A155204 PDF

ECAC-CR-83-200 Cy.
DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE
Q• Electromagnetic Compatibility Analysis Center
Annapolis, Maryland 21402
FIELD ANTENNA HANDBOOK
¶ Pieparad for
Joint Chiefs of Staff
JUNE 1984
CONSULTING REPORT
Prepared by
James A. Kuch
tiT Research histitute

tinder Contract to
Department of Defense
Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.
ECAC LIBRARY
You are persoiw,•IU Fc'-oat~tu.e tot this
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ECAC-CR-83-200
This report was prepared by the IXT Research Institute as part of AF

Project 649E under Contract F-19628-80-C-0042 with the Electronic Systems
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II. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
13 KEY WORDS (CoAItimm an to~** aOd. Ito%***w.and 14it Ay blok kMi&
ANTENNAS
HIGH FREQUENCY
PROPAGATION
VERY HIGH FREQUNCY
10 ASSTRACT (C~tinua .t N aide If A4ceseeld ttqr by Stack
This handbook presents basic propagation theory, the fundamentals

concerning antennas, and the design and use of tactical hiqh frequency and
very high fvtquency antennas. It is a field reference for basic antenna facts
* and a usage guide for antennas.
DD JAO t 1413 9OiTIOM OF INOV &S ISOBSOLETE
SECURITY CLASIIFICATION Of ThIS PAGE (Ifto DOataEatek'd)
..................... •. -.
............................... •......
, . -, . -, °°° i. ".y- ~ .. r:.. .. .- -. ° -
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
INTRODUCTION .. . . ..... .......... . . . • • ..............
SECTTJN I
HF AND VHF PROPAGATION FUNDAMENTALS
HIGH FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS (2 TO 30 MHz)................... 3

"Ground-Wave Propagation 3
Sky-Wave Propagation ...................................... 4
VERY HIGH FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS (30 TO 88 MHz) .............. 8
SECTION II
ANTENNA FUNDAMENTALS
* WAVELENGTH AND FREQUENCY ..................................... 11

"RESONANCE ....... ...... 12
POLARIZATION........... * .....
* * 9******. ... * . .. * 13
•REFLECTIONS ........... 13
, - GAIN15
STAKE-OFF ANGLE ......... s*. 15
ij' PATTERNS ......................... . . . . .. . . .. . so...
. 16
*i SECTION III
HF ANTENNAS
* GENERAL .......................... . . . ......... 21

*-• DETERMINING ANTENNA GAIN .............. 24
"ANTENNA SELECTION PROCEDURE ....................... 2.
Selection Procedures .......................................... 25
"Example ..................... 25
,AS-2259/AS-2263 ................................................ 27
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
SECTION III (Continued)
Title Page
OE-85/OE-86 ............................................ •..... 29

* VERTICAL WHIP ........... •. ... ........ ... ............. ...... 31
S~HALF-wAVE DIPOLE.. ....... .•.......................... 35
INVERTED VEE................................................. 41
,* LONG WIRE ............................... 6
43........
A.INVERTEDSL2................... ..... ... 76
4...........
, SLOPING VEE ............................................... 49
i3SLOPING WIRE ........... 52
* VERTICAL HALF RHOMBIC5..... .......... ... . ................. ... 7
SECTION IV
E DVHF ANTENNAS
GEPAIER O
.N RKAL A.................... ................... . ......... 69
RC-292 ......................................................... 66
OE-254 ........................ .6......... . ... .... .... .. 8
AS-2236 ........... . *.. . . .. . . .. .... . .......... . . 70
AS-285.1 ........................................................ 72
VERTICAL HALF RLHOMBICiOE-303 ................................... 75
SECTION V
EXPEDIENT TECHNIQUES
REPAIR OF BROKEN ANTENNAS ................................ 79

INSULATORS ...................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
SUPPORTS ................- 4........... .. . ...................... 80
TERM
NATIG RE IST RS ............ t oo.... ............. . . . . .. 8
iv
_.4u
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

-. SECTION V (Continued)
Title Page
XPEDI ENT WIRE ..........

E~. 82
,...GROUNDING ....................... . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .
SECTION VI
" FOR MORE INFORMATION ................ 85
V/vi
a,'
INTRODUCTION
"Of all the variables affecting communications, the one

factor that the individual o-erator has the most control over is
the antenna and its use. By using the proper antenna, an
op -ator may change a marginal circuit into a reliable circuit.
This handbook presents basic propagation theory, the fundamentals
*• of antennas, and the design and use of tactical high frequency
and very high frequency antennas. A working knowledge of this
"handbook will allow the operator to properly select and employ
individual antennas to provide the strongest possible signal at
the receiving station of his circuit. This handbook is not
intended to be a technical handbook on antennas, but is intended
to be a field reference for basic antenna facts and a usage guide
for antennas.
Sections I and II present information which should be

unuerstood by radio operators, however, this handbook can be used
without thorough knowledge of those sections. Section IIA
contains HF antenna selection procedures and describes the more
common tactical HF antennas. Section IV does the same for VHF
antennas. Section V presents info>rmation on making antennas
using field available materials. Section VI lists publications
available from the different services that give detailed
information on piopagation and antennas.
1/2
SECTION I
HF AND VHF PROPAGATION FUNDAMENTALS
Propagation is the process by which a radio signal travels

through the atmosphere from one antenna to another. This section
briefly describes the propagation factors that need to be known
to better understand the antenna information presented in the
following sections. This section is divided into two major
parts, high frequency (HF) propagation and very high frequency
(VHF) propagation. Each part can stand alone so that the radio
operator interested in only HF or VHF communications can go
directly to that part.
HIGH FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS (2 TO 30 MHz)
High frequency communications is accomplished by either

ground-wave or sky-wave propagation. With current low-powered
man-pack radios, ground-wave communications can be established
out to 20 to 30 kilometers (kin). High powered equipment (mounted
in jeeps and vans) can extend that range to approximately 80 to
100 km. The coverage from sky-wave communications, on the other
hand, can vary from several kilometers to thousands of
kilometers.
Ground-Wave Propagation
Ground-wave propagation involves the transmission of a radio

signal along or near the surface of the earth. The ground-wave
signal is divided into three parts: the direct wave, the
reflected wave, and the surface wave.
The direct wave travels through the atmosphere from one

antenna to the other in what is called the line-of-sight (LOS)
mode. Maximum LOS distance is dependent on the height of an
antenna above the ground; the higher the antenna the further the
maximum LOS distance. Because the radio signal travels in air,
any obsttuctions, such as a mountain, between the two antennas
can block or reduce the signal and prevent communications. For
an antenna 10 feet above the earth, a maximum LOS distance of
about 6.5 to 8 km (4 to 5 miles) can be expected.
The reflected wave, like the direct wave, travels through

the atmosphere but reflects off the earth in going from the
transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. Together, the
reflected wave and the direct wave are called the space wave.
3
St•PACE WAVE
STR~iMUMMATE DI CECT WAVE RCIE
"SURFACE WAVE ALONG SURFACE
Components of ground wave.
"The third part of a ground wave is the surface wave. This

part travels along the surface of the earth and is the usual
means of ground-wave communication. The surface wave is very
dependent on the type of surface between the two antennas. With
a good conducting surface, such as sea water, long ground-wave
distances are possible. If there is a poor surface between the
"antennas, such as sand or frozen ground, the distance expected
for the surface wave is small. The surface wave range can also
be reduced by heavy vegetation or mountainous terrain.
Sky-Wave Propagation
Beyond the range covered by the ground-wave signal, HF

communications are possible through sky-wave propagation. Sky-
wave propagation is possible because of the bending of the radio
"signal by a region of the atmosphere called the ionosphere.
The ionosphere is an electrically charged (ionized) region

of the atmosphere that extends from about 60 km (37 miles) to
1000 k- (620 miles) above the earth's surface. The ionization
results from energy from the sun and causes radio signals to
return to earth. Although the ionosphere exists up to 1000 km,
the area important for HF communications io below about 500 km.
SThis area is divided up into four regions: D, E, F1, and F2.
The D region is closest to earth and only exists during the

daylight hours. It does not have the capability to bend a radio
signal back to earth but it does play an important role in HF
communications. The D region absorbs energy from t',e radio
signal passing through it thereby reducing the strength of
.received signals.
4
The E region, the next higher region, is present 24 hours a
day, although during night hou's it is much weaker thaii during
the doy. The E region is the rfirst region with enough charge to
bend radio signals. At times, parts of the E region become
highly charged and can either help or block out HF
communications. These highly charged areas are called Sporadic E
and occur most often during the summer.
Structur of60 thKM oahie

TheWost ipCrtn rein orH22ouuialn aete
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frequency. Each region of the ioraepher.. (E. Fl, F211 will have a
separate critical frequency. Foz a vertical angle, signals above
the highest critical frequency will pass thr.-ugh all ionospheric
rogions and on into outer space. Frequencies below the critical.
frequency of a region will be bent.. back to the earth by that
region; however, if the frequency is too low, the signal will be
absorbed by the D region. In order to have HF sky-wave
5
communications, a radio signal must be a high enough frequency to
T, pass through the D region but not too high a frequency so that it
does not pass through the reflecting region.
The angle at which a radio signal strikes the ionosphere

plays an important part in sky-wave communications. As mentioned
above, any frequency above the critical frequency will pass
* through the reflecting region. If the radio signal having a
frequency above the critical frequency was launched at an angle,
instead of straight up, the signal could be bent back to earth
instead of passing through the region. This can be compared to
skipping stones across a pond, If the stone was thrown straight
down at the water it would penetrate the surface. But if the
angle at which the stone is thrown is lowered, an angle will be
reached where, instead of going into the water, the stone will
skip across the pond. For every circuit there is an optimum
angle abnve the horizon, called take-off angle, that will produce
the strongest signal at the receiving station. This optimum
* take-off angle is used to select the appropriate antenna for a
specific circuit.
Although a radio signal is actually bent by the ionosphere,

the term reflection is commonly used to describe the turning back
of a radio signal by the ionosphere. Reflection will be used in
this handbook, even though bending is what actually occurs.
Because many antenna3 rmdiate energy at several angles, more

than one wave from the trananitter may reach the receiver. An
*• example is shown in the illustration.
Multiple transmission paths.
6
Two important things are shown in this illustration. First,
radio signals arrive at the receiver after being reflected from
different ionospheric regions; and second, the path may consist
of one or more reflections (hops) from the ionosphere. Any path
that consists of two hops or more also involves a reflection at
the ground somewhere between the stations.
Path 1 is at an angle such that the wave is partially bent

by both the E and the F1 regions but is reflected by the F2
region. It is reflected by the earth and again by the F2 region
before reaching the receiver. This path is referred to as a two-
hop F (2F) path.
Path 2, at a smaller angle, is bent by the E region, then

reflected by the F1 region. It is thus a one-hop F (OF) path.
Path 3 is at an angle small enough for E region

reflection. It is reflected from the ground and again by the E
region before reaching the receiver and thus is called a two-hop
E (2E) path.
Path 4 is reflected by the E region only once. hence it is a

