Design Optimization of Permanent Magnet Machines Over A Target Op PDF
Design Optimization of Permanent Magnet Machines Over A Target Op PDF
Design Optimization of Permanent Magnet Machines Over A Target Op PDF
e-Publications@Marquette
Recommended Citation
Fatemi, Alireza, "Design Optimization of Permanent Magnet Machines Over a Target Operating Cycle
Using Computationally Efficient Techniques" (2016). Dissertations (1934 -). 662.
https://epublications.marquette.edu/dissertations_mu/662
DESIGN OPTIMIZATION OF PERMANENT MAGNET
MACHINES OVER A TARGET OPERATING
CYCLE USING COMPUTATIONALLY
EFFICIENT TECHNIQUES
By
Alireza Fatemi, A.S., B.S., M.S.
Milwaukee, Wisconsin
August 2016
ABSTRACT
DESIGN OPTIMIZATION OF PERMANENT MAGNET
MACHINES OVER A TARGET OPERATING
CYCLE USING COMPUTATIONALLY
EFFICIENT TECHNIQUES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my special thanks to my dear friends and senior members of
the Electric Machines and Drives Lab (EMDL) at Marquette University, Dr. Gennadi
Y. Sizov, of Rockwell Automation, and Dr. Peng Zhang, of General Motors, for
laying a solid foundation for the automated design optimization of permanent magnet
machines, which served as the start point of my dissertation research. Their support
in the initial stages of this project, and their encouragement in its continuation was
exceptional.
Throughout my Ph.D. studies, I had the opportunity to collaborate with and
learn from many experts in the field. During the early stages of this project, Mr.
James R. Hendershot’s instructions in recent advances in the design of brushless PM
machines boosted my confidence to delve into this topic. Likewise, the instructive role
of Dr. Dave A. Staton and Dr. Mircea Popescu, of Motor Design Ltd., in multiphysics
analysis of PM machines was of great help and should be acknowledged. I also learned
from, and enjoyed very much the collaborations with Mr. Steven J. Stretz, of Regal
Beloit Company, and Dr. Rafal Wrobel and Dr. Yew C. Chong, of Motor Design Ltd.
I am also thankful to Mr. Mark G. Solveson, of Ansys Inc., for his technical support
for advanced use of Ansys software packages.
I would like to also thank the members of the Electric Drives and Power Electronics
Systems Lab at GM R&D including Dr. Lei Hao, Dr. Chandra S. Namuduri, Dr.
Rashmi Prasad, Dr. Suresh Gopalakrishnan, and Dr. Avoki Omekanda, for their
mentorship and collegiality during summer 2015.
I would like to acknowledge the financial support of Marquette University’s EECE
Department, GM, M-WERC Consortium, and SEPMEED Consortium, which allowed
me to work in this exciting and challenging field. The software support of Ansys Inc.,
and Motor Design Ltd. is also gratefully acknowledged.
I am also thankful to my present and former colleagues and friends at Marquette
University’s Electric Machines and Drives Lab, Dr. Gennadi Sizov, Dr. Peng Zhang,
Dr. Jiangbiao He, Mr. Chad Somogyi, Mr. Andrew Strandt, Ms. Alia Strandt, and
Mr. Muyang Li for creating a genuinely collegial learning and work environment.
Also many thanks to my friends, Mr. Ahmadreza Baghaie, Dr. Benyamin Davaji,
Dr. Marek Trawicki, Dr. Ahmed Sayed Ahmed, and Mr. Ramin Katebi for their
encouragement and support.
Last but surely not least, I am eternally grateful to my most faithful companion,
Nancy, whose love has inspired my life, and who is my home away from home.
Alireza Fatemi
August, 2016
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.2 Case Study Design Optimization of Toyota Prius Gen 2 Motor at Its
Nominal Operating Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.3.1 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.3 Optimization of a Formula E Racing Car IPM Motor Over the Le Mans
Operating Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
8 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
APPENDIX I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
APPENDIX II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
LIST OF TABLES
2.1 Boundaries of the design variables defined over the parameterized cross-
section of the Prius motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.1 The independent design variables of the case study machines for
sensitivity analysis and optimization at different ampere loading levels. 67
3.2 Typical current density ranges found in electric machines with different
cooling systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4 Mean of the ratio of copper losses to core losses in the Pareto-optimal
designs at different ampere loading levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.5 Mean of the masses of the optimized designs normalized with respect
to the values obtained for NC class. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.1 Cyclic representative points for the combined US driving cycle shown
in Fig. 6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.2 Cyclic representative points of Le Mans driving cycle shown in Fig. 6.13.171
6.3 Independent design variables and their upper and lower bounds of the
18-slot 16-pole spoke-type machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.5 The design characteristics of the optimized high power density “D3”
motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
x
LIST OF FIGURES
2.2 Mapping the field values between typical sister elements in the CE-
FEA method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5 Reconstruction of stator winding flux linkages using the CE-FEA method. 31
2.12 Range of variation of the design parameters defined over the Prius
motor topology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.14 Results of the optimization of the Prius motor at the nominal load
point expressed in terms of the designated objectives. . . . . . . . . . 49
2.15 Cross-sections and rated field plots of the three counterpart designs
obtained from the Prius motor design optimization at nominal load
point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.16 Line to line back EMF of the counterpart designs obtained from the
Prius motor design optimization at nominal load point (a) G59M12,
(b) G20M62, and (c) Prius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.17 Harmonic content of the line to line terminal voltage of the counterpart
designs obtained from the Prius motor design optimization at nominal
load point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.18 Torque ripple of the counterpart designs obtained from the Prius motor
design optimization at nominal load point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.19 Efficiency maps of the counterpart designs obtained from the Prius
motor design optimization at nominal load point. . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.1 The parametrized cross section of the case study machines for
sensitivity analysis and optimization at different ampere loading levels. 66
3.5 The distribution of the design variables in the optimized designs for
the three case study cooling systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
