of the indigo plant, and this grant was confirmed by the Gover-
nor General in Council." Mr Gray died in 1782 and "his land
which would appear to have been in Satkania, passed to
others."15 In L788 one Mr Benjamin Boyce was given pennis-
sion by authorities for the manufacture of indigo in_Chittagong-
Mr Boyce, however, failed in achieving anyLhi.tg.tu
In ITTB Buchanan saw "the remains of indigo
plantations" in central Chittagon$. One of the planters was Mr
Sherman Bird, the collector of Chittagong.r7
 Econornic Condition | 257

Indigo plantation never flourished in Chittagong. Accord-

ing to the 1872 census report, there were only eleven indigo
manufacturers in Chittagong. The introduction of synthetic
indigo in the 1940s damaged the indigo plantation so badly that
it practically died away.
B. Forestry and forest products
Formerly, large tracts of land were covered with dense
forests, the economic value of which was immense. It supplied,
timber, bamboo, wild leaves, honey and wax, wild grass (chhan)
and various other things.
Timber. A large number of people sustained their
livelihood by cutting down forest trees. Their important
functions were felling trees and sawing them into logs,
launching logs into rivers and guiding them downstream.
A great variety of trees grow in Chittagong. Trees
suitable for timber are Chittagong teak, jarul, gamari, karai,
champalaish etc.
Wood planks were prepared from suitable trees for ocean
going vessels and railroad track. Wood planks were exported to
European countries till the nineteenth century.
Bamboo. Objects made from bamboo are common in
Chittagong and vary from everyday articles to artistic craft
products. Bamboo grows rapidly. It is found either in the wild or
as cultivated plant in all parts of the district.
Honey. Bee produces honey and wax. Honey was used
especially as ingredient of Ayurvedic medicine and wax was
used as polish for wood.
Garjan oil. It was an essential commodity. Processes of
extracting garjan oil has been described by Dr. Buchanan
Hamilton (1798) in his travelling accounts.lB According to him,
"in the island of Mascally (Maheshkhali) much Gurgeon (ga4an1
oil is extracted.-19
Administration of forestry was vested in a deputy
conservator of forest. In 1864, protection of government forests
258 I A History of Chittagong

from destruction was taken in hand. Conservator of forest in

all the districts were appointed.2o Since that time plantation
has characteized most of the reserve forests.
Elephant. Kheda or elephant catching means an
"enclosure constructed to entrap elephants.-2l Regarding the
economic value of the Kheda, Hamilton writes, "A considerable
profit accrues to government from the elephants caught in the
forests here, which are of an excellent quality.... The best are
received from the contractor under certain conditions, and
agreeably to a fixed standard of height and other qualities.'22
Elephant teeth as an article of trade is referred to by Buchanan
Hamilton.
C. Marine products
Fishing. Chittagong is the largest fishing district in
Bangladesh. The reference to the fisheries and rent payment
to the government (mai mahal) can be found in 1772-73
assessment.23
The rivers and the seashore of the district were stocked
with fish. According to Hunter, "the sea and river fisheries of
Chittagong are very valuable and form a means of livelihood to
a large section of the populatior:r.-24 As regards the fresh water
fish, Hunter specifically says that the Karnafuli, Halda, Sankha
and Chandkhali were *the chief localities for inland fisheries.'25
Regarding coastal fishery, the collector reports in 1873,
*by far
the most extensive fishery *was carried on near the island of
Sonadia". The chief function of a fisherrnan included catching
of fish in inland or in coastal waters.
Dried fish. Making dried fish was an important meurns
of livelihood. In the coastal areas of southern Chittagong the
immigrant Rakhaings engaged in making dried fish. Referring
to their occupation Buchanan Hamilton writes, "Drying prawrrs
was amongst them a principal occupaton. These they export in
great quantities to Chittagong, Dacca, Calcutta and other places
in Bengal where they are in great demand among all ranks
 Economic Condition | 259

both of Hindus and Mohammadans"26

Salt. Salt producing areas were known as nimak eyoze
mahal during the Mughal and the early British periods. Salt
manufacturers were called malangis. Mr H J S Cotton gives
the follo\Ming information about the salt trade in Chittagong.
In I77Os Mohammad Mirza. (the constructor of Mirzar pol on
the Hathazart Road) had the contract for all the salt of the
district for a period of five years. Under the terms of his
contract he was bound to supply yearly 8O,OOO maunds of
salt for the use of the Company. There was also an English
Salt Agent on behalf of the Company. Sir John Forbes is the
first of whom there is any record. He was succeeded by Mr.
John Grant on the 22ndJune, 1774. Mr. Grant was succeeded
by Mr Thomas Calvert. On the 29th September, l7BO, the
government resolved that "all the salt of +.he provrnces should
be manuf,actured and disposed of for the immediate account
of the Company under the superintendence of a comptroller
and management of provincial agents. Mr. George Vansittart
was appointed first comproller and by the same order Mr.
Robert Worlledge was appointed Salt Agent in the Chittagong
district.2T
From the time of Verelst (1761) to that of Wilkins (1772)
t}:re zamindars (in the coastal areas) "'were by degrees deprived
of ihe privilege of manufacturing salt."28 Th. government
gained the monopoly of trade in salt. The principal salt works
in 1775 were situated in Nizampur, Baharchhara, Jaldi
(Banskhali), Mobarakghona, Bansberia, Akalpura,
Chaufaldandi, Cutubdia, Patenga, Parkee etc. "On the sea coast"
writes Hamilton ( l82O) "the government have a large
establishment for the manufacture of salt."29
In 1833, by the Prohibition Act, manufacture of salt by the
natives was prohibited. From l86os salt began to be imported
from England. Buckland writes, "At the commencement of
1862-63 Liverpool salt had in consequence, complete posses-
sion of the market....It was determined that the Chittagong salt
agency should be closed.'3o In September, l8g8 orders were
26,o- | A History of Chittagong
issued under section 6 of the Indian Salt Act, XII of lBB2,
absolutely prohibiting the manufacture of salt" in coastal
districts including Chittagong.3l
The imported salt was stored in warehouses called golas.
In l9l7 there were five salt golas at Chittagong maintained by
public works department.32 The total import of salt into
Chittagong increased 57 percent in 1922-23.33
There was an increasing demand during the
period from the Swadeshi to the Satyagraha for producing salt
indigenously. But the authorities held the view that "conditions
were not suitable for the manufacture of salt on a commercial
scale."34
In the legislative council session Dhirendra lal Barua of
Chittagong asked the government to revive salt industry. He
says, "...so far as my information goes the monthly consump-
tion of salt in Bengal is 50,000 maunds, two thirds of which is
imported....Bengal is not producing even a small fraction of the
demand....An encouragement of this industry will greatly
relieve employment and increase the national wealth."3s
D. Petroleum and petroleum products
Petroleum was found under the ground and was used to
produce earth oil and kerosene. Earth oil was a commodity
useful for domestic purposes and a valuable article of trade.
Referring to a source, giving its use in lSlO'Hobson Jobson'
writes, "Petroleum called by the natives earth oil,.... which....
imported from Pe$u, Ava and the Aracan coast."36
Extraction of petroleum in the British India first took place
in Burma. The Burmah Oil Company, the largest crude oil
producer, surveyed, organized and supervised the drilling
operations in the lrrawady basin area. Towards the close of the
nineteenth r:' ntury the Burmah Oil Company engaged in
processing crude oil to produce kerosene. The use of kerosene
brought a great change in the domestic lighting system.
The Burmah Oil company conducted a project to examine
 Economic Condition | 26I