one-hop E (IE) path.
Depending on the type of antennas used, signals can be

received from any or all of the different paths. Because each
pati covers a different distance, the signals arrive at the
receiver at different times. When two or more signals arrive at
the receiver from different .aths, they can interfere with each
other and cause what is called multipath interference. This type
of interference will produce echoes or motor boating on circuits
even though a receiver's S-meter shows a strong received signal.
Depending on the frequency, antennas, and other factors, an

area may exist between the longest ground-wave range and shortest
sky-wave range where no signal exists. This is called the skip
zone.
HF propagation involves much nore than what has been

presented here. For example, multiple frequencies are usually
needed to maintain sky-wave communications. As a minimun, two
frequencies, one for daytime aid one for nighttime are normally
required. N[uerous books and field manuals exist for those who
want to learn more. The references section of this handbook
7
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zone
influenced by four separate components that result in the

received signal: the direct ray, the reflected ray, the
refracted ray, and the diffracted ray.
The direct rý-y travels the straight line distance from the
trxknsmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. Because of the
curvature of the earth, the maximum distance between two antennas
* for a d-i~ect ray is determined by the height of the antennas
&bove ta~e earth. The higher the antannas, the longer the
e'ffect4ix'-- range.
TANSITINGA RECEIVING
TANSTTING, ANTENNA
7DIRECT WAVE R
Tr1ansmission of direct and reflected waves.
* 8
.4-
The reflected ray, like the direct ray, travels through the
atmosphere but reflects off the earth's surface in going from one
antenna to the other. The reflected ray may cause a troublesome
type of interference. The path traveled by the reflected ray is
"longer than that of the direct ray, therefore the reflected ray
arrives at the receiving antenna after the direct ray. If the
two rays are "in phaset t , they will reinforce each other producing
"a stronger signal. If they arrive "out of phase", one signal
will cancel the other resultii• in very pocr or nonexistent
communications. It is this cancelling effect that explains why,
"at times, no signal is received even though the transmitting
antenna is in sight. Moving the antennas either closer or
further from each other, or changing the height of one oZ the
antennas ahould result in a usable signal.
"REFRACTED RAY
TRANISMITTING RECEIVING
,.- "ANT ENNA ANTE NNA
"VHF refraction.
The refracted ray is what allows the line-of-sight distance

"for a radio signal to be greater than visual line of sight. The
"differences in the lower atmosphere cause the transmitted signal
to bend slightly back to earth. This bending permits the
refracted ray to travel further than the direct ray. The VHF-LOS
distance resulting from the refracted ray is shown in the
graph. This graph indicates the distance that VHF-TLOS exists for
a transmitting antenna on the ground and a receiving antenna at
"the height irdicated. The height of the receiving antenna goes
up to 1000 feet to allow the determination of VHF-LOS distance to
an aircraft.
The diffracted ray scatters around obstacles and permits

communications in the shadow region behind obstacles. Low
frequencies scatter (diffract) more than higher frequencies, so
it is not ancommon for a lower-frequency signal to diffract
across a hill top and result in reliable communications at a
receiver antenna located not far belom.Y the line of sight, while
"at the same time a signal of higher frequeucy will not be heard.
.. *o
w
10-L
Line ofsihtdstAclnils
LINE~R4 ANTENTDITACENAMIE
Lin ofsiHt difftancetion.m
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10
'T -. - - 1* -:- ,------ - -'
SECTION II
ANTENNA FUNDAMENTALS
1 be able to properly select antennas for a r-Ai: circuit,

To
certain antenna concepts need to be understood. This section
defines several basic terms and relationships which will help the
field radio operator select the best antenna for his circuit.
* . WAVELENGTH AND FREQUENCY
In radio frequency communications, there is a definite

"relationship between ant-nna length anad transmitter frequency
wavelength. This rclationship is important when constructing
antennas for i specific frequency or frequency range. The
wavelength of a radio signal iL the distance traveled in the time
it takes to complete one Zycle.
¾ I CYCLE
4- WAVELENGTH .
4"0
PEK\ /77
± "TIME OR DISTANCE
Radio wave terms.
Wavelength is usually repreteated by the Greek letter, A,

pronounced lambda. All radio signals travel at the speed of
light. The wavelength of a frequcncy is equal to the speed of
light divided by the frequency. To find the wavelength of 3 MHz:
-• ""Wave engt (•)300 ,000 ,ý000 M/s
Wavelength () - - i00
1.0000,000
meters or 328 feet
3.000.000 Hz
This means that in the time it takes to complete one cycle at 3

MHz, the signal travels 10) meters or 328 feet. This is the
distance the signal will travel through air; the distance in a
wire is slightly less and will be discussed in a later section.
.....................................
,.. '. .." ... ... ',. . "........'..'. " ." ''... .'. ,'....... ... '.'#'.-
j*."V...- ,• * - ,, ,.. . . '4 "• .', r ,.
- ", . , '..
RESONANCE
Antennas can be classified as either resonant or non-

. resonant depending on their design. In a resonant antenna,
almost all of the radio signal fed to the antenna is radiated.
If the antenna is fed with a frequency other than the one for
which it is resonant, much of the fed signal will be lost and
will not be radiated. A resonant antenna will effectively
radiate a radio signal for frequencies close to its design
frequency, usually only 2% above or below the design frequency.
In practice this means that if a resonant antenna is used for a
radio circuit, a separate antenna must be built for each
frequency to be used on the radio circuit. A non-resonant
antenna, on the other hand, will effectively radiate a broad
range of frequencies with lower efficiency. Both resonant and
non-resonant antennas are commonly used on tactical circuits.
If a resonant antenna is fed with a frequency outside of its

bandwidth (usually plus or minus 2% of the design frequency)
large losses of signal power occur. Signal energy from the
antenna feedline is "turned back" from the antenna and causes
standing waves on the feedline. A measure of these standing
waves, called standing wave ratio (SWR), is used to determine if
an antenna is resonant at a particular freouency. A SWR of 1 to
1 (1:1) is the ideal situation but in the real world 1.1 to 1 is
about the best that can be done. When constructing wire
antennas, the length of the antenna should be adjusted until the
lowest SWR is measured. A SWR of 2:1 is acceptable; however, the
*[ operator's manual for the particular radio in use should be
checked to determine the maximum SWR that the radio can
tolerate. In some radios, the power output of the transmitter
will be automatically lowered if the SWR is too high.
Suppose the situation exists where the only antenna that can
be erected is one with a large SWR, that is too large for the
transmitter to work. In this situation, a coupler or "antenna
tuner" must be used. A coupler is a device that is inserted
between a transmitter and its antenna to make a transmitter think
that it is connected to a low SWF antenna. The advantage is that
the transmitter can deliver its full power to the feed line even
though the SWR is high. The amount of power radiated by the
antenna depends on the location o.,17 the coupler. If the coupler
"is located at the transmitter, as it is with most tactical
equipment, a large loss of power will still exist at the
antenna. If the coupler is locatel at the antenna, a greater
* amount of power is radiated with less loss.
'--. *"~**~
12
"" ; . •~. ""... . . . . . . . % ,' .".,•% ". """%-•• - .' '' '% '- ' •'• -- • •
-* POLARIZATION
N Polarization is the relationship of the radio energy

radiated by an antenna to the earth. The most common
polarizations are horizontal (parallel to the earth's surface)
and vertical (perpendicular to the earth's surface), however
others, such as circular and elliptical, also exiet. A vertical
antenna normally radiates a vertically polarized signal and a
horizontal antenna normally radiates a horizontal signal. In HF
ground-wave and VHF-LOS propagation, both the transmit and
receive antennas should have the same polarization for best
communications. In the case of HF ground-wave propagation,
vertical polarization should be used. Either vertical or
horizontal polarization can be used in VHF-LOS. For HF sky-wave
propagation, the polarization of the transmitting and receiving
antennas does not have to be. the same because of the random
changing of the signal as it is bent by the ionosphere. This
"random changing allows the use of either vertical or horizontal
* polarization at the transmitting or receiving antenna.
REFLECTIONS
A quarter-wave vertical antenna requires a good ground

connection in order to be resonant. When a quarter-wave vertical
antenna has its base on the ground, the earth below the antenna
acts like a large reflector (or mirror) and supplies another
quarter wavelength. In effect, the quarter-wave vertical acts
like a half-wave antenna.
Mmyot~ WAVE
I ¥I
IIIIi
!°''3
13
-:77 T T
--- -77
_77777
If the electrical characteristics below the antenna are

poor, there will be large losses in the ground resulting in poor
radiation by the antenna. It is important to remember that a
quarter-wave vertical antenna needs a good ground below it to
work properly.
Ground screens and ground planes are used with vertical

antennas to improve their efficiency. (Efficiency of an antenna
is a measure of how well an antenna radiates the radio energy
delivered to it.) A ground screen consists of radial wires
roughly a quarter-wavelength long.
QUARTER WAVE
-"VERTICAL ANTENNA
GROUND RADIALS
4,
Quarter-wave vertical antenna with ground radials.
In HF communications, the ground screen is placed on the

ground with the center of the screen directly under the
antenna. This configuration would cause problems in VHF
_ _- communications where the antenna should be as high as possible to
obtain ma'zimum VHF-LOS range. The short length of a quarter-
wavelength at VHF (2.5 meters to 1 meter) allows the use of
tubing to form a ground-plane antenna. The lower elements of
this anto-na provide the ground required for the quarter-wave
vertical P,ýenna to work properly. With its artificial ground,
"the grCur .._plane antenna can be placed at any height and still
function properly. The tactical ground-plane antennas (RC-292,
OE-245) have their ground-plane elements dropped down at an
angle. This dropping of the ground plane causes the antenna to
radiate its radio signal at a low take-off angle beat for VHF-LOS
"propagation.
"14
4f
OUARTER WAVE
a.. • VERTICAL ANTENNA
-- 4
•-4'
•'L
GROUND
".4 RADIALS
'i00
SUPPORT
MAST
Ground-plane antenna.
- GAIN
Gain is the term used to describe how well an antenna

radiates power. It is necessary to know what the gain of an
antenna is being compared to before two antennas can be
compared. In some cases, an antenna is said to have gain
compared to an isotropic antenna and the gain is expressed in
dBi. An isotropic antenna is a theoretical mathematical
antenna. Other times, gain is referenced to a horizontal half-
wave dipole in free space whose gain over an isotropic antenna is
2.14 dBi. To determine the isotropic gain of an antenna whose
gain is given compared to a dipole, add 2.14 dB. For example, if
an antenna has a given gain of 2 dB compared to a dipole, its
gain compared to an isotropic antenna is 4.14 dBi. In this
* handbook, gains are always referenced to an isotropic antenna.
TAKE-OFF ANGLE
The take-off angle of an antenna is the angle above the

horizon that an antenna radiates the largest amount of energy.
For VHF communications, antennas are designed s0 that the energy
is radiated parallel to the earth (do not confuse take-off angle
and polarization!). In HF communications, the take-off angle of
15
MAIN ENERGY
FROM ANTENNA
ANTENNA
Antenna take-off angle.
an antenna can determine whether a circuit is successful or not.

HF sky-wave antennas are designed for specific take-off angles
depending on the circuit distance. High take-off angles are used
for short range communications and low take-off angles are used
for long range communications.
PATTERNS
Antenna patterns graphically show the radiation pattern for

a specific antenna. The solid pattern in the lower left of the
illustration is a representation of the radiation from a half-
wave dipole antenna in free space (free space means there Is
nothing near the antenna that can change or distort the
pattern). As can be seen, the solid pattern labled 1 is shaped
like a donut. If the donut is sliced in half on the horizontal
axis, the half donut labeled 2 would result. Plotting the half
donut on a polar graph results in the horizontal, or azimuthal
pattern, 3. This is the same as looking straight down at the
"radiation pattern. In this case the antenna radiates radio
energy equally in all directions. If the donut is sliced in half
vertically, the half donut labeled 4 results. Plotting this
gives the vertical pattern 5. This is the representation of the
vertical pattern of the antenna. The vertical pattern is labeled
"with the terms lobe and null. A lobe is an area indicating the
general direction of -radiation frorr an antenna. A null is an
N area of no radiation. In practical tactical antennas, there is
always a little radiation in all directions, so the term null is
used to indicate the areas of minimum radiation.
16
AZIMUTMAL
oft
-'"•ZONTAL
F TPATTERN
* I
SOL C VRT ICAL

PATTERN PILANt
Vertical and horizontal polar plots.
Antennas are classified according to how radio energy is

radiated: omnidirectional, bidirectional, or directional. An
"omnidirectional antenna radiates radio energy in a circular
pattern, that is, all directions on the ground receive an equal
amount of radiation. A bidirectional antenna has two main lobes
opposite each other with nulls between. A directional antenna
"has a single large lobe in one direction. Each of these antennas
will be discussed separately.
The most common omnidirectional antenna is the whip, with

others being the quarter-wave vertical (RC-292, OE-254) and the
crossed dipole (AS-2259). Radiating energy equally well in all
"compass directions, the omnidirectional antenna is used when it
is necessary to communicate in several separated directions at
once. Since the omnidirectional antenna radiates equally well in
all directions, it will also receive from all directions. For a
multiple point circuit this is desirable, however, it also allows
"interference from any direction to the received signal.
17
. oo
AXIS
*PqSR WPATR
Omnidirectional antenna pattern.
BidIrectional antennas produce a stronger signal in two

favored directions while reducing the signal in other
directions. Tactical bidirectional antennas are usually field
expedients like sloping wires, random length wires, and half-wave
*dipoles. Bidirectional antennas are usually used on point-to-
point circuiti and in situations where the antenna nulls can be
....................................
positioned to reduce or block out interfering signals when
receiving. They can also be used when many antennas are closely
located. By placing other antennab in the nulls of bidirectional
antennas, interference and interaction between the antennas can
*be reduced. A drawback of bidirectional antennas is that they
have to be oriented correctly to radiate in the desired
directions.
Bidirectional antenna pattern.
18
a;b•
%, -• - • . • .. . . - . . .. 0 , . o o .. . .• .. .-. ,. •.... o • ... . ... . .. . . . . . . . . .
I
I
SA directional antenna is much llke a bldlrecrlonal antenn•

•' with one of its lobes cut off. In fact. several bidirectional
,•i antennas (long wire, sloping Vee) are made directional by •he
," addition of a termination that absorbs the second main lobe, A
"" termination is a resistor that match•s the antenna and is capable
•" of absorbing one-half the power output of the connected
la transmitter.
• - >,
- w p
Directional antenna pattern.
A directional antenna •oncentrates almost all the radio

signal in one specific direction, therefore, it must be carefully
oriented. Depending
antenna can
on cover
the antenna
60= or more,
design,or the
be amain
narrow
lobeoencll
ofdirectional
beam. Directional antennas are usually used on long-range -oint-

to-point circuits where the concentrated radio energy is needed
. for circuit reliabilJcy.
.. It is important to realize that the azimuthal pattern of an

- antenna does not determine the take-off angle of the antenna.
Ii Depending on design, an omnidlrect•onal antenna mav have a low
take-off angle or a high take-off angle. Vertical patterns must

he examined to determine the take-off angles of particular
1
antennas in the HF range. VHF antennas can be selected usinp.
• only the azimuthal pattern because these antennas are all
'-...-• designed to be used for VI{•-LOS propagatlon.
" 19120
%'
SECTION III
HF ANTENNAS
GENERAL
How important is the antenna in a radio circuit? Suppose an

*- AN/TSC-15 with its component 32-foot whip was set up on a 200-
"" mile circuit. With the radiation characteristics of the whip
antenna, the radiated power of the transmitter/whip could be 300
watts for the take-off angle required for a 200-mile circuit. If
a half-wave horizontal dipole at a height of 35 feet were used
instead of the whip, the radiated power would be 5000 watts. By
using the dipole instead of the whip, the radiated power was
increased more than 16 times. Obviously a circuit with
5000 watts radiated power will produce a better signal than a
300-watt circuit using the same frequency.
In selecting an antenna for a HF circuit, the first thing to

be looked at is the type of propagation. Ground-wave propagation
requires low take-off angle and vertically polarized antennas.
The whip antenna that comes with all radio sets provides good
omnidirectional ground-wave radiation. If a directional antenna
is needed, select a directional antenna with good low angle
vertical radiation.
Sky-wave propagation makes the selection of an antenna more

complex. The first step is to find the distance of the circuit
so that the required take-off angle can be determined. The take-
off angle vs. distance tables gives approximate take-off angles
for daytime and nighttime sky-wave propagation. Suppose the
circuit distance is 966 I1-/600 miles. During daytime, the
required take-off angle would be approximately ?ST w•ile at night
it would be 400. Therefore, an antenna that has high gain from
250 to 40* should be selected for the circuit. If propagation
predictions are available, this step can be skipped since the
predictions will probably give the take-off angles required.
The next decision is what type of: coverage is reautred. If

the radio circuit consists of mobile (vehicular) stations or many
stations at different directions from the transmitter, an
omnidirectional antenna is required. If the circuit is point to
point, either a bidirectional or directional antenna can be
used. Normally the receiving station locations dictate this
choice.
Before a definite antenna can be selected, the materials

available for antenna construction need to be examined. If a
"21
•.•.; •. .;.
%•. ,.. :. ; ;• . . , .• . •. . r. -r" r'---, C-: -• - - -: ,- VL:-- , .,. . .
TAKE-OFF ANGLE VS. DISTANCE
Distance
Take-Off
Angle F2 Region F2 Region
(Degrees) Day Time Night Time
km mi km mi
0 3220 2000 4508 2800
5 2415 1500 3703 2300
10 1932 1200 2898 1800
15 1450 900 2254 1400
"20 1127 700 1771 1100
25 966 600 1610 1000
30 725 450 1328 825
35 644 400 1127 700
40 564 350 966 600
45 443 275 805 500
50 403 250 685 425
60 258 160 443 275
70 153 95 290 180
80 80 50 145 90
90 0 0 0 0
"horizontal dipole is to be erected, at least two supports are

needed (a third support in the middle is required for freouencies
of 5 MHz or less). If these supports are not available and there
are no other items that can be used as supports, the dipole
cannot be put up and another antenna should be selected. The
physical site of the antenna should be looked at to determine if
the proposed antenna will fit. If the site is -oo small. a
different antenna needs to be selected.
"Another consideration is the site itself. More times than

not, the tactical situation determ.ines the position of the
communications antennas. The ideal setting would be a clear flat
area with no trees, buildings, fences, power lines, or
mountains. Unfortunately. such an ideal location is seldon
available for the tactical communicator. In picking an antenna
site, choose an area as flat and as clear as possible. If
obstructions are around the proposed site, try to maintain the
horizontal distance as listed in the below table. Again. this is
for the ideal case and in many situations an antenna must be put
up in far less than ideal sites. This does not mean that the
antenna will not work, but that the site will affect the patter•i
and functioning of the antenna.
22
] 'i, .7 $' *
Antenna Take Off Angle Required Horizontal Distance from Treesa
00 18 km
50 1932 meters
100 966
150 644
200 483
250 370
300 298
350 241
400 201
450 169
500 w45
600 105
700 64
800 32
o90 0
aAssuming a 30-foot high antenna and 75-foot high trees.
Once the antenna has been selected, a way to feed the power
from the radio to the antenna has to be selected. Most tactical
antennas are fed with coaxial cable (RG-213). Coax is a
reasonable compromise between efficiency, convenience, and
durability. Issued antennas come complete with the necessary
connections to connect directly to a radio or to coaxial cable
which connects to a radio. Problems may arise in connecting
PLASTIC COVERING INSULATING SPACERS
BORAID WR
INSULATION
S OPEN WIRE
CENTER CONDUCTOR
SHIELDED LINE (COAX)

Antenna feed lines.
23
* field expedient antennas. The horizontal half-wave dipole should
"be fed with balanced transmission line (open-wire). Coaxial
cable can be used but may cause unwanted RF currents on the
coaxial cable. To prevent the unwanted RF current flow, which
can cause a radio to be "hot" and shock an operator, a device
called a balun is used. The balun is installed at the dipole
feed point (center) and prevents unwanted RF current flow on the
•coaxial
* cable. If a balun is not available, the coaxial cable
used to feed the antenna can be used cs a choke to prevent
unwanted RF current flow. The center wire of the cable is
connected to one leg of the dipole with the cable braid connected
to the other antenna leg. The coaxial cable is then formed into
a 6-inch coil consisting of ten tr.rns of cable and is taped to
"the antenna under the insulator for support.
10 6-onch TURNS TAPED TO INSULATOR
TO TRANSMITTER
Coax RF current choke.
-aluns are
also used to change the impedance of coaxial
"cable to match an antenna. '.G-213 cable has a characteristic
impedance of 52 ohms. If it were connected directly to an
antenna that has an impedance of 600 ohms, large losses would
"exist. A balun changes the impedance of the cable to match the
antenna which allows all the radio energy to pass into the
antenna.
DETERMINING ANTENNA GAIN
The gain of an antenna at a specific take-off angle can be

"determined from its vertical radiation pattern. Look at the
"vertical antenna pattern for the 32-foot vertical whip (bottom
page 33). The numbers along the outer ring (90*, R80, 700, etc.)
represent the angle above the earth; 900 would be straight up and
.0 would be a!ong the ground. Along the bottom of the pattern
are numbers from -10 (at the center) to +15 (at the edges).
These numbers represent the gain in dBi. Each pattern shows the
gain of an antenna for three frequencies (normally 3, 9, and 18
MH z). To find the gain of an antenna at a particular frequency
and take-off angle, locate the desired take-off angle on the
plot. Follow that line towards the center of the plot until the
'.**
24
".i
pattern of the desired frequency is reached. Drop down and read