the existence of mineral oil in southern Chittagong. The

company "continued to prospect for mineral oil in the Cox's Bazar
subdivision."3T
Industry
Industry in the British period was of two types, cottage
industry and heavy industry. Cottage industry developed
primarily in the rural areas whereas the heavy industry
developed in the urban areas.
(a) Cottage Industry
In the cottage industry the manufacturer employed his
own skill, procured instruments by his own money and
marketed the finished goods at his own initiative. His own
humble dwelling or his small workshop in a bazar was the
principal location of cottage industry.
The craftsmen carry/ on the works of art through genera-
tions and their hereditary skill has been chiefly responsible for
their excellence.
Cottage industry is also known as folk crafts. Folk crafts
are divided into multitude of items such as pottery and
ceramics, wood and bamboo articles, metal and leather objects,
dyeing and weaving, needleworks and embroidery, objects for
children to play with. Some of the traditional folk crafts are
listed below.
Rope making. Rope was made by twisting strands of
hemp, jute and some other kinds of fibres. Strong and thick
rope was needed in anchoring a ship, carrying a log etc.
Mat or pati. A densely woven strong thread is called pati.
Reeds and canes for the manufacturing of fine matting called
sital pati grows in damp localities.38 According to the adminis-
trative report, the manufacture of sital pati prospered in the
district.39 A r-rll flat piece was also used as seat.
Pottery. Many types of earthenware have been in use in
the district since time immemorial. Pottery is made wherever
there is suitable clay and sufficient wood for the open fire in
262 | A History of Chittagong

which the pots are fired. According to Hunter, corunon kinds of

pottery were made in all parts of the district.ao Pott.ties were
designed for boiling foods, eating and drinking as well as kitchen
utensils.
Basketry is made by either the simple inter weaving of
elements or by the coiling of multiple strands. Simple inter-
weaving system is employed in making kharang (g ass or leaves
carr5ring baskets), jhuri (earth carryring instrument), dhochana
(instrument purifytng rice, fish etc.) and other equipments.
Net making. Net is made of cotton thread. It is woven
tied together with small space in between. The net is used
particularly for catching fish, hunting wild animal and
entrapping bird.
Umbrella as protection against sun and rain had been
in use before the British period. The umbrella handle making
was an important item of cottage industry. It was chiefly
located at Sitakunda. Bamboo umbrella was rnanufactured in
Cox's F.azar sub-division by the Rakhaings. British made
umbrella was brought into use in the middle of the nineteenth
century.
A circular canopy of wild leaves callecl kurup with a bam-
boo made frame was used by the people. Referrin$ to this type of
umbrella Buchanan writes, "....the leaf of a dwarf palm called
karoo (kurup) and used for making umbrellas.'4l A kind of
canopy of wild leaves called jnuir that is hanged from head down
to waist specially spreading back side as a shelter from rains is
essential for a peasant.
Oil mill. A large block of wood used in grinding oil seeds
to express oil from them. The machine (ghani) is operated by a
pair of bullocks.
According to the report on the administration of Bengal,
rope making industry, the umbrella handle making industry,
oil mill, fishing net, sital pati prospered in Chittagong.az
Hand made paper. Paper was made from the soft part of
 Economic Condition I 263

wood and fibrous plant. These were broken into small pieces
and crushed until it was soft. The powder then cooked gently
until it forms a pulp. The material then used to make paper.
Wood work. Wood workers known as sutradhar cut, shape
and erect various t5pes of wooden structures and decorative
objects.
Leather work. Luxury garments were made from fur that
grows on the body of some animals. Fur of beaver was of much
demand in Europe. It was an important item of export.43
There was a class of tanners (charmakar) who made
leather from hides and skins. They also made footwear of
different designs.
Weaving and embroidery. Weaving means to make
clothes on a machine called tant and the people who are
employed in weaving are called tanti.
Referring to the cloth rnanufacture during the early
British rule H J S Cotton writes, "The principal cloth aurunghs
(in 177Os) in the interior of tl-re Chittagong district were at Meer
Ka Sarai, Banscolly, Hazaree's Haut and Duckin seak."44
According to Hunter, "Coarse cloth was woven in the
mid-nineteenth century."4s "Th. Jugis of Chittagong manu-
facture coarse cloth." Lungi "made out of the silk and cotton
cloth is woven by the Magh women (of Cox's Bazar)"46
A weaving school was established at Cox's Bazar to train
the Rakhaings in weaving industry. In 1914 it was "becoming
popular.... and the accommoclation was increased.'47
According to government report, four more weaving schools
were established in 1914. These were l. Katirhat Weaving
School, 2. Fatehnagar Arya Weaving School, 3. Weaving school
at Hulain, anci 4. Muslim Shilpa Vidyalaya at Baraiar Dhala.a8
The Swadeshi and Independence movement gave an
impetus to the production of khaddar. Khaddar factories sprang
up in diffbrent. places of the district.a9
264 | A History of Chittagong

The process by which a piece of fabric is made with stitches

usually using coloured thread was a familiar form of embroi-
dery. Kantha or embroidered quilt is one of the finest specimen
of needlework. In the 1gth century, kantha manufacturing
techniques became more intricate. Nakshi kanthas were
woven with different motifs. Making of embroidered quilt was
the monopoly of women. They perform designs, operate needle
works and other related tasks.
Sari, the main piece of woman clothing was woven by
tantis, a class of weavers who lived by weaving chhapai or printed
sari. Variety of colours were produced mostly from vegetable
Sources. The bark, root, leaves, seeds of certain plants and trees
were used for dyeing. Towards the close of the 19th century the
old processes of dyeing was replaced by synthetic dyes imported
from Europe.
The manufacturers produced goods by his own
effort. Sometime the merchants advanced money and occasion-
ally materials to the manufacturers who produced finished goods
in their homes and turned them over .to the merchants who
carried these to distant markets for profit.
The cottage industry gradually declined towards the end
of the British rule owing chiefly to the want of government pa-
tronage. The indigenous producers could not compete with the
foreign importers either on price or of quality. An Honourable
member in 1939 informed the legislative council that, "...it is a
fact that the Pathantooli Mahalla of the Chittagon$ Municipal-
ity, Satkania and Patiya were once famous for cottage
indtrstries of rope makingi, weavin$, net making and hand
paper making. These industries are now fast dying out."5o
(b) Heavy Industry
The availability of raw materials, the surplus rnoney of
rich inCividuals and the credit facilities offered by the banks
created a climate of investment which helped the establish-
ment of a few industrial enterprises.
 Economic Condition | 26.5

The ginning mills. The ginning mill (machine for

separating cotton fibres from its seeds) of the Kundu family and
the ginning factory of Messrs Jamal Brothers were in
operation before the outbreak of the First World War.5l The t
"o
mills faced crisis "owing to the war and the consequent
difficulty in exporting cotton due to the dislocation of shippittg."S2
Cotton textile mill. The first cotton textile mill named
Deshapriya Cotton Mills was established in 1936. Dhuti, sari
and other types of Knitted cloth were made in the factory.
Jute textile mill. The Karnafuli Jute Mill was etablished
by a corporate body of rich individuals in the latter part of the
1930s. It was visited by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose on June
I l, 1938. The Netaji praised the enterprising individuals for
their efforts to build this establishment.
Chittagong Chemical Industries Ltd. The concern
was registered on the 7th July, 1924. It, however, had to wind
up its activities after sometime under adverse circumstances.
The government expressed in the legislative council of its
ignorance with regard to its existence in 1934.53
Chittagong Match Factory. It was established in 1936
at FirinSi Bazar. Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose visited the
factory on June I l, l93B and praised the enterprising individu-
als who were connected with the running of the factory.
An organization named the Chittagong Industrial
Development Commission was founded in 1938.54 The aim of
this commission was to take care of the existing industries
and to give encouragement to establish new ones.
Ship building industry. Chittagong was fiamous for ship
buitding industry from very early times. "Islarnabad (Chittagon$"
writes Walter Harnilton in IB2O, "being extrernely well situated
for external commerce as well as for the construction of ships
of large dimensions and of these a considerable number are
built annually, both of imported timber and of that indigenous
to the country."55 Th" ship building industry was located mainly
266 | A History of Chittagong