--- ' the gain from the bottom scale. For example, if the gain of a
32-foot vertical whip at 9 MHz and 200 take-off angle were
desired, first locate 20* along the outer scale. Follow this
line until the 9-MHz pattern (dashed line) is reached. Moving
down to the bottom scale, the gain would be a little less than 2
1/2 dBi (the line between 0 and 5 dBi). In this case the gain of
a 32-foot vertical whip at 9 MHz and 20* would be 2 dBi.
Once the overall characteristics of an antenna are

determined, the antenna selection matrix can be used to find the
* specific antenna for a circuit. Suppose the proposed circuit
required a short range omnidirectional wide-band antenna. From
the selection matrix, the only antenna that meets all the
"criteria is the AS-2259.
ANTENNA SELECTION PROCEDURE
-'" Selection Frocedures
HF sky-wave antenna selection is comprised of the following

steps:
* Determine the range
* Determine type of coverage: omnidirectional, bidirec-

tional, or directional
• Determine materials available for antenna construction

Use HF Antenna Selection Matrix to find antennas that meet
the above requirements
0 Look up individual antennas to determine gain at required
take-off angle and frequency. NOTE: The gain of the
antennas is used to select the optimum antenna. Any of
the antennas that meet the requirements (type of coverage,
range, etc.) could be used.
* Select antenna that has highest gain at the required take-

off angle that can be erected in the available site with
the av3ilable materials
Example
If the circuit required a medium ranthe directional antenna,

four antennas could be used, OE-85/0, long wire, sloping vee, or
vertical half rhombic. The croice between these antennas is
25
C6317256
based on the amount of space available for installation, the
components available, and, probably most important, which antenna
has the highest gain at the needed take-off angles. If the
required take-off angle in this case is 25*, the frequency 9 MHz,
the OE-85/86 or the 1000-ft vertical half rhombic would be the
best choices because they provide the highest gain at the
required take-off angle.
HF ANTENNA SELECTION MATRIX
Use Directivity Polarization Bandwidth
Skywave
%
'44)
= 2:
"'"~ O
0' 0 O 0
0' e
0 0 0c
4) > n0 0 j)
"- - 94
4.2 -4
M o oi 0 0
•oo.4
00 U 4 V
0 - C
l!~~ ~~ 2 -1
0E816
__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _> _ _ _
Inete
ee4 0 (N I X
0 4 X
* AS-2259/AS-2268 27 X X X
OE-85186 29 X X X X X
Wir 'on 43 X4 -
Vertical Whip 31 X x
X x
Half Wave Dipole 35 X X X X X
lInverted Vee 41 X X X X X X X
'Long Wire 43 X X X X X X X
Inverted L 46 X X X X X X X X
Sloping Vee 49 X X X X X
Sloping Wire 52 X X X X X
~Vertical Half Rh~ombic 57 X X X X X jx
a The page number on the 11F Antenna Selection Matrix shows where
additional information concerning that antenna is located.
b The vertical whip can be made directive by lacing another
"vertical wire near it. See page 34 for detailsp
26
AS-2259 /AS-2268
The AS-2259/AS-2268 antenna is designed to provide near

vetialincident sk-ae(VS rpgto for short range
radio circuits. The sole difference between the AS-2259 and the
AS-2268 is that the AS-2268 includes a whip adapter kit
(MX-9313). This antenna consists of two crossed sloping dipoles
positioned at right angles to each other and supported at the
center by a 15-foot mast. In use, the dipole elements provide
*' guying support for the mast.
Characteristics
Frequency Range 3 to 30 MHz

Polarization Horizontal and Vertical Simultaneously
Power Capability 1000 watts
Radiation Pattern
Azimuthal (bearing) Omnidirectional
Vertical
(Take-off angle) See plot
Erection Time 2 persons in five minutes
Weight 14.7 lbs.
Installed Area 60 ft X 60 ft
.4
AS-2259 antenna.
"27
. * . . . . . . S• . °.. . * o*, . . *• . , o o ,*• -* o -. b b

Take-of f angle
-i IH
AS-2259
4..
.... . . . dBi
-.' -,.****.- - .
AS-2259 vertical radiation pattern.
28
OE-85/OE-86
The OE-85/OE-86's are horizontal log periodic antennas

supplied as components of the AN/TSC-60 Communications Central.
The OE-85 is rated at 3 kW and the OE-86 at 10 kW, otherwise the
antennas are basically the same. This antenna provides a medium
to long range directional capability to the AN/TSC-60.
Characteristics
Polarization Horizontal
"Power Capability OE-85 3 kW
OE-86 10 kW
Radiation Pattern
Azimuthal (beams) 2 to 4 MHz: basically omnidirectional
4 to 30 MHz: directional (350 either
side of radition)
"Vertical
(Take-off angle) See plot
"Erection Time 5 persons in one hour
"Weight 1270 lbs.
Installed Area
Width 310 ft
Length 200 ft
- ,- - -.----
'•" •~~~~~-
"-•- "4"'-- • • \ \ '
Maximum ',
Radiation
OE-85/86 antenna.
29
•.-"•a.2.
. '- . .-*",'i
." " " " " "' " " : • - *.: i . • '- _ ' - . • -
Take-off angle
i 10 5 0 "--5, -5 0 5, I 15
__- 4 UHi
12MHz
--" " "........... iizdBi dtO
OE-85/86 vertical radiation pattern.
30
. -I • • . . • . -° •. - . . . • ,• , + • - . . . - ° . % - . - - . - . - • - ° - . + • ° • • -
VERTICAL WHIP
The vertical whip is a component of all radio sets. Because

it is available and easy to use, it is used on almost all radio
circuits; however, it is probably the WORST antenna that can be
used on sky-wave circuits. Unless the-radio circuit involves
omnidirectional ground-wave propagation, just about any other
antenna would provide better communications. For example,
vertical whips are often used for long range point-to-point
circuits with marginal success. Since the circuit is point to
point, there is no reason to be radiating energy in all
directions; radiation in directions other than at the distant
station is wasted and serves no -.sefu'. purpose. If that
" omnidirectional radiation were concent• ated at the distant
station, not only would the received signal be better, but
interference around the transmitting antenna would be reduced.
Concentrating radiation in a single direction can be done with a
directional antenna.
* If a vertical whip must be used on a circuit, there are

several techniques that may improve the antenna. The radio (if
the antenna is mounted directly to the radio) or the antenna base
plate (if the antenna is remoted from the radio) must be
grounded, preferably through a six-foot ground rod. Ground
radials (wires spread out like spokes of a wheel with the antenna
at the center) may improve the antenna radiation. These radials
should be connected to be ground rod directly beneath the
antenna.
A ground radial sy3tem can be easily constructed from field

telephone wire (WD1/TT) and can be kept with the radio. The
field wire is cut into twenty 45-foot lengths, and six inches of
insulation are removed from one end. The ends of wire without
insulation are bundled together with twine or a clamp. A 2-foot
length of thick wire (the braid from RG-213 works well) is
attached to the bare ends of the field wire so that the thick
wire excends about one foot from the wire bundle. The wire
bundle is then soldered to ensure gcod electrical contact. In
use, the thick wire extending from the bundle is used to connect
the radials to a ground rod. The radials are then spread out
like spokes on a wheel with the vertical whip at the center. As
is the case when using any ground radial system, communications
should be tried both with and without the radials, and then
continued with whichever provided the better communications.
31
........... "*
"Characteristics

Polarization Vertical
Power Capability Matched to specific radio
Radiation Pattern
Azimuthal (bearing) Omnidirectional
Vertical
(Take-off angle) See plots
Take-off angle
10'
I0 • ""•
0 "5 Wt - 0 5 to 15
dBi
... ...
......... 18WI I
Ten-foot vertical whip vertical antenna pattern.
32
*4
Take-off angle
01
, t0 5 0 -5 -10 -5 0 S 10 15
---- 9MHz dBi
Fifteen-foot vertical whip vertical antenna pattern.
Take-off angle
............ 8M
C 5
1 0 .5 -5 0 5 s0 L5
dBi
Thirty-two-foot vertical whip vertical antenna pattern.
33
A reflector placed approximately one-quarter wavelength
behind a vertical whip may also improve the performance of a
whip. A reflector is a vertical wire or metallic pole (or
another whip) that is insulated from the ground. It is placed so
that the reflector, the whip, and the distant station are on a
straight line. The reflector will reflect radio energy striking
it and cause the energy to travel toward the distant station,
thereby increasing the total energy radiated in the desired
direction. To work properly, the reflector must be longer than
the whip. If the reflector is shorter, it will act as a director
and cause the radio signal to be directed away from the distant
station. Remember: a reflector is longer and is placed behind
the whip; a director is shorter and is placed between the whip
and the distant station. The position of the reflector should be
"adjusted while listening to the distant station until the
strongest signal is received.
"A. 4 DSTANT STATION
"RF LECTOR
WHIP COMNECTED
TO RA4O4
Vertical whip with reflector.
S-S
34
I,,
HALF-WAVE DIPOLE
"The horizontal half-wave dipole antenna, or doublet, is used

on short- and medium-length sky-wave paths (up to approximately
1200 miles). Since it is relatively easy to design and
* construct, the doublet is the most often used field expedient
wire antenna. It is a very versatile antenna in that by
adjusting the antenna's height above ground, the maximum gain can
vary from medium take-off angles (for medium path-length
circuits) to high take-off angles (for short path-length
circuits). When the antenna is constructed for medium take-off
angle gain (a height of approximately one-half wavelength), the
doublet is a bidirectional antenna, that s, the maximum gain is
at right angles to the wire. This is cne "broadside" pattern
normally associated with a half-wave dipole antenna. The
• illustration shows this pattern in polar plot format, A.
AB
CD
Illustrative doublet antenna patterns.
35
1, .*~ *.*.J. .- ..
.4
The radiation off the ends of the wire is shown in B. It is

easily seen by comparing A and B that for maximum gain, a doublet
one-half wavelength above ground should be constructed so that
the side of the antenna points in the direction of the distant
station. If the antenna were lowered to only one-quarter
wavelength above ground, the pattern in C results. This lower
antenna height produces maximum gain at high take-off angles. As
can be seen in D, the radiation off the ends cf the doublet also
has maximum gain at high take-off angles. This means that for
short path-length circuits, which require high take-off angles, a
doublet antenna one-quarter wavelength above ground produces
almost omnidirectional coverage.
The vertical plots included for half-wave dipole antennas

are given for heights from 8 to 16 meters. In looking at the
"plot for 8 meters, it can be seen that for 3 and 9 MHz the
antenna has high-angle rad*-'.ation since at those frequencies the
"antenna is close to ground (compared to a half wavelength). The
pattern for 18 MHz shows the characteristic bidirectional pattern
15L.ce 8 meters is a half wave at 18 MHz.
The half-wave dipole is a balanced resonant antenna. This

means that it will produce its maximum gain for a very narrow
range of frequenciea, normally 2% above and below the design
frequency. Since frequency assignments are normally several
megahertz apart, it is necessary to construct a separate dipole
for each frequency assigned. If space and other resources do not
exist to erect separate dipoles, three or four dipoles can be
combined to occupy the space normally required for one.
"" i/~hTTI/JlIIll uavuII Ji'l i~ll /ifi111/i//Iifl'II/III/111J
Hultifrequency doublet.
36
Each wire is a half-wavelength for an assigned frequency.
All the separate dipoles are connected to the same center
, insulator, cr preferably a balun, and ate fed by a single coaxial
cable. 'Then the antenna is fed with an assigned frequency, the
doublet cut for that frequency will radiate the energy. Up to
four separate dipoles can be combined in this manner. When
constructing this antenna, the individual frequency assignments
should be examined to determine if one frequency is three times
as large as another. If this relationship exists between two
frequencies, one dipole cut in length for the lower of the two
fiequencies will work well for both frequencies.
The length of a half-wave dipole is calculated from the

"following relationship
Dipole length -- M ) meters or
468
f (•MHz) feet
The height of a half-wave dipole is figured using:
75 246
Height: X/4 r ( meters or Tf(•Z) feet
150 492
Height: X/2 meters orf (M feet
Remember
* to use the right relationship for the right purpose. If
the height relationship is used for the dipole length, the
antenna would be too long and would not work properly.
Characteristics
Frequency Range ± 2% of design frequency

Radiation Pattern
Azimuthul (Bearing) Bidirectional if X/2 high
basically omnidirectional at )/4 high
Vertical
37
*2''.
INSULATOR ,INSULATOR
p4
BALUN
HEIGHT
COAX TO TRANSMITTER
Half-wave dipole antenna.
"Take-off angle
! P
tO 5 0 -5 -10 0-t0
dBi
- Hlalf-wave dipole antenna vertical pattern, height 8 meters.
38
Take-off angle
~600
°.9 K 500,
"at
"15 I0 5 0 -5 -10 5 0 5 10 Is
..3MHZ dB i
9MHz
† † †......... 18MHz
"Half-wave dipole antenna vertical pattern, height 10 meters.

Take-off angle
S5 0 0
"" $0 5 0 - -0 -0 0 5 to I5
, ... - 3MHz
"-..9Mz dBi
.. . I8U14
Half-wave dipole antenna vertical pattern, height 12 mecers.
39
.1
Take-off angle
5 5 -5 10 5 0 5 10 15
3MHz
----9MHz dBi
. .... ..... 18MHZ
Half-wave dipole antenna vertical pattern, height 14 meters.

Take-off angle
0 0 0 -1 -to -5 0 5 to 15
9MHZ dBi
Half-wave dipole antenna vertical pattern, height 16 meters.
40
-k
- -!t:
INVERTED VEE
The inverted vee, or drooping dipole, is similar to a dipole

but uses only a single center support. Like a dipole, it is
designed and cut for a specific frequency and has a bandwidth of
± 2% of design frequency. Because of the inclined sides, the
inverted vee antenna produces a combination of horizontal and
vertical radiation; vertical off the ends and horizontal
broadside to the antenna. All the construction factors for a
dipole also apply for the inverted vee. The inverted vee has
less gain than a dipole but the use of only a single support
could make this antenna the preferred antenna in some tactical
situations.
Characteristics
Frequency Range + 2% of design frequency

Polarization Vertical off the ends
Horizontal broadside
Radiation Pattern
Azimuthal (Beaming) Basically omnidirectional with
• V c combination polarization
Vertical
(Take-off angles) See plots
NON- METALLIC
SUPPORT
,•,_,
L
,
HEIHT 50 F.
TO TRANSMITTER
Inverted vee antenna.
41
. .. . . 4..
Take-off angle
N.*
'00
i4 ~ 4. . %. S
* 4 . * 4
-3MH1
-- dBi
............
tamh
Inverted vee antenna vertical pattern.
42
.'"f
LONG WIRE
A long-wire antenna is one that is long compardi to a

wavelength. A minimum length is one-half wavelength, niowever,
"antennas that are at least several wavelengths long are needed to
obtain good gain and directional characteristicr The
construction of long-wire antennas is simple and straight
" forward, and there are no especially critical dimension3 or
adjustments. A long-wire antenna will accept power and radiate
• it well on any frequency for which its overall length is not less
than one-half wavelength.
D9
. . .
23 4 56 78 9
WAVELENGTHS
Gain of a long-wire antenna as determined by lengzth.
'ft 43
The gain and take-off angle of a long-wire antenna are
"dependent on the antenna's length. The longer the antenna, the
more gain and the lower the take-off angle. Gain has a simple
relationship to length; however, take-off angle is a bit more
complicated. A long-wire antenna radiates a cone of energy
around the wire, much like a funnel with the antenna wire passing
through the funnel opening. The narrow part of the funnel would
be the feed point and the open part would be towards the distant
station. If the funnel were cut in half, the resulting half cone
would represent the pattern of the antenna. As the antenna is
made longer, the cone of radiation (funnel) would move closer and
closer to the wire itself. The below patterns show how the
pattern changes as the wire becomes longer. The patterns
represent what would be seen looking up from directly underneath
Long-wire antenna radiation patterns.

the antenna. Looking at the three-wavelength pattern (3 X), it
can be seen that for very low-angle radiation, the wire would
have to be positioned somewhat away from the direction of the
distant station so that the main lobe of radiation is pointed at
the receiving station. If a high&r take-off angle were required
for communications, the wire could be pointed directly at the
distant station. Different antenna lengths produce different
take-off angles so that the range of take-off angles as well as
the desired gain must be considered when determining a loni-wire
antenna's length. For take-off angles from 50 to 25 the
following general off-axis angles will provide satisfactory
radiation toward the distant station.
Wire Length (X)

• .2 3 4 5 6
Off-Axis Angle 30 20 13 10 10
A long-wire antenna can be made directional by placing a

terminating device at- the distant station end of the antenna.
The terminating device should be a 600-ohm noninductive resistor
capable of absorbing at least one-half of the transmitter
44
-...................-...... .
power. Terminating resistors are components of some radio sets
and can also be locally fabricated using supply system
components. (NSN 5905-00-764-5573, 100-watt 106-ohm resistor).
Construction of a long-wire antenna requires only wire,

support poles, insulators, and a terminating resistor (if
directionality is desired). The only requirement is that the
antenna be strung in as straight a line as the situation
. permits. The height of the antenna is only 15 to 20 feet above
ground so that tall support structures are not required. The
antenna is normally fed through a coupler that can match the
antenna's 600-ohm impedance, Coaxial cable can be used if a 12:1
balun is available to convert the coaxial cable 50-ohm impedance
to the required 600 ohms.
Vertical radiation plots of this antenna are not presented

because of the great variation in the pattern as the length
changes. For take-off angles between 50 and 25%, the off-axis
graph can be used along with the gain versus length graph to
determine what length of antenna to use.
Characteristics

Radiation Pattern
Azimuthal (Bearing) Bidirectional
Directional with terminating resistor
Vertical
(Take-off angle) Dependent on length
ANTENNA WIRE INSULATED FROM

/SUPPORTS
NON M•TALLIC HEIGHT 15TO2OFEET

~-SUPPORTS TERMINATING
RADIO RESISTOR I
Long-wire antenna.
45
.*. . . . . . . . .-,***.... *., '-.,".

.:.:- .-. .. , • *"-,•,."-
.*.- .i-".,-...
... "'"-" .,,-..-.,.....v...."...
" - "" '..*.,**-*:: ' -- -....':,,-*
INVERTED L
The inverted L is a combination antenna made up of a

vertical section and a horizontal section. It provides
omnidirectional radiation for ground-wave propagation from the
vertical element and high-angle radiation from the horizontal
element for short-range sky-wave propagation. The classic
inverted L has a quarter-wave vertical section and a half-wave
horizontal section and was used for a very narrow range of
frequencies. By using the antenna couplers that are part of many
radio sets, the dimensions of the inverted L can be modified to
allow ground-wave and short-range sky-wave propagation over a
range of frequencies. Using a vertical height of 35 to 40 feet,
the following horizontal lengths will give reasonable performance
for short range sky-wave circuits.
Frequency Range (MHz) Horizontal Length (feet)
2.5 to 4.0 150

3.5 to 6.0 100
5.0 to 7.0 80
The antenna should be oriented like a dipole, that is, the broad
side of the antenna should be towards the distant station. These
lengths should not be used outside the frequency ranges specified
because the antenna radiation pattern changes, and for
frequencies much removed from the range the antenna will become
"directional off the wire end. (See the sloping wire section for
use of thib directional characteristic). The inverted L antenna
can be used as a substitute for the dipole; however, it has less
gain than a dipole and its radiation pattern varies with
frequency (unlike a dipole).
"Characteristics
Frequency Range Less than 2:1 over design frequency

Polarization Vertical from vertical section
Horizontal from horizontal section
Radiation Pattern
Azimuthal (Bearing) Omnidirectional
Vertical
46
•''''''•' ...
...
...-.. '.%. '••'' "• ' .\% ."• " ". -"- -"•--. , . . . .- • . *
t HORIZONTAL FLATTOP -
TREE ,WOODEN SUPPORT,,

.. -VERT ICAL OOWNLEAD
COUNTERPOISE iF NEEDED"-,
I, -- --- I
?RADIO
~1 11111111111 11171111117-77r
Inverted L antenna.
Take-off angle
WJJ
155 0 -5 -10 -5 0 5 to IS
"--
id.
- -- 4 aM
K d gi
Inverted L antenna, jertical pattern, height 40 feet,

length 150 feet.
47
•.. . . . . * . .. . . . .- . .
"Take-off angle
5 t0 5 0 -5 -i0 -5 0 5 to 15
- 5MHz
---- 7MHz dBi
Inverted L antenna vertical pattern, height 40 feet,

length 80 feet.
Take-off angle
.5 t0 5 0 -5 -t0 -5 0 5 to -iS
dBi
Inverted L antenna vertical pattern, height 40 feet.

length 100 feet.
48
| .*
SLOPING VEE
',a
The sloping vee is a medium to long range sky-wave antenna

that is reasonably simple to construct in the field. The gain
and directivity of the antenna depend on the leg length. For
reasonable performance, the antenna should be at least one
"wavelength long and preferably several wavelengths long.
"A compromise tactical sloping vee can be constructed using

500-foot legs and a 40-foot support mast. In this case, the
.-. angle between the two legs is adjusted to provide maximum
radiation at the desired take-off angle. The following angles
between legs (apex angle) will give good results for the
"distances indicated.
Path Length Apex Angle

1700 to 1000 miles 601
1000 to 1500 miles 450
over 1500 miles 1 300
To make the antenna directional, terminating resistors are used
on each leg on the open part of the vee. The terminating
resistors should be 300 ohms and be capable of handling one half
of the transmitter's power output. These terminations are either
procured or are locally fabricated using supply system parts
(100-watt, 106-ohm resistor NSN 5905-00-764-5573). Using the
terminating resistors, the antenna is aimed so that the line
cutting the vee in half is pointed at the distant station.
The sloping vee is normally fed with a 600-ohm open-wire

feed line. One side of the feedline is connected to one leg with
the other side connected to the other leg. The open-wire feed
line can be connected to a 12A1 balun, which is then connected to
standard coaxial cable.
.a racteristt.s

Power Capability Dependent on terminating resistors
Radiation Pattern
Azimuthal (Bearing) Directional (20* either side of
direction of radiation)
Vertical
49
.*l-~i. 5U ..
MAXIMJM RADIATION
• ,,,REVSTORS
A'J
... S FEEDR ROO •
Terminated sloping \.ee antenna.
Take-off angle
"\/
4/ii
Temnae s!opn ntnavriclpten
hih 40 fet legt 50. fet.aex-nl 3'