in the port area. Yakub Ali Dobhash ( 1836- l gog) and Abdul Haq
Dobhash (1874- l95l) were some of the notable persons who
were connected with the ship building industry.
In 1853 Mr. Currie of the Board of Revenue described the
port as a shipowning rather than a trading place.56
W W Hunter's narration gives information about the
gradual decline of ship building industry in Chittagong in the
latter part of the nineteenth century. He writes, "ship building
was till the year 1873, carried on to a considerable extent at
Chittagong. In 1860-61 sixteen vessels were built of a total
burthen of 2,036 tons.... In 1870-71 sixvessels of a total burthen
of 1,028 tons. In the year 1873-74 only four vessels were built"
ln L874-75 only one vessel of 286 tons."S7
The decline of the ship building industry in Chittagong
was due to the negative policy of the government. Mr Nur Ahmad,
chairman of Chittagong municipality strongly criticised the
government policy on the ship building industry and made the
government responsible for its decline. He says in the
provincial council,
In Chittagong, in our infancy whenever we went by the side
of the river Karnafuli, we found that it was full of ships so
much so that any casual observer from a distance might have
taken it to be a shipyard and not a river. But by the enact-
ment of the cruel law which prohibited Indian ships from
going out in the open sea; from that time ship building has
died out. During the last war in 1914, when Government again
permitted building of ships and allowed Indian ships to go
out in the open sea that industry revived and people began
to build ships. But after the war, the law was again enforced
and after that ship building died out. For that reason,
government should be asked to revive that industry which
once brought prosperity to Bengrl.58
Pahartali Railway Workshop. The Patrartali Railway
Workshop was built in the 1930s to rnanuf'acture railway
equipment and to repair railway machinery parts. It was the
 Economic Condition | 267

biggest railway workshop in undivided Bengal.

Agricultural and Industrial Exhibitions and Fair.
On November 26, LgI9 the Chattagram Krishi O Shilpa Samiti
was established under the auspices of the Chittagong Associa-
tion. The Samiti in one of its meetings adopted a resolution
that it would organize agricultural and industrial exhibition
annually in the town. From L92O down to the end of the British
rule the Samiti annually organized agricultural and
industrial exhibitions and fairs. The exhibitions were
generally held in a public place to provide the visitors an
opportunity for enjoyrng the show.
The first agricultural and industrial exhibiton was held
on the l lth February, lg2}, with a special opening ceremony.
Manufactured products very much pleased the visitors.
The next agricultural and industrial exhibition held in
lg2l was inaugurated by Barrister Purna Chandra Sen.
The agricultural and industrial exhibition was held on
September 9, 1923. The exhibition was inaugurated by the re-
nowned scientist Acharya Prafulla Chandra Roy. Acharya Roy
praised the folk craftsmen for their skill in making beautiful
articles. He also called upon the well to do people to patronize
the native manufacturers.
The agricultural and industrial exhibitions could not be
arranged regularly due to political unrest especially during the
early part of the 1930s.
The agricultural, industrial and health exhibition spon-
sored by the Chittagong Association was held at Hand's Park in
March, L937. The success of the exhibition gained newspaper
publicity. In this exhibition culture of human health was
included as an important item. Keeping of good health, food
safely, animal and plant health and some other items were put
on for a public show.
The next agricultural, industrial and health
exhibition was held on Friday, March 4, 1938, Satsamgha Nari
26,8 | A History of Chittagong

Shilpashram, Helping Hand Society, Rajbandi Shilpalaya and

some other organizations opened their stalls in the exhibition.
Handicrafts of various kinds attracted the visitors in large
number.
Exhibitions were also held in different parts of the
district. The industrial, agricultural and health exhibition was
held on February 6, 1938 in the school campus of the Bhatikhain
village. The exhibition was ceremoniously inau$urated by Mr
Gladis E Wait, the district judge. Mrs. S L Khasta$ir, secretary
to the Helping Hand Society and Khan Bahadur Mohammad Ali
Azam, registrar, co-operative society actively co-operated with
the management body. The exhibition lasted for five days. Two
kinds of exhibits exposed in the stalls, one of paper manufac-
turing and the other of embroidery works by the Helping Hand
Society earned much appreciation.
In Cox's Bazar town the agricultural, industrial and health
exhibition was held on February I through February 7, 1938 in
a festive atmosphere. The stalls showing the local Rakhain
handicrafts drew attention of the visitors.
The annual agricultural, industrial and health exhibition
sponsored by Chittagong Association was held on March 7 , 1939
at Hands Park on a large scale. The wife of divisional commis-
sioner, Mrs Martin opened the exhibition. Disrict magistrate
Mr P M Mc Williams I C S presided over the inau$ural ceremony.
Mv. Nur Ahmad, chairman of the Chittagong municipality,
Barrister M A Azirn, chairman of the District Board, Mr. N N
Islam, bank manager, Mr. Nagendra Lal Das, co-chairman of
the Chittagong Association were some of the distinguished
persons who were present on this occasion. The products of the
cottage industry and handicrafts were most important among
the exhibits. There was arrangement of magic show, singing
and dancing which gave much pleasure to the visitors.S9

The exhibitions were arranged under the auspices of

the corporate bodies and government patronage. At these
 Economic Condition | 269

exhibitions rnanufacturers and traders displayed their works

of art and agricultural products to stimulate sales. Animal
health and plant health were also included as important items
of exhibits. These exhibitions and fairs played an important
role as meeting places for buyers and sellers and undoubtedly
encouraged the agriculturists and manufacturers to produce
quality products.
Road Transport.
During the British rule the road communication improved
considerably. The control of road traffic in the middle of the
nineteenth century was entrusted to the public works depart-
ment and in the later part of the nineteenth century it was
entrusted to the District Board which performed its functions
under the road transport service of the provincial government.
There were three major roads which connected all the towns
and important places of the district.
t. Chittagong Dhaka Trunk Road. According to the
'Annual General Reports' for I 87 I -72 and 1872-73, prepared by
Mr H Hankey, the "only imperial road in the district under the
super in tendence of the Public works Department" was the
Chittagong Dhaka Great Trunk Road, which runs for a distance
of 46 miles through the district.6o
The road was originally a military road. H J S Cotton writes,
'"The military halting places on this road were at Boorbooreah
on the Fenny River, at Meer Ka Sarai, at Sitakund and at
Kuddum Rusool, about a mile north of Chittago.tg."6l
Regarding the condition of the Chittagong portion of the
Dhaka Chittagong Trunk Road Mr C Fryer, collector of
Chittagong writes in 1794,'... It is in very tolerable condition
during the dry season....In the rainy season, it is frequently
impassable from innumerable water courses which descend
from the hills."62 In subsequent period many of the streamlets
were bridged in order to improve the corrununication between
places.
27O I A History of Chittagong
\

2. Chittagong Arakan Road. The Arakan Road

originated from an old military line connecting Chittagong town
with the southern part of the district. During *the Mughal
period the southern part of this road was abandoned. Mr
Braigham, "a yoltng officer of the second battalion of sepoys
stationed at Ramoo", in his letter dated 28tn' December,
1794 to the Governor General put forward a plan for the
reconstruction of the deserted road.63
The Arakan Road was not repaired till the first Burmese
*ar.64 'The places of encampment of troops were Collagaon,
Fakeer Ka Haut on the banks of the Sangoo, Company Ka Haut
(near Satkania), Chunnattee, Chuckerea, and Edgong."65
A scheme known as the Arakan Road Development
scheme in order to improve the Arakan Road was undertaken
by the government. It sanctioned in 1928-29 a sum of Rs five
lack to materialise the plan. The minister in reply to Mr Nur
Ahmad's enquiry about the progress of the work informed the
Hon'ble member that the work had lately been undertaken and
was in progress (in the year 1939).66
The Anglo Japanese war in the early 1940s demanded
the bricksoling of Chittagong-Cox's Bazar Road. The highway
construction engineer supervised its constmction and repair
work.
3. Chittagong-Ramgarh Road. This road existing
during the sultanate period still retains its importance as the
chief communicating line between Chittagong town and the
farthest part of north Chittagong. Till l93O only twelve miles
from Chittagong town to Hatlnazari was metalled and opened for
wheeled tafffic.GT
Public Roads. W W Hunter mentions some minor roads
which serve as passages from place to place. These are
Robertganj Road, Mahajan Hat Road, Tippera Pass Road,
Halishahar Road, Nasirabad Road, Bakalia Road, Kalurghat Road,
Cox's Bazar-Ramu Link Road, Chittagon$-Chandpur Ghat Road,
 Economic Con,Cition | 27 L

Anwara Road, Paraikora Road, Sakirapol Road, Dhalghat Road,

Maheshkhali Road, Phenua Road, Kharana Road, Rangunia
Road, Mandarbari Road, Mitasarai Road.
Maulvi Nur Ahmad asked the government in the legisla-
tive council in 1941, "whether the Government propose to
improve at least those roads which are of provincial importane
such as Ramgarh Road, Arakan Road etc." The minister replied
that from the Road Fund during the years from 1937-38 to
L94O-41, a sum of Rs 8,29,716 was spent on road projects in
Chittago.rg.6e
Road bridges. A road bridge was generally made by
either iron or timber beams and timber sleepers with timber
foundations at either end. The construction and development
of road bridges was undertaken on greater scale from the
beginning of the 2otl: century. The consruction of bridges was
generally entrusted to civil engineers who designed structures
and organrzed and supervised their construction.
In reply to a question asked by Maulvi Nur Ahmad the
minister informed him that, "government are prepared to spend
Rs 73,0OO for the construction of the Sarta Bridge."To
Dhalas or mountain passes. Narrow passage through
mountains, in Chittagong dialect is called dhala. During the
Mughal and the early British periods there )vere eleven dhalas
in Chittagong. Tolls were collected from those who used them.
These were Phatikchhari Dhala, Andharmanik Dhala, Bogpur
Dhala, Haralchhari Dhala, Udaliya Dhala, Karnal Dhala, Dodonia
Dhala, Sagarkuttora Dhala, Bara Kumira Dhala, Chhota Kumira
Dhala and Pohangiya Dhala.
Sarais or rest houses. Public houses for lodging of
travellers known as sarais or rest houses had been in
existence since the Mughal period. An innkeeper was appointed
in each of the sarais to attend the wayf,arers. He also supplied
necessary information regarding tours. The employees in cases
of the better kind of sarais or bungalows receive guest travel-
lers and made arrangements of accomodation and food for the
 a
_.

272 | .A History of Chittagong

travellers. Buchanan Hamilton (1798) refers to a number of

sarais along Dhaka Chittagong Road.
Road tax (rahdari) was in existence from ancient times.
Road tax was collected even from the wood cutters who carried
bundles of bamboos or firewood through mountain passes.
Water ways-inland. Down to the end of the 19th
century rivers and canals were the chief means of communi-
cation. W W Hunter writes that, 'there is hardly a single village
which has not this means of communication with other parts
of the district." Referring to the report of the collector of
Chittagong, Hunter writes *....most of the villages possess
water communication and nearly every inhabitant of the
district....live more or less by river traffic.'72 Country made
rowing boats were employed to caryr passengers as well as
merchandise.
The Karnafuli provided chief means of water
communication. The water course between Sadarghat and
Rangamati was the most important waterway in the district.
Other rivers wide and deep enough for boats to sail on are the
Halda and the Sankha.
Some of the canals are sufficiently deep and wide to pro-
vide vessels for plying between places. These are Boalkhali,
Chandkhali, Banskhali, Julqadar. Buchanan Hamilton while
visiting Chittagong in 1798 travelled through the link canal
between the Karnafuli and the Sankha (Julqadar Canal)73
Ghats and ferries. Ferry boats were engaged in
carrying people and goods across a river or a canal. Sadarghat,
Patharghata and Ante Mohammad's Ghat were the three
principal ghats or landing places as well as ferrighats on the
river bank of the town. Buchanan Hamilton mentions
Patharghata as the chief landing arrd ferry ghat of the town.74
W W Hunter mentions some crowded inland ferryghats in
the middle of the 19th century. These are Nazirhat Ghat on the
Halda, Sharta Ghat on the Sharta, Sandwip Ghat on the Sandwip
 Economic Condition | 273

channel, Kalurghat on the Karnafuli, Bakaliya Ghat on the

Karnafuli, Ante Mohammad Ghat and Patharghata on the
Karnafuli, Dirghamaniya Ghat on the Murari Channel,
Chandkhali Ghat on the Chandkhali, Do};razan Ghat on the
Sankha, Fakir Muhammad's Ghat on the Sankha, Chandpur
Ghat on the Sankha (Buchanan Hamilton crossed the river on
this point) Matamuhuri Ghat on the Matamuhuri, Maheshkhal
Ghat (Gorakh ghata) on the Maheshkhal channel, Sakir
Muhammad's Ghat on the Rakhali, Bak Khali Ghat on the Bak
Khali, Raju Ghat on the Raju Ri','3r.75
Tolls were collected from the users of the ferry $hats.
In the long coastal areas of the district, flood tide flow into
estuaries and creeks which thus during that time became
navigable by country boats.
The inland waterways were not only the chief means of
passenger traffic but also the principal passages of trade in
commodities such as foodgrains, cotton, earthenwares, salt,
dried fish and bamboos.T6
Water transport - Coastal. Chittagong port was
frequented by coastal vessels from other coastal provinces of
the subcontinent .77 Coa"tal vessels were employed in passen-
ger traffic and coastal trade between the main coast and the off
shore islands such as Mahesh khali, Sandwip, Hatia etc.
The passenger traffic between Burma and India were
monopolised by two British shipping companies named Asiatic
Steam Navigation Company and British India Steam Naviga-
tion Company. During the Swadeshi movement period, a group
of Chittagong merchants started passenger traffic between
Chittagong and Burma.
Rail road. The railway line which connected Chittagong
with the rest of the country was constructed under the supervi-
sion of Assam Bengal Railway. it was opened for passenger
traffic in 1895. Chittagong was selected as the headquarters of
the Assam Bengal Railway.
274 | A History of Chittagong

In the early part of the l92os the construction of the

Chittagong Nazirhat branch line and Chittagong Dohazari
branch line were completed. The Kalurghat Railway Bridge was
designed and constructed by Martin Burn Co. in 1929 at an
estimated cost of Rs 18 lack 74 thousand.T8 The Assam Bengal
Railway controlled the passenger, postal mail and cargo
services down to the end of the British rule.
Air way. Government decided to build an airport in
Chittagong as early as the latter part of 192Os. According to the
Administrative Report, "acquisition of land for and preparation
of a landing ground at Chittagong was in progress.-79
Aircraft with seating arrangements for L2 to 15 persons
could land at and took off the airport during the Second World
War period. Vickers Viscount was the {irst propeller turbine
(turbo-prop) civil aircraft which used the acrodrome. Later on
the airport provided services for the Dakota type of aircraft.
Postal service. Mr H J S Cotton gives the following
information about the early days of the Postal Service in
Chittagong.
From the earliest occupation of the English, postal commu-
nication was of course maintained with Calcutta. .... There
seems to have been no regularity in despatch and letters
were sent by special messengers.... There are occasional
records in the proceedings, such as on the lSth June 1769'
that the dawk had been plundered by dacoits, or more
frequentily that the dawk boat had been lost in crossing the
Megna. .... In 1776 a high power 'Dawk committee was
formed.... lt L777 the chief himself was appointed Deputy
Post Master of Chittagong.
A daily postal communication was established in 1794 ....
lrtters then arrived at Chittagong in six days from Calcutta.So
The Post Master of General Post Office controlled the local
post offices. In 1914 the construction of General Post Office
building was started.s I
The post First World War period witnessed the
 Economic Condition | 275

technological developments in telecommunications system.