.0 dBi
-'i- Terminated s~oping vee antenna vertical pattern.
!i height 40 feet, 1leng~th 500 feet,
apes angle 3f0°.
•- 50
Take-off argle
S15 10 0 "3 -10 -- 0 5 10 15

3MHZ
---- 9MHz dBi
S......... 18MHz
Terminot:-d sloping vee antenna vertical pattern,

height 40 feet, length 500 feet, apex angle 450.
Take-off angle
VS
15 10 5 U -5 -10 -5 0 5 tO 15
-- 3MHz
9MHz dBi
........... 18MHz
Terminated sloping vee antenna vertical pattern,

height 40 feet, length 500 feet, apex angle 60'.
"51
SLOPING WIRE
The sloping wire antenna is a simple and easy to construct

antenna that requires only one support. A version of the long-
wire antenna, the sloping wire produces best results when it is
long compared to a wavelength. Tactical sloping wires vary in
length from 45 feet to over 500 feet. The sniorter lengths should
"be used only when no other antenna can be erected since their
performance is rather poor. The longer lengths (250 feet,
500 feet) can produce good radiation fo- wedium to long sky-wave
paths.
A sloping wire ,an be either terminated or unterminated. If

"a 600-ohm ter-ination is available, it should be used because
this makes ti-F antenna impedance fairly constant and a balun can
"be used to match the antenna to a transmitter. If the antenna is
unteý- .nated, a coupler will be required to match the transmitter
to thý. antenna.
"Variations of the sloping wire have been developed which

work well for medium to long range circuits. Two of these, the
AFWONXX Longwire and the 234-foot SF Wire, have been used on
deployments and have demonstrated their usefullness. Tha AFWONXX
Longwire is a 500-foot terminated sloping longwire antenna that
provides reasonable gain and directivity. It has a fairly
constant 600-ohm impedance 80 that it can be fed either through a
coupler or with a 12:1 balun. If a balun is used, one terminal
of the balun is connected to the antenna and the other terminal
is connected to a good ground. Like a long wire antenna, this
antenna should not be pointed directly at the receiving station,
•.but should be aimed at a point 100 to 150 to the right or left of
the distant station.
The 234-foot EF Wire is lilr the AFWONXX Longwire except it

is only 234 feet long. It produces less gain than the AFWONXX
Longwire, but the shorter length may make it preferable in some
tactical situations. The 234-foot SF Wire provides reasonable
radiation for medium to long range sky-wave circuits for the
frequency range of 8 to 30 MHz. Like other long wire antennas.
it should be aimed 10O to 15' to either side of the distant
[• " station.
In orienting a sloping wire, the low end of the wire should

be toward the receiving station. If the wire is unterminated,
the antenna should be fed at; the low end. if a terminating
resistor is used, the antenina is fed at the high end.
52
Characteristics
Frequeacy Range Dependent on wire length/configuration

Power Capability Determined by terminating resistor
Radiation Pattern
Azimuthal (Bearing) Bidirectional for unterminated
Directional for terminated
"Vertical
" SLOPING WIRE

':INSULATOR AMAXIMUM _ OF
FWIRE AXIS
RADIATION i00
40'
MAST INSULATOR
iI
.°.
RADIO
Sloping wire antenna, 40-foot mast.
53
LI,
Take-off angle
5 to0 0 -5 10 -5 0 5 10 15
- 3MHz
edBi
-J--9...
..........18MHz
Sloping wire antenna vertical pattern, length 100 feet.
Take-off angle
S..........1"."
n • -I-. S S
0 5 -to -3 0 5 0 '
-- 9WR, dBi
* 54
. -Take-off angle
•'A'
,•.
15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -5 0 5 tO 15
S... .
..." 18MHz dMHz
dBi
""..
......... 26MHz

i.".
i..
'.4 ,~sJAO AIN1
20,
MAST 4UAO
if" ~TERMIN-ATING [
Two-hundred-thirty-four-foot sloping wire antenna.
55
vertical Pattetn
longiteantenna
MA)(IM'm RADIATION
~ AA
QfFF
antelna-
AWON~longwire
56
.
VERTICAL HALF RHOMBIC
The vertical half-rhombic antenna is a version of the long-

wire antenna that uses a single center support. Easily
constructed, this antenna has a small width (as wide as the
center support guys) which allows several to be installed in a
relatively narrow area. The vertical half-rhombic antenna
radiates a medium to low angle signal making it a good choice for
. medium to long range sky-wave circuits. Normally the 500-foot
version is as big an antenna that most tactical situations will
allow, however, the vertical radiation pattern for a 1000-foot
version is included so that if the opportunity ever exists, the
antenna can be used for excellent results.
The vertical half rhombic uses a single wire feed either

through a coupler or a balun (12:1). One of the two terminals of
the coupler or balun is attached to the antenna while the other
terminal is grounded. Like other terminated antennas, the
," terminating resistor (600 ohms) should be able to handle one half
of the transmitter's power output. Terminators can either be
"procured or locally fabricated (100-watt, 106-ohm resistor, NSN
5905-00-764-5573).
The orientation of this antenna depends on the frequency

bands being worked. Below approximately 12 MHz, the terminated
end of the antenna is pointed at the distant station; above
12 MHz, the antenna is aimed 100 to either side of the distant
station.
Characteristics

"Power Capability Dependent on terminating resistor
Radiation Pattern
Azimuthal (Bearing) Directional
Vertical
57
* .- a, ... . .- - . .- . . . -• . * - ° - a
MAXIMUM RAOIATPON
(SEE PAGE 57)
INSULATED
a' FROM MAST
4o -
MAST10 0 ~o
~~Vertical half-rhombic antenna

etclpten
.
Tae-f anl
..... mum,. K ... , I-

C,
Take-off angle
-°
-- 0.
i'C
C.'
15 t 05 5 10 -5 0 5 10 15
- 3MHz
-9MHz dBi
... ......... 8m"
Vertical half-rhombic antenna vertical pattern.

antenna height 50 feet. length 1000 feet.
5/
•. 59/60
SECTION IV
VHF ANTENNAS
GENERAL
Selection of V`HF antennas is basically a question of the
azimuthal radiation pattern of the antenaa as all VHF antennas
are designed to provide good VHF-LOS radiation. The type of
circuit, whether it's a point-to-point circuit or a rnultipoint
circuit, determines the choice of antennas. A directional
antenna should be used for the point-to-point circuit in order to
direct the maximum amount of radio energy toward the receiving
station, On a multipoint circuit, the location of the receiving
stations will determine whether an omnidirectional or directional
antenna can be used. If the receiving stations are located in
all directions from the transmitter, an omnidirectional antenna
must be used. If the stations are all located in one general
direction from the transmitter, a directional antenna could
probably be used. The antenna descriptions included in this
section show the azimuthal radiation patterns of the different
antennas so that the proper antenna can be selected according to
azimuthal coverage.
. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' - .
Siting of VHF antennas has a large effect on communications

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . .
.% S ~.* reliability.
. In an ideal * setting,,,
. the . antenna
*. . . would
. . be as high
-A
%~* A - as possible above a flat clear araa. In tactical -situations, the
- * AA A --.-.-
location of the antenna must be a compromise between propagation

considerations and cover and concoalment. Even so, antenna sites
should be as high as possible anti clear of obstructions such as
hills, dense woods, and buildings. If it is necessary to site an
antenna on or around hills, pick a site that allows line of sight
to the distant station or stations. If possible, place the
antenna on the military crest of a hill, NOT on the physical
crest. Antennas on the physical crest of a hill would provide an
"Iaiming stake" for enemy observation and fire.
Ridge line antenna farm.
61
DESIRtED CQMMUCAT1ONS ENEMY
Antenna siting on military crest.
By placing high ground betwen the antenna and the enemy, not
............
only is the enemy's
l0 observation blocked, but radiation from the 0
antenna is blocked, reducing the enemy's intercept tapability.
In a dense forest, it is necessary to get the antenna up

above the tops of the trees. This height allows the radio signal
to propagate in the clear space above the trees. If it is
impossible to raise an antenna above the trees, a horizontally
polarized antenna will provide better communications through
trees than a verttically polarized antenna.
Antenna siting in denge trees.
62
A clearing in a forest can be used to improve propagation if
-. the antenna can be placed so that the clearing is between the
antenna and the distant station (for a directional antenna). An
omnidirectional antenna should be placed in the center of a
clearing. Again, the antenna should be as high as possible.
DISTANT STATION
GOD FAIR
SI/I / 1/1111 11111!I1II!//I
Directional antenna siting in a clearing.
"At times it is possible to see the distant station but not

communicate with it. In this case the receiving station is
suffering destructive multipath interference. This is the
combining of the direct and reflected rays out of phase resulting
in complete signal cancellation. This interference can also
result in a very weak signal or one that "flutters." To improve
communications, either raise or lower the antenna or move the
antenna around to several different sites. In the majority of
cases, one or both of these actions will result in good
communications.
Another cause of weak communications is cross-polarization

of antennas. This means that the transmit and receive antennas
do not have the same polarization. Both dntennas should be
vertical or horizontal for best communications.
Another problem could be the misalignment of directional

antenras. If directional antennas are not correctly pointed at
each other, communications will be degraded. The electrical
characteristics of directional antennas can change over several
field deployments, especialiy if the antenna is subjected to
harsh use. This changing of electrical characteristics can cause
the radiation pattern to change so that if the antenna is
physically pointed at the distant station, the main radiation may
"be aimed in another direction. To fix this situation, have the
distant station transmit and slowly turn the receiving
63
directional antenna while listening to the received signal. When
the received signal is strongest, the antenna is properly aligned
for the circuit. Secure the antenna in this position and have
the distant station align its antenna in the same way. When both
antennas are properly adjusted, the maximum radiation from each
antenna is directed at the other antenna.
The following pages list several "issued" antennas as well

as practical field expedient wire antennas. Review of the
characteristics and radiation patterns of these antennas should
allow the selection of the proper antenna for a specific
circuit. A VHF antenna selection matrix is provided to assist
the operator in selecting a suitable antenna for the desired VHF
circuit.
VHF ANTENNA SELECTION MATRIX
Directivity Polarization
'-4
co•
C
0
E
~ E
U- -
•. 0
4
V-4
.0 -;1 0
--- Vertical Whip 65 X X