*Telegraph line from Dhaka to Chittagong was completed about
the end of 1859.-82 Since then all the thana sadars and impor-
tant places of Chittagong hdve been connected with telegraphic
wires. Number of post and telegraph offices towards the end of
the British rule were as follows :
192L, P.O. - 113, T.O. - 28
1931, P.O. - 134, T.O. - 3883
The telegram system was introduced in the early l92os.
The telephone senrice was introduced in early l92os. The
telephone office operates mechanical devices dealing with
local calls especially in the urban areas.
An organized body of the employees of Post and Railway
Mail Service (RMS) called Post and RMS Association was founded
in the early 192Os. The meetings of the Association were being
held annually since its establishment. On Jluly 24, 1938 the
annual meeting of the Association was held at the Graduate
School. The Absociation also organized cultural functions at
regular interval.Ba
Banking and Insurance . The increase of circulation
of money brought banking system into existence. Before the
introduction of modern banking system professional
moneylenders supplied rural credit. Poet Nabin Chandra Sen
writes in his autobiography that a branch of the Bank of Bengal
(est. 1840) was established in Chittagong sometime in the
l87Os.B5 Nothing is known about the business activities of this
bank.
During the nineteen thirties a number of commercial
banks opened their branch offices for business purposes in
Chittagong. Some of these were Wallace Bank Ltd., Chartered
Bank Ltd., Lloyds tsank Ltd., National Overseas and Grindlays
Bank Ltd., Bank of China, Mercantile Bank of India, Bank of
Asia Ltd. etc.
Besides the foreign banks, a large number of indigenous
276 | A History of Chittagong

banks grew up in Chittagong. Most of these banks were

privately owned and operated. Their business was concerned
chiefly with acceptance of deposits and lending of money. Some
of these banks were Registered Banking and Trading Co. Ltd,
Tripura Modern Bank, People's Bank, Pioneer Bank, Sound Bank
of India, ChittagongTraders Co-operative Bank Ltd., Deshapriya
Bank Ltd., The Chittagong Commercial Bank Ltd., The
Comrade Bank Ltd., Chittagong Union Bank Ltd., Chittagong
Central Banking Corporation Ltd., Bharat Kalyan Bank Ltd.,
Mahalaksmi Bank Ltd., Chittagong lran Co. Ltd., Indo-Burrna
Trader Bank Ltd., Presidency Bank Ltd., Eastern Union Bank
Ltd., Merchants Bank Ltd., New Bank Ltd., Prabartak Bank Ltd.,
Sattar and Sons Ltd., Jubilee Bank Ltd.,
Unfortunately, the management of the local banks was
not satisfactory. The overdraft system permitted a depositor to
overdraw more money than he had in the bank. The govern-
ment I'ersion regarding the causes of the collapsing of banks is
as follows. ".... Mismanagement by the members, default of
payment, surreptitious transfer of property to avoid paSrment,
and overfinancing of the members are the principal causes..."86
Most of the locally managed banks have gone into liquidation
in the late nineteen forties.
The co-operative banking system under government
supervision came into being as early as the beginning of the
20th century. The chief purpose of the co-operative banking
system was to provide loa,n for the rural people on low interest.
A large portion of the fun,ls of the cooperative banks came from
government sources. In almost every advanced village co-op-
erative bankrvas established. Co-operative banks greatly redued
the dependence on the professional money lenders.
Postal ,rvings give the people very good service. Pclstal
savir,gs collect deposits but do not lend money. People invest
money in the postal savings and the post office repay the money
to the depositor w;th interest.
Where the in.ligenous banks failed, co-operative banks
 Economic Condition | 277

and.postal savings did commendable service. This is due to gov-

ernment regulation on the functions of these two organizations.
An insurance is an agreement (commonly called a policy)
between the insured who pays a premium and the insurer who
in return piomises to compensate the insured if he suffers death
or specified losses through fire, accidents etc. Among the
various types of insurance life insurance was the more
common form of insurance.
During the British period insurance companies were
mainly private enterprises. The business activities of the
insurance companies were generally sponsored by banks and
capitalist individuals. Some of the insurance companies of
Chittagong may be mentioned. United Common Insurance,
Bharateswari Banking and Insurance, Aryasthan Insurance.
Besides, the following insurance companies had their branches
or agencies in Chittagong. Empire of India Life Assurance,
Eastern Federal Union Insurance, New India Assurance, Co.
Ltd., New Asiatic Insurance etc.B7
Bad practices developed in the management of business
affairs of the indigenous insurance companies. Dividends were
declared that had not been earned; victim's claims were not
paid back. Several insurance companies wound up their
business within a short period of their establishment.
Banks and insurance companies were very badly affected
by the Second World War.
Chambers of Commerce
Chittagong Chamber of Commerce. In 1906,
Chittagong Chamber of Commerce was established. From that
time down to L947 it was the most important trade
organization in Chittagong. It was a voluntary association of
independent farms in industry, commerce and trade to protect
and promote their common local interests.
The functions of the Chamber were conducted by a Board
of Commissioners which was constituted as follows :
278 | A History of Chittagong

3 members appointed by the central government

I member appointed by Indian Merchants Association
2 ex-officio members
I member appointed by Bengal Assam Railway
authorities
3 members appointed by Chittagong Chamber of
Commerce
Imember appointed by Indian (? Chittagong) Merchants
Association
I member appointed by Muslim Chamber of Commerce
Total 12 memb.."88
In 1936 the president and the secretary of the Chamber
of Commerce were Mr T M Brodic and Mr F E Bell respectively.
In 1937 the newly appointed president was Mr S A Oliv...Be
Chittagong Merchants Association. It was an
association of tradesmen, businessmen and manufacturers for
the protection of their interests. it was established in 1930. Its
president was Rai Upendra Lal Rai Bahadur ( 1930-36) who was
also a member of the Chittagong Port Trust.9o
Muslim Chamber of Commerce. Its chief objective was
the development of business opportunities and to help the
Muslim businessmen in their business matters. Its president
was Haji Nazu Mia Sowdagar and its secretary was Mr M N
Islam ( 1936). A Board of Commissioners was formed to conduct
its affairs.
Chittagong Port
Chittagong port is the principal passage way of Bangladesh.
The navigability of the river and the depth of the sea lend it a
unique position in the map of Bengal. The Portuguese called it
Porto Grande or great port (1538). The'Ain i Akbari'praises its
commercial worth. \\rl-rile expressing warm approbation of the
port of Chittagong, Hunter writes, "the peculiar advantages
which Chittagong possessed enabled it to command in early
 Econornic Condition | 279

times almost the entire trade in Bengal.-gl Since l86os,

'Chittagong has been rapidly becoming a great centre of
conunerce, and the port is one of the best in India.-92
The limits of the port of Chittagong, as defined by a govern-
ment notification dated l2th September, 1856 are as follows
: To the north east, a line drawn across the river Karnafuli
from boundary pillar at the mouth of the Chaktai creek to the
boundary pillar on the opposite bank of the said river, to the
south west a line drawn across the said river from the
boundary piller at the mouth of the Goaldanga creek to the
boundary pilar on the opposite bank, at the northern most
point of takhia Char....93
The territorial jurisdiction of the port at the time of the
termination of British rule comprised Chaktai, Sadarghat,
Patenga, Lakhyar Char, Jaldia, and Kutubdia.ga
National highways, overseas trade, exis'tence of a good
harbour and railway communication increased the rate of
growth of Chittagong port in the early part of the twentieth
century.
Port Trust. The administration of the port of Chittagong
was run by the Chittagong Port Trust, created by the Act of
1887-88.95 -Ihe commissioner and district magistrate are
respectively chairman and vice chairman of the Port Trust
Commissioners.-96
The executive branch of the port administration in the
beginning of the 20th century consisted of a port officer, a port
engineer, a health officer, a government engineer and a
shipwright survey ot .97
The original Port Trrst Act of 1887 was amended succes-
sively in l9O3 and 1912. The port of Chittagong was brought
under the direct control of government in April, 1912.98
The original Act of I BB7 was eventually replaced by the
Chittagong Port Act in 19l4.ee The Chittagong Port. Bill was
enacted on the 29th February, 1914. "The object of the Act was
28O I A History of Chittagong
to make more suitable provisions for the management of the
affairs of the Port of Chittagong in view of present day
requirements. " l oo