RC-292 66 X X
OE-254 68 X X
AS-2236 70 X X
AS-2851 72 X X X
Vertical halpf-rhombic/OE-303 75 X X X
" •'" ' • "HG"" "" " """ " " -"S" "-: 66" "--'''--,X
"=292-'" ."''-.-.-.''""- -,- . . - ""-
VERTICAL WHIP
The vertical whip is the most commonly used antenna since it

is easy and simple to use and it is a part of every radio set.
In mobile situations, the vertical whip is the only antenna that
can be used. In stationary operations, the vertical whip is not
a good choice for two reasons: it cannot be put high in the air
for good omnidirectional VHF-LOS communications, and it radiates
"in useless directions if communications are point to point.
If the tactical situation prevents the use of an antenna

other than the vertical whip, several steps can be -ker to
improve its performance. First, ensure that the i r'•,.:.'. is in
fact vertical. This can be a problem when using *• i-pack
short whip or tape in the prone position. Use the a.,, -. e base
on the tape to ensure that the antenna is in a ver.-.. iton.
A reflector can be placed behind a whip to direct radiation

in a general direction. A reflector is a vertical wire or
another whip placed one-quarter wavelength behind the radiating
"whip. The reflector is placed at the same height as the whip and
is insulated from the ground. The reflector reflects some of the
radio energy back towards the whip and provides a broad beam of
energy towards the distant station.
Characteristics

Power Capability Matched to particular radio
Radiation Pattern Omnidirectional
65
RC-292
The RC-292 is a general purpose grcound-plane antenna

designed to increase the range of tactical VHF iadios. The
antenna is basically broadband but must be pretuned to one of
four frequency ranges for maximum efficiency. It is normally
installed at full height (37 to 41.5 feet) on the component mast;
however, it may be installed at lower heights if the tactical
situation dictates.
"The antenna is comprised of a vertical radiating element and

three ground-plane elements. These four elements are assembled
from a number of antenna sections depending on the frequency band
chosen. The supporting mast has a hinged base to allow easy
lowering of the antenna to change the number of sections in each
element. The chart below lists the number and type of sections
to be used in the vertical element and ground plane elements. To
provide the best communications, the zntenna must be adjusted for
the specific band in use.
ANTENNA AND GROUND PLANE SECTIONS
Vertical Antenna Sections Ground Piane Sections
2.44
0 ~ul , . u E, •
ru UE c .
to 2 . :300 :33I
,Frequ ency
Wl1iz)
.•.4ý75.9 0o 0
20.0 to 27.9 6 6 31 I
27.9 cu 38.9 4 I 1 1 1 5 21 I
38.9 to 54.4 3 2 i1 4 1 1 I
541.4 to 75.95 2 0 1 0 1 3 0 1 1
Characteristics
Frequency Range 20 to 75.95 MHz

- ,Polarization Vertical
-.
Erection Time 2 person3 in 15 minutes
Weighi 48 lbs
66
60"0I KAN&f"tP
wrlI ~ PLNLAAiT9
Ad- 1/TAG-~7)
30-
%TAM
44OIJWSPill
Installed RC-292 antenna.
*0
RC-2 antenna azimuthal gain pattevn.
67
OE-254
The OE-254 is a broadband, omnidirectional, biconical

- antenna that is scheduled to replace the RC-292. Unlike the
RC-292, the OE-254 does not require tuning for specific bands and
can cover the 30-to-88 MHz VHF band without adjustment.
Three upward and three downward radial elements simulate two

"cones which provide omnidirectional VHF-LOS radiation. The
antenna is usually mounted on a 33-foot 8-inch mast for an
overall height of 41 3/4 feet. The antenna may be installed at
lower heights; however, care should be taken to ensure that the
*" lower and upper mast adapter assemblies are always used. An 80-
foot coaxial cable comes with the antenna for direct connection
to a radio.
- -~ Characteristics
Frequency Range 30 to 88 Mtz

"Erection Time 2 persons in 15 minutes
Weight 43.5 lbs
68
°3 *
MASTS(CTION AS-24
MASTSECTIONUSII7A
ANTENNA
ASSYMAST SECTION61111A,
TAPE
GUYPLATE- $TRAINCLAWP
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Installed OE-254 antenna.
94(69
t
.~~
AS-2236
" The AS-2236 is a broadband log periodic antenna that can be
"used with either horizontal or vertical polarization. The

AS-2236 is used for directional point-to-point circuits.
The antenna uses a triangular base which allows the antenna

to be erected on irregular or sloping ground. This base also
allows the rotation of the antenna without lowering it. The AS-
2236 is aimed by pointing the cloth arrow head on the antenna
towards the distant station. Once initial contact is
established, the antenna is readjusted as described on page 63.
This antenna comes in three separate packs (antenna pack,

-S tripod pack, mast pack). Because of its relatively heavy weight,
it is usually associated with vehicular mounted radios.
Characteristics
Polarization Horizontal or Vertical
Radiation Pattern Directional
Erection Time 2 persons in 30 minutes
Weight 105 lbs
AS-2236 antenna.
"".. . . . . . .
"- . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . .
70
** 5.' . . . ..
S S-
.1J°
4-w
atoo
ac 0
wee
Moo
AS-2236 antenna azimuthal gain pattern, 30 MHz.
'a.
. . . .... . .
. .
•.' *. < -o. *
_ _-_ __
AS-2236 antenna azimuthal gain pattern, 76 MHz.
71
AS-2851
The AS-2851 is a lightweight log periodic antenna used on

directional point-to-point circuits. Supported by a sectioned
mast, the antenna can be erected at 2.5-foot increments up to 20
feet. The antenna can be oriented for either vertical or
horizontal polarization.
The AS-2851 is initially aligned so that the end of the boom

with the shortest elements is pointed towards the distant
station. Once initial contact is established, the antenna iG
adjusted as described on page 63.
"Characteristics

"Polarization Horizontal or Vertical
. Power Capability 65 watts
Radiation Pattern Directional
"Erection Time 2 persons in 10 minutes
"Weight 30 lbs
ii
. . . . . . . ." o
. .
. .. .
AS-2851 antenna.
72
• 34
n"no
AS-251ai 70M
ii.-7
"-* AS-2851 antenna azimuthal gain pattern, 70 M~z,

i horizont~al polarization.
* horizontal polarization.
- * .. S S * S S*,
. -. .
-g - .I
• ,....
L
I[1'+
k,,"
| i ___
- -- -- " I i"q• . _ •o
SJo•
I •Oe
imu l
II l
h.
•" AS-2B51 antenna azimuthal gain pattern, 40 Ntz,

". vertical polarization.
?',.
•"
°;;
+,:- ,,,,+.il..
- -
b "
+ \ ,+
'" I0 i'-+-+',
•
•: AS-285! antenna azimuthal galn pattern, 70 M•z,

•. vertical polarization.
r.
•." 74
t
,'.-+ -.. '. o'• o" "•'+-•" ,." -•+••." ,. " %'.%'.. •% .+" +" .. " ,- +- • + +- .- '. -+ .~•++++ .++ + ' •'•++'+ ++ . . . -'. +, +" . . +'..+ . . -'+ ." •" ." + "+'. • . -'• +" .oo'. +-+-.'•+
. . • . .. . . " -- . . • • + • • .', +., p "+• "t'• *y'• 'y+.'+ "• +.+.'.'..',." .'++++...t++. . +.-p-.
VERTICAL HALF RHOMBIC/OE-303
The vertical half-rhombic antenna is an easily constructed

wire antenna that provides good directional radiation. The OE-
303 is an issued version of a vertical half rhombic. For the
most part, comments for the field expedient antenna also hold
- true for the OE-303.
The typical tactical vertical half-rhombic antenna consists

of a 100-foot antenna wire supported in the middle by a 30-foot
* non-metallic support, and an 85-foot ground wire laid along the
ground. In this configuration, the antenna will work well
throughotit the military VHF band. To make the antenna
* directional, a 500-ohm carbon terminating resistor is connected
* between the antenna wire and the ground wire at the distant end
of the antenna. A 5-watt carbon resistor, which is suitable for
man-pack radios, is commercially available from radio parts
stores. For higher power radios, multiple 5-watt resistors can
be connected in parallel to obtain the proper wattage and
resistance. Without the terminating resistor, the antenna is
bidirectional.
The antenna wire is connected directly to the antenna

IFterminal on the radio. On man-pack radios, the whip base can be
screwed in to the antenna terminal to securely clamp the antenna
* wire to the radio. The ground wire should be connected to a
convenient point on the radio case.
The vertical half-rhombic antenna should be oriented so that

the wire ends point in the desired direction of propagation. In
the bidirectional antenna (no terminating resistor',
communications can be accomplished off both ends of the wire. in
the terminated (directional) version, communications can be
established off the end of the wire with the terminatinR
resistor.
Characteristics

Power Capability Dependent on terminating resistor
Radiation Pattern Bidirectional
Directional with terminating
resistor
75
.
-*,. ----.--.- . . . -... . . . .* . . - "..
MAXIMUM RADIATION
MAXIMU R41AO
. i i . . .
Military vertical half rhombic.
so ýn*l*'~
°7
Vertical half-rhombic antenna, azimuthal gain
pattern, 30 MHz
-•. V*B, . V tA C . ss
I-*.-. ... ~ ~.a ~ n ~ ~ ~ a
Vertical half-rhombic antenna. azim~uthal gain

pattern. 70 MHz.
77/78
SECTION V
EXPEDIENT TECHNIQUES
Using an issued antenna or constructing a field expedient

antenna is easy if you have ail the required parts. What happens
when you're in a field situation, your antenna is broken, and you
o have to make do with what you have? Obviously communications
must be maintained. It is up to the radio operator to make some
type of antenna to provide communications for his unit.
REPAIR OF BROKEN ANTENNAS
"A broken whip can be temporarily repaired in several ways.

If the whip is broken in two sectic¢is, the sections can be joined
together. First remove the paint and clean the sections where
they will join to ensure a good electrical connection. Place the
sections together and secure with bare wire or tape.
POLE OR BRANCH A"
PMINT REMOVED CAME OR TAPE

FROM ANTEWW.S HERE S0
nr
Using broken sections for emergency repair.
if the whip is badly damaged, a length of field wire

(WD1ITT) of the same length as the original antenna can be
used. Remove the insulation from the lower end of the field wire
antenna, twist the conductors together, stick them in the antenna
base connector and secure with a uooden block. Either a pole or
a tree can be used to support the antenna wire.
"p
. 79
...................
TAPE
POLE OR OF
(LENGTH BRANCH
BROKEN
ANTENNA) TAPE
INSULATOR
CABLE
TAPE WIRE
~)OPLUG GROUND
STAKE
TAPE
O i
Using field wire as an emergency whip.