The Chittagong Port (Amendment) Act, 1918 was "enacted

for the purpose of improving the financial position of the port of
Chittagongi." In the same year Sir George Buchanan submitted
to the government of India (Railway Department) his valuable
report on the development of Chittagong port.l02
In 1924-25 the govenment of Bengal asked the Indian
government to sanction a loan of Rs 5O lacs for the develop-
ment of the port.Iq3
In August, L927 the Lt. Governor of Bengal visited
Chittagong. He assured the people that the Indian goverrrment
was fully aware of the importance of the port of Chittagong.lo4
By the Chittagong Port (Ahmendment) Act, 1928 the Port
of Chittagong was declared a major port. The formal announce-
ment was given effect on the lst April, 1928. From that date,
the Chittagong Port Trust came under the direct administra-
tive control of the government of India.lo5
The administration of the Port of Chittagong was entrusted
to the Board of Commissioners which was constituted in
1945-46 as follows :
3 members appointed by the central $overnment
(belonging to three categories)
2 members elected by the Indian Merchants Association
(belonging to two categories)
2 ex-officio members
I member appointed by the Assam Bengal Railway
authorities
3 members elected by the Chittagong Chamber of
Comm:rce
I member elected by the Muslim chamber of commerce
of Chittagong.
 Economic Condition I 281

Total : 12 memberslo6
Towards the close of the British rule the senior officers
employed at the management of the port were deputy
conservator, port engineer, secretary, harbour master.l0T
The establishment of Assam Bengal Railway headquar-
ters in Chittagong greatly increased the importance of
Chittagong port. The link line connecting the port with the main
line serves to carrlr imported goods to distant places of the
subcontinent.
Jetties. Jetties are indispensable for a port. In earlier
times, woodwork jetties were constructed to protect the ships
from cyclone and tidal bore and to help loading and unloading of
cargoes. Four jetties were built between 1898 and 1910.
Light houses. A tower shaped building equipped with
powerful light was constructed in the island of Kutubdia to give
signal to the navigation of ships in the port area. It was
constructed by General Lighthouse, Government of India in the
tgth century. A lighthouse keeper was appointed to operate the
lighting and signalling. During his visit to the island, poet Nabin
Chandra Sen saw this lighthouse in functioning order.
Besides the Kutubdia Lighthouse, there were two other
lighthouses on the seashore for warning or guiding ships at
sea. One was Norman's Point Lighthouse and the other one
was Patenga Beacon. The latter one started its function on
October 14, L945.
Survey. Surveying of river bed with the objective of safe
navigation started immdiately after the acquisition of the
Diwani. A body of government officials were appointed to
examine the condition of the river bed. They were asked to
submit a report on the results of the investigation. Since then
the mouth of the river Karnafuli is regularly being surveyed.
Extensive survey work was undertaken in April, Lg42.ro8
Dredging. Constant dredging was required for
removing silting on the river bed and in checking shoaling on
282 I A History of Chittagong

the bars as well as in the port itself.log The government report

mentions at least two dredging ships which were in operation
in the river mouth. The dredger Karnafuli was at work in 19l l-
L2.tro The dredger Patenga started work on January 3, lg42.rrr
Trade-inland and overseas.
Trade activities in the rural areas were carried on through
hats, bazars and ganj's located usually in places of suitable com-
munication. The early British sources refer to some places of
business from which tolls were collected. These were Hat
Mirganj, Hat Ramram, Hat Abhairam, Hat Pukuria, Hat
Kutubganj. Buchanan Hamilton (1798) passed through some
markets while travelling across the district. These were
Company's Hat (established by the East India Company, (p. 25),
Kaungla prLr's Hat (the royal hat of the Marma chiefl, Doodusty
Khan's Hat (the chief place in Chakaria), Fakir Hat (situated
on the bank of a salt water creek named Gooroo batta), Chunati
Hat, Budhpura Hat (p. 100), Rajaganj (p. lOl) and Fakir Hat (near
the mouth of the Ichamati). In the middle of the lgth century,
Mahajan's Hat, Nazir Hat, Hat e Hazan and Roaza Hat were the
chief seats of trade.
Referring to the internal river borne trade in Chittagong,
Hunter writes, "grain, cotton, coarse cloth, earthen pottery, fire
wood, dried fish and bamboos form the principal articles of the
river torne trade.
W W Hunter writes that the Ganges - Brahmaputra -
Meghna river system "gave ready cornmunication with all the
country traversed by these rivers.-l13 Native boats from
different river ports of Bengal regularly plied to Chittagong for
exchange of commodities. Referring to the inter district trade
by water, Hunter writes, "The count-ry built vessels trade from
Chittagong to Narayanganj with earth oil, salt, cotton, betel nut
arrd other articles bringing back tobacco, jute, hemp, ghi, sugar,
oil seeds, and other country produce..."l I4
There was a regular course of trade between Chittagong
and Burma. Rice was imported liorn Burma into Chittagong.
 Economic Condition | 283

"The export trade to Akyab consisted in turmeric, onions,

garlics, mustard seed, hemp and jute rope."1l5 Trade between
Chittagong and Burma was monopolised by a group of merchants
of Chittagong. Merchants of high level like Abdul Bari
Chowdhury, Jnanendra Lal Chowdhury and Abdul Gani
Chowdhury became millionaire by trading \Mith Burma.
Referring to the coastal trade Hunter writes, 'cocoanuts,
shells and sundries are brought in country bottoms from Ceylon,
Maldives and Laccadives.'l 16
The British sources give some information about the
overseas trade. According to Walter Hamilton the principal items
of export trade from Chittagong were wood planks, courrse cloth
and bamboo built umbrellas. I 17 The fur of beaver was another
important item of export.l 18
In the middle of the 19th century sailing ships were
replaced by steam ships. According to Hunter's 'Account', in
1860-6l, 37 ships of foreign countries entered the port and 47
foreign ships left the port.l 19 Sittce that time, according to the
'Accounts' of Hunter, "there has been a steady increase in the
tonnage of the vessels frequenting the pott.-r2o
The acquisition of Diwani gave the English, an
opportunity tc establish complete control of trade particularly
in salt, betelnut and tobacco.12l
The British trading companies which had business
affairs at Chittagong through their branches or agencies were
as follows : Mssrs Bullock Brothers, Mssrs James Finlay & Co.
Ltd, Mssrs Ralli Brothers Ltd., Mssrs Mc Nail & Kilburn Ltd.,
Mssrs Grahams Trading & Co. Balmer L"awric & Co. Bird & Co.
Duncan Brothers, Grindlays Arbuthnot, Gladstone Wyllie, James
Warren & Co. Ltd., Mackinon Mackenjie & Co., Steel Brothers
& Co., Turner Morrison & Co., Volkart Brothers, Spencer & Co.
All these trading companies supplied foreign investment.
Customs. The customs is a government department that
collects taxes on imported goods. Customs duties were named
sayer duties during the Mughal and the early British periods.
284 | A History of Chittagong