INSULATORS
Insulators can be made from many items that are readily

available. Care should be taken with any material that holds
water (cloth, rope). In a rainstorm, these items absorb water
and lose their irqulatiuig characteristics.
i:~ RATION SPOON

C RATO...ON...
.. NYLON ROPE
O RUBBRE
OR CLOTH STRIP (DRY)
BUTTON
ONEcKOD
(DRY) Pt A
IBEST. PLASTIC GLASS) (GOOD.-WOOD fFAIR. CLOTH, ROPEI
Expedient insulators.
SUPPORTS
Many expedient antennas require iupports to hold the antenna

above ground, The most common supports are trees which hAve the
advantage of being able to survive heav.y awin d sor-ns. However,
83
• •"• -'•-'/
" .. .'" :: •" •"•-",•'. • - , .--I _-"% -,": ,-'.........-.-.-.,.-'....-"-..."."".
even the largest trees sway in the wind, enough to break wire
antennas. To keep the antenna taut and to prevent it from
breaking or stretching is the trees sway, a sp-ing or piece of
old inner tube should be attached to one end of the antenna. If
a small pulley is available, attach the pulley to the tree, pass
a rope through the pulley, attach the rope to the end of the
antenna, and load th other end of the rope with a heavy
weight. This will allow the tree to sway without straining the
antenna.
The AN/GRA-4 Antenna Group should not be overlooked when

constructing field expedient antennas. The technical manual
shows how the antenna group can be used as a 40-foot vertical
moniopole, sloping wire, and half-wave dipole, but other antennas
can be made using this group's components. Using the 40-foot
mast with the base insulator i 40-foot high inverted L can be
constructed using the mast a,, vertical element. The two 40-
foot masts that come with L.,v antenna group can be usad to
support any if the antennas discussed in this handbook.
At times the radio operate.- will find himself at a site

where no trees or issued antenna masts are available to sIpport
an antenna. In this situation the operator must survey what i1
a,?ailable and try to jury rig some type of support. If lance
poles or PO-2 poles are available, chey can be lashed together to
form a support. In areas that are not windy, helium-filled
weather balloons can be used to support antennas. The lower,
thick portions of a 32-foot whip can also be used as supports.
If vans are being used with a roof-mounted 32-foot antenna, the
lower thick Dortion of the antenna can be used (with the thin top
portion removed) as the vertical part of an inverted L antenna.
Wire is attached to the end of tbhc remaining whip to form the
horizontal portion of the antenna. The operator must use
imagination and ingenuity •o devise some type of support to
provide reliable communications.
TERMINATING RESISTORS
STerminating resistors cave bt:n a continual problem for the

field communicator. Several high power van type radio systems
have terminating resistors as components, however, those
resistors are not always available. Resistors for low power (man
pack) VHF radios are readily available from commercial radio
supply stores. Carbon resistors capable of dissipating more than
5 watts are difficult to find. However the 5-watt resistors can
be connect2d in parallel to make a terminator capable of handling
higher powers. For example, eight 5-watt 4000-ohm resistors
connected in parallel rE3ults in a 500-ohm 40-watt terminator.
81
The 5-watt resistor still does not solve the problem of high
power HF terminators. A terminator for a 1000-watt transmitter
would require 100 5-watt resistorsl A 100-watt 106-ohm resistor
exists in the supply system (NSN 5905-00-764-5573) that can be
mounted in series on a single insulating board to form a
terminator for high powered transmitters.
EXPEDIENT WIRE
Field telephone wire (WD1I/TT) can be used to construct

antennas 'f regular antenna wire is not available. Field wire
consists of two insulated wires loosely twisted together. Each
* insulated wire is made Up of four copper strands and three steel
"strands of wire. When making electrical connections with field
wire, the copper strands should be used. The four copper strands
can be identified by removing approximately one inch of
insulation from one end of the insulated wire. Hold the wire
where the insulation ends a•& end the strands to the side. When
bending pressure is released che steel strands will snap back to
their original position while the copper strands will iremain
bent. These copper strands can then be wrapped around the steel
strands to present a copper surface for d good electrical
connection.
If field wi.re ii• to b- used as the radiating element of an

antenna, the two insulated wires in the twisted pair must be
connected together at the ends so that electrically the two wires
will act as one. First tightly twist all six steel strands from
the two wires together (for strength) , twist the eight copper
"strands together (for electrical connection) and then twist the
* copper strands around the steel strands.
When useo as a feed line for a dipole antenna, connect each

of the two insulated wires of the twisted pair to a separate leg
of the dipole. At the radio, connect one wire (it does not
matter which wire) to the center connector of the radio antenna
terminal and the second wire to a screw on the antenna case.
* Feeding a VHF-LOS ground plane antenna with field wire

requires a s-lightly different prccedure. In this case the wire
ccnnected to the vertical element must be connected to the center
connector of the radio antenna terminal. If a multimeter is
available. it is easy to perform a continuity test to determine
whic'i wire of the twisted pair should be connected to the
vertical element. Without a multimeter there are two ways to
test the wires. The first is to start at one e-d and follow the
single wire through the tvists until you reach the other end. An
82
easier way is to connect one wire to the center connector of the
radio antenna terminal and then individually touch the bare wires
from the other end of the field wire to the radio case. The
radio should be turned on, squelch off, volume control to maximum
loudness. One of the two wires will produce a loud pop or click
in the speaker when touched to the case. This wire is the other
end of the wire connected to the center connector and which will
be connected to rhe vertical element of the ground plane
antenna. The other wire of the twisted pair will be connected to
the ground plane section of the antenna and to the case of the
radio.
"In an emergency, any wire of sufficient length can be used

for an antenna. Barbed wire, electrical wire, fence wire, and
metal cored clothesline are some examples. The important thing
to remember is not to give up. Communications have been
successful using metal house gutters and even metal bed
springsl A radio operator's mission is not accomplished until
communications are established.
GROUNDING
A good electrical ground is needed for two reasons: first,

as a safety ground to protect the operator and his equipment, and
second, as an RF :-3und needed by some antennas to function
properly. Most racio sets come with a ground rod that should
provide a sufficient ground if used properly in good soil. Used
properly means the ground rod is free from oil or corrosion and
is driven into the ground so that the top of the rod is below
surface. To ensure a good electrical connection, the top of the
ground rod and the end of the ground strap should be clean and
bright. A clamp or nut and bolt should be used to make a good
mechanical and electrical connection at the ground rod. The end
of the ground strap and the radio ground connection should both
be cleaned before connecti3n is made.
If a ground rod is not available, water pipe, concrete

reinforcing rod, metal fence post (protective paint coating must
be removed) , or any length of metal can be used. If a water
system uses metal pipe, a good giound can be established by
clamping the ground strap to a water pipe. Underground pipes,
"tanks, and metal building foundations will also work. WARNING:
NEVER USE ANY PIPING OR UNDERGROUND TANKS THAT CONTAIN FLAMMABLE
MATERIALS (NATURAL GAS, GASOLINE, ETC.)!!
In dry so-l, electrical grounds can be improved by adding

water and chemicals to the soil. Two common chemicals are Epsom
"83
Salts and common table salt. Epsom salts are preferred because
it is not as corrosive as table salt. Make a solution of five
"pounds of chemical to five gallons of water and slowly pour the
solution in a hole dug around the ground rod. Water should be
added periodically to keep the area dainp, If water is not
available, urine can be used.
Multiple ground rods can also be used to improve electrical

grounds. If enough rods are available, a "star ground" can be
built. A single rod is driven in the center of an approximately
20-foot circle. Along the outside of the circle, additional
ground rods are driven. The ground strap from the radio is
connected to the center ground rod which in turn is connected to
the rods along the outside of the circle. The rods on the
outside of the circle should also be connected together.
84
%',
SECTION VI
FOR MORE INFORMATION
For those who desire more details on propagation and
antennas, the following listing is provided.
V Army
FM 11-65 High Frequency Radio Communications
"FM 24-18 Field Radio Techniques
TM 11-666 Antennas and Radio Propagation
Construction of Field Expedient Antennas, CRC-504,

Communications/Electronics Department, USAFAS, Ft. Sill, OK.
Conventional and Field Expedient Antennas, Manual 4501,

Signal Center, Ft. Gordon GA
Tactical Antenna Systems, Information Sheet 1167, Signal
Center, Ft. Gordon, GA.
Air Force
AFCSP 100-16 High Frequency Radio Communications in a
Tactical Environment
AFCSP 100-47 Tactical High Frequency Antenna Handbook
Common HF Antenna Vertical Radiation Patterns, 8009-311,

Interservice Radio Frequency Management School, Keesler AFB, MS.
"Antenna Theory and Practical Application, 7801-301,

Interservice Radio Frequency Management School, Keesler AFB, MS.
Frequency Management Digest Anthology, Vol. I and II,
Spectrum Management Division, Air Force Communications Command,
Scott AFB, IL.
Antennas--General, Tactical HF Antenna Kit, AFCC-CEMI
1300-1, Air Force Communications Command, Scott AFB, IL
Marine Corps
Antennas, Conventional and Field Expedient, SM COS 5,

Communication Officers School, MCDEC, Quantico, VA.
85/86

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ECAC-CR-83-200 Cy.

FIELD ANTENNA HANDBOOK

Joint Chiefs of Staff

tiT Research histitute

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

This report was prepared by the IXT Research Institute as part of AF

CHlARLES L. FLYNN, CoIe,oSAF 3. C.o, USMC

FIELD ANTr-NNA XMDIOOK CONSULTING

7. AUTMO'(s) S. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUNMER(*)

r *Jamias A. Kucb F-19628-80-C-0042

North Severn P0553

1S. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of thie Report)

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

II. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

13 KEY WORDS (CoAItimm an to~** aOd. Ito%***w.and 14it Ay blok kMi&

This handbook presents basic propagation theory, the fundamentals

DD JAO t 1413 9OiTIOM OF INOV &S ISOBSOLETE

SECURITY CLASIIFICATION Of ThIS PAGE (Ifto DOataEatek'd)

INTRODUCTION .. . . ..... .......... . . . • • ..............

HIGH FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS (2 TO 30 MHz)................... 3

* WAVELENGTH AND FREQUENCY ..................................... 11

* GENERAL .......................... . . . ......... 21

OE-85/OE-86 ............................................ •..... 29

* VERTICAL HALF RHOMBIC5..... .......... ... . ................. ... 7

REPAIR OF BROKEN ANTENNAS ................................ 79

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

XPEDI ENT WIRE ..........

" FOR MORE INFORMATION ................ 85

"Of all the variables affecting communications, the one

Sections I and II present information which should be

Propagation is the process by which a radio signal travels

High frequency communications is accomplished by either

Ground-wave propagation involves the transmission of a radio

The direct wave travels through the atmosphere from one

The reflected wave, like the direct wave, travels through

STR~iMUMMATE DI CECT WAVE RCIE

"SURFACE WAVE ALONG SURFACE

Components of ground wave.

"The third part of a ground wave is the surface wave. This

Beyond the range covered by the ground-wave signal, HF

The ionosphere is an electrically charged (ionized) region

The D region is closest to earth and only exists during the

Structur of60 thKM oahie

The angle at which a radio signal strikes the ionosphere

Although a radio signal is actually bent by the ionosphere,

Because many antenna3 rmdiate energy at several angles, more

Multiple transmission paths.

Path 1 is at an angle such that the wave is partially bent

Path 2, at a smaller angle, is bent by the E region, then

Path 3 is at an angle small enough for E region

Path 4 is reflected by the E region only once. hence it is a

Depending on the type of antennas used, signals can be

Depending on the frequency, antennas, and other factors, an

HF propagation involves much nore than what has been

linef siht IliFlOSt.ac pofagatin.HF skipgaio

influenced by four separate components that result in the

Tr1ansmission of direct and reflected waves.

The refracted ray is what allows the line-of-sight distance

The diffracted ray scatters around obstacles and permits

13 KEY WORDS (CoAItimm an to~ aOd. Ito%*w.and 14it Ay blok kMi&

. * . . . . . . S• . °.. . * o, . . • . , o o ,• - o -. b b