"Sayer duties were collected from goods passing the ghats or

ferries....The collector of revenue was ex-officio collector of
customs.-122
The administration of the customs department in the
beginning of the 2}th century was "carried on by the Commis-
sioner of the Division who is chief customs officer for the Port
of Chittagong and Cox's Bazar; he is assisted at Chitta$on$ by
an assistant collector of customs and at Nhila by a super
intendent of customs. 123
Money. Money is the medium of exchange that is widely
accepted in payment for goods. Money is circulated in two forms,
coin and paper note. Coins during the British period were
divided into three units, taka, anna, pie. Paper money gained
wider circulation in the early parts of the 20th century.
W W Hunter writes that in the l87os, money was "plenti-
ful in the district." He further writes that "surplus money is
usually invested in land .-t24 With the growth of banking
system money became a vital part in the economic activities of
the country.
Price. Price is the value of commodities expressed in
terms of money. In the rural areas price of commodities was
determined by negotiation between buyer and seller.
Regulation of prices by the government was absent.
Wartime condition lead to the higher prices of commodi-
ties which in its turn lead to an increase in the volume of money
relative to the availability of goods. The rise in the price level
is generally knowrl as inflation. This inflation was one of the
causes of '43 famine.
In former days, supply of money was very much insuffi-
cient for the need especially in the rural areas. The practice of
carr5ring on trade by barter system continued until the first
quarter of the 20th century. Barter means ttre direct exchange
of goods for other goods, without the use of money as a medium
of exchange. In fact, barter system was the nerve of rural trade.
 Economic Condition | 285

Dalal or broker played an important role in the

transaction of goods. A dalal acted as an intermediary between
a buyer and a seller for a fee or commission. Durin$ East India
Company's rule, agents also known as dalals, were profession-
ally engaged in business transaction.
Taxation. The taxation policy of government was neither
rational nor beneficial especially to the cultivators and
domestic producers. Taxes imposed by the government on some
items of agricultural products, forest products, marine products
etc. caused much distress of the common people who lived by
these means. In the later half of the 1930s people expressed
discontentment against a number of unjust taxes that had to
be paid by them.125
Economic condition of the people. W W Hunter gives
a bright picture of the economic condition of the
peasantry. '"The peasantry are seldom in debt, and are very
independent, many of them add to their income derived from
agriculture by working as labourers, boatmen, petty traders, &
c.,,126
The narration of Hunter is, however, not based on correct
observation. The greater portion of the peasantry was living
under severe strain of poverty. Their income was too low to buy
the basic things such as food and clothing in necessary quan-
tity. Over 95 per cent of the district's population lived in rural
areas and over 8O percent of rural population were virtually
landless. The cultivators had to sell their produced crops less
than productive costs. Most of the poor people borrowed money
from the village moneylenders with exhorbitant rate of
interest.
The poverty situation further deteriorated as a result of
natural calamities. The humble houses made of bamboo and
wild grass could not withstand such natural calamities as floods
and cyclones. The people had no means to repair their
damaged dwellings immediately and they had to suffer from
 286 | A History of Chittagong

exposure until repair.

Economic condition can never be good one under colonial
rule. Povert5r, disease, malnutrition, illiteracy, unawareness of
personal hygiene dominated the lives of the conunon people in
both rural and backward parts of the urban areas. The two world
wars made the condition of the conunon people worse.

Note :
I Hunter, op. ctt, p. f6f
2 Census Report, l93l
3 Brchanan p. 26
4 lbid. p- 15
5 Hunter, op. ctL p. 159
6 Brchonon p. 16
7 'the Parrch4janga 1342, p. l9l: Hunter op- cX., p. 2O8
8 'Hunter, op- cX., p- 2OB
I RA,B. r9r l-l2. p. 37
lO lbid. p. 23
. I I The Pancl4janga. Atrt. Sp. 1936
12 Brchanan p. 22
l3 lbid. p. 23
14 CDG.p.7
15 Memorandurru p. 188
16 lbid, p. r87
17 Brct'r.nan p- 26
18 lbid, pp. 35, 46
19 lbid, p. aG
20 Bttckland. I, 3f4
2l Hobson Jobson
22 Homifton's Hindustan, I, 169
23 Memorandtrrru p. l8
24 Hunter, op. cit., p. 129
25 lbid.
26 Bttct'c.nan p. 50
27 Memorandum. p. 20
 Economic Condition | 287

28 Ibid.., p. 28
29 Hamilton's Hindustan
30 Buckland. l, 287
3l The Administration oJ the Ittuer Prouinces oJ Bengal during Lt. Gouernor-
ship oJ Sir John Woodburn, Calcutta, 1903, p. 37
32 RAB, 1917'18, p. 77
33 lbid"., 1922-23, p. lO6
34 lbid.. I9r7-lB, p. lO0
35 ORBLC, 1940, p. 964
36 Hobson Jobson, p. 336
37 RAB, 1922-23, p. 74
38 Htuter, op. cit., P. I32
39 RAB, 1922-23. p. 77
40 Hunter, op. ctt. p. lB7
4l Btrchanan,p. 38
42 RAB, 1922-23, p. 77
43 Hunter, op. ctt.. p. 132
44 Memorandum p. 23
45 Hunter, op. cit., p. lB7
46 lbid.: RAB, l9ll-12, p. 37
47 RAB, l9l4 15, p. 68
48 ORBlf, 1941, p. 247
49 RAB, 1922-23, p. 76
50 ORBIC, 1939, p. 9
5l RAI|, l9l4-15, p. 68
52 rbid.
53 ORBI,C, 1934, p.24
54 The Deslupngc, August 2, 1938,p.22
55 Hamilton's Hindustan, I, 169
56 Qt. Hunter, op.cit., p. 191
57 Hunter, op.cit., p. 192
58 ORBLC.1940, p. 609
59 The Deshapnya, 1939
60 Hunter, op. cit., p. 186-87
6I Memorandum p. 2O5
288 | A History of Chittagong

62 gt. Ibid.
63 Mernorandum, pp. 2O5-2Oo
64 lbid... p. 206
65 tbid.
66 ORBLC, 1939, p.73
67 C D G, B VoL. l92l-31, p. 23
68 Hunter, op. ctt., 186-87
69 ORBLC, 1941, pp 4O-4r
70 lbid., p. 4l
7I Hunter, op, cit., p. 127
72 lbtd., p. r29
73 Bucltanan,p. 23
7 4 tbid.

75 Hunter, op.cit., p. l2B

76 lbid., p. r29
77 lbid.. p. l9l
78 The Bangla Gazelte, 1929
79 RAB, l93O-31, p. l2O
80 Menrorandun, pp. 213-215
8l RAB. l9l4-15. p. 78
82 Hunter, op. cil., p. 223
83 Census Report, l93l
84 The Anjali, 1938
85 Amar jiban, poet's autobiography, vol. I, PL. 2, p. 47O
86 ORBLC,1940, p.957
87 The PanchajanAo, Attt. Sp., 1936
BB The Panchajanya, Aut. Sp., 1936
Bg Tlre Satyabarta, 1344
90 The Panchqjanga, Aut. Sp. 1936
9l Hunter, op. ctt., p. l9l
92 lbid.
93 lbirl., pp. i92-93
94 Adrntrtstro,tion Report ort the port o,f Chtttagong' 1945-46
95 O'Malley, op.cit.,
96 lbi.d.
 Economic Condition I 2Bg

97 rbid
9B RAB, l9lI-12, p. 2O3
99 Ibid., l914-15, p. 58
loo Ibitl.. 19l3-14, pp. l3-14
lol Ibtd., rgl8-19, p. 58
r02 Ibid.. p. 6r
l03 Ibtd., 1924-25, p. 58
l04 Ibid., 1926-27, p. 143
105 Ibid., 1927-28.p. 143
106 ARPC. 1945-46
t07 rbtd.
r08 rbtd.
l09 RAB. 1911-12, p. 2O3
lto tbid.
lll ARPC, 1945-46
tt2 Hunter, op. cit., p. 129
l13 Ibtd. p. l9l
l14 Ibid., p. l9O
ll5 Ibid.
i

r16 Ibid.
tt7 Hamiltons Hindustan, I, 169
rl8 Hunter, op. cit., p. 132
ll9 Ibrd, p. l9l
r20 Ibid.
t2l I, 37
Firrninger,
122 MentorandurrL pp. l9-2O
t23 O'Malley, op.cit
124 Hunter, op. cit., p. 2O7
r25 The Deshapriga, 1938
t26 Hunter, op. cit.. p. 162
 Chapter L7
Social Change
Society during the latter part of the British period
experienced fundamental changes in the social order which
was quite different from the beliefs, customs and the way of life
of the people of previous period. This change was not abrupt but
a gradual process, which continued for decades.
The process of becoming westernized in thoughts and
language ushered a change in the social order. As early al
order as the beginning of the nineteenth century, English
language has found favour with the people of Chittagong.
Ramkinu Dutta (I8Ol-1894) was one of the earliest persons
who was able to speak English fluently with the English
officers. He not only could write English in amusing way but
also could compose poems in English. Krishna Chandra
Chowdhury (1844- lB94) was the first English knowing person
in the Buddhist society. He had great influence in the contem-
porary Buddhist society. The highly English educated persons
such as S. Nader Ali ( 1854- l93O) Abdus Satter, Shaikh Rafiuddin
Siddiqi played important role in the process of social change of
the Muslim society as early as the nineteenth century.
The spread of Bnglish educatioir and the establishment of
English educational institutions in growing number eve4rwhere
in the district brought about a western educated societ5r which
worked to adapt to modern societ5r.
Both the government and the humanitarians were very
much keen to estaLrlish educational institutions particularly
higher English institutions. In the later part of the nineteenth
century goverrlment provided help for the implementation of
free compulsory primary education.
Study in government colle$es, Aligarh University, Calcutta
 Social Change | 29L

University helped the growth of English educated elite among

the Muslim community.
Contact with European cultures, study of European
ideologr undoubtedly helped the liberalization of religious and
political beliefs. A number of educated people visited European
countries to be acquainted themselves with European culture,
education and method of living.
The ideas concerning human life and culture
advocated by western philosophers of the nineteenth century
were favourably responded to by the progressive section of the
society. Western political philosophies such as Liberalism,
Utilitarianism, Humanism not only became familiar to the
newly created elite class of the society but also greatly
influenced their ideologt.
The second half of the nineteenth century is an
important period of reforms in the social system. The Brahma
Samaj movement in the Hindu societ5r, the Deoband and Aligash
movements in the Muslim society and the Buddhist reform
movement under the leadership of Samgharaja brought drastic
social changes to each of the communities.
The Brahmas were liberals in religious view and supported
social reforms. Th"y professed freedom from the bondage of so-
cial and religious prejudices, conducted campaign against cr-
thodoxy and advocated for changes in the age old customs and
beliefs.
The latter period of the nineteenth century and the early
part of the twentieth century witnessed vigorous campaign
against social abuses and female bondage. Dr. Annada Charan
Khastagir and his Brahma associates acted as pioneers in war
against social abuses.
The benevolent activities of the philanthropists
imposed great value on the welfare of human being. The latter
part of the nineteenth century witnessed anti-slavery
movement throughout the British empire. Domestic slavery
292 | A History of Chittagong

which was common during the Mughal period, persisted down

to the early tsritish period. Mr. Goodwin the Collector of
Chittagong submitted on the lst September, 1774, a report on
the system of slavery prevalent in Chittagong. I Ultimately
government regulations abolished the practice of slavery.
Women of the progressive middle class society
became conscious of their rights. Women leaders like Mrs Nellie
Sengupta delivered speeches in political meetings. The pro-
gressive section of the womenfolk participated in the struggle
for independence and courted arrest. Educated women entered
into a professional career particularly teaching.
The establishment of hospitals and charitable
dispensaries provided modern methods of medical care for the
people. Medical officers were appointed to deal with public health
and medical professionals who received the highest university
degree provided western method of medical treatment for cur-
ing illness.
Application of scientific knowledge and technological
progress in the method of production, transport and manage-
ment of trade and commerce completely changed the life style
of the society. Even the poor a$riculturist tried to acquire
knowledge in advanced type of cultivation and marketing of
agricultural products.
The introduction of steamship, automobile, railway,
airplane has revolutioni::ed the transport system. Telegraph,
telephone and other nrethods of communication brought
welcome changes in the daily life of the people.
EstaOtishment of banks and insurance companies brought
a drastic change in the money market. These companies
extended ecr -romic benelit to all sections of the society.
The emergence of rniddle class society during the later
part of the British rule was an important feature of the social
syst;:m. The educated middle class group took the leadership
iq lmost every spilere of social system. The western educa-
 Social Change | 293

tion and the changed social behaviour furnished the ability and
the qualities of good leadership needed to lead the society. The
transformation of leadership from the upperclass to
the middleclass was an important aspect of new social system.
In the early part of the twentieth century a number of
political partics came into being and the educated class of all
societies took an active part in political organizations espe-
cially political parties. The ideologies of the parby were expressed
in the party meetings and in the publication of parby bulletins.
Political activities were apparent in the election system
which greatly helped the democratization of political behaviour
of the people.
Newspapers and periodicals played a major role in
influencing people's opinions. Newspapers supplied reports on
national and international events to the readers. Newspapers
made the people aware of important social and political issues.
Periodicals published useful and interesting articles which
encouraged liking for the composition of literary works.
Freedom spirit engendered freedom fnovement. Even the
common people participated in the successive stages of the
Independence movement which brought a fundamental change
in the attitude of the people towards government.
The spread of communism and socialism brought an
important change to the political ideas of the people. The
revolutionary literature published in large number developed
political thinking among the masses.
The transformation of society is evident in social
behaviour, dress and manners, political and economic
activities.
The government service holder and the intelligentsia
preferred European dress. Upperclass male folk began to wear
coat stiffened with button.
The latter half of the lgth century and the first half of the
twentieth century witnessed religious toleration and mutual
294 I A History of Chittagong

appreciation of different religious groups. Bnlightened section

of one society showed respect to other people's religious views
and opinions.
Membership in the Chittagong Theosophical Society,
Chattagram Dharmamandali, Muslim Literary Society was open
to all sects. The meetings were attended by all sections of
society. This trend facilitated social harmony between religious
groups.
The Brahmas constituted the largest number of member-
ship of the Theosophical Society. A section of enlightened
Muslims joined this society. Mohammad Abdul Monaem, one of
the leading Muslim writers and journalists was an active
member of this society. The title Sahitya Visharad was respect-
fully awarded to Maulvi Abdul Karim by Chattagram
Dharmamandali for his great contribution to the restoration of
Bengali puthis.
Throughout the first half of the twentieth century
different types of socio religious conferences and public meet-
ings were held periodically or occasionally. Social problems were
consulted in these gatherings and resolutions were adopted,
many of which were related to the development of the existing
society. Opinions expressed in these gatherings inspired the
people to do works for the betterment of society. Literary
conferences were organized to promote literary pursuits and
intellectual growth.
The rapid urbanization of Chittagong city gave way to the
modernizahion of social life. The contact with city life developed
modem ways of living in the rural areas.
During the closin$ years of the British rule Chittagong
definitely entered into modern system of social order.

Note :
I Menrcrandum, p. 223
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 TRIPURA

A MAP OF CHITTAGONG
N OAKHAL I

lnternational Boundary
Dislricl Boundary ...
Thana Boundary ...
Roads&Highways ..
Railway

Chittagong S.M.A.
1. Chanagaon
2. Panchlaish
3. Pahartali
4. DoubleMoorings
5. Bandar
f
f
-{
F
c)
r-l
'\a

BAY OF BENGAL

BANGLADESH

BURMA

St. Marlin's islands i

r1