xii
3.6 Optimized cross sections derived based on the mean of the design
variables in the 500 Pareto-optimal designs listed in Table 3.3, for the
three current density levels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3 The parameterized stator structures used for constructing the example
IPM motors for comparison between DE and CMODE. . . . . . . . . 96
4.4 The parameterized rotor structures used for constructing the example
IPM motors for comparison between DE and CMODE. . . . . . . . . 97
4.5 The evolution of the optimization process using DE for the three case-
study motors under the first scenario. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.6 The evolution of the optimization process using CMODE for the three
case-study motors under the first scenario. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.7 The evolution of the optimization process using DE for the three case-
study motors under the second scenario. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.8 The evolution of the optimization process using CMODE for the three
case-study motors under the second scenario. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.9 Feasible Pareto optimal designs of the two optimization algorithms for
scenario 1 of the fitness functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.10 Feasible Pareto optimal designs of the two optimization algorithms for
scenario 2 of the fitness functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.11 Convergence of the feasible design candidates for the three case-study
motors in terms of loss × AM C for scenario 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.12 Convergence of the feasible design candidates for the three case-study
motors in terms of loss × ripple for scenario 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.14 Typical optimized cross-sections and the field plots of the studied
motors for the two scenarios of fitness functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.3 Toyota Prius Gen. 2 motor output energy over torque-speed plane. . 122
5.4 Honda Insight Gen. 1 motor output energy over torque-speed plane. . 123
5.7 The best sum of the distances of the load points to their corresponding
cluster means versus the number of clusters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.9 Developed method for derivation of the stator winding currents at every
load point for time-stepping magneto-static FEA. Optimal control is
ensured for constant torque and flux weakening operation. . . . . . . 133
5.10 Process of derivation of the excitation current for a typical load point. 134
5.12 Sampled flux contours of the three example motors with equal rated
torque and rated current density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.13 Efficiency maps of the three example IPMs with infinite maximum
speeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.14 Loss ratio maps of the three example IPMs with infinite maximum
speeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.15 Current density maps of the three example IPMs with infinite
maximum speeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.16 Q-axis current density maps of the three example IPMs with infinite
maximum speeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.17 Negative d-axis current density maps of the three example IPMs with
infinite maximum speeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
xiv
5.18 Current density maps of the three example IPMs with infinite
maximum speeds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.1 Load profile of the Toyota Prius Gen. 2 IPM over a combined driving
cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.2 Toyota Prius Gen. 2 motor output energy versus torque and speed for
the combined US driving cycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.3 Cyclic representative points with seven clusters for the combined US
driving cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.4 Optimization results of Toyota Prius Gen .2 IPM motor over the
combined US driving cycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.7 Tested efficiency map of the Toyota Prius Gen. 2 IPM motor reported
by the research team at ORNL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.8 Lumped thermal network model of the motor cooling system developed
in Motor-CAD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.9 The peak temperatures of the counterpart designs evaluated over US06
driving cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.11 Formula E motor load profile for the Le Mans driving cycle. . . . . . 168
6.15 The results of optimization of the spoke-type IPM over 3,400 design
solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.16 Correlation of performance metrics with mass and power losses in the
designs optimized for efficiency and high power density. . . . . . . . . 175
6.19 Histogram of the distributions of (a) ksi , and (b) kwpm in the 100 Pareto-
optimal designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.20 Flux lines distributions of the optimized designs at 6 000 r/min under
rated load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
6.24 Identifying a design with higher power density and drive-cycle efficiency
than the original design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.26 Efficiency maps of the high power density spoke-type designs. . . . . 187
7.2 Influence of the design parameters on AMC in the two case-study motors.195
7.4 Developed procedure for sensitivity analysis of the optimal design values.200
7.6 Optimization results of the 48S8P motor configuration for a typical set
of commodity price coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.9 Slot leakage and fringing flux in a typical open-slot FSCW PM machine.207
7.10 Alternative coil models for strand eddy current loss analysis. . . . . . 212
7.11 Radial and tangential components of the field sections in Fig. 7.10(c)
for a typical motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
7.13 Slot fill factor and strand positions for example slot geometries as the
net slot area increases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.14 Reconstruction of the field harmonics from the sample points using
Delaunay triangulation method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.16 Distribution of strand eddy current losses under various loading levels. 219
7.18 Comparison of the accuracy of the loss calculation method over a wide
range of frequencies and loading conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7.20 Variation of dc ohmic losses and strand eddy current losses with respect
to loading level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.22 Modeling of the original layout on the left with the equivalent ring on
the right. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
xvii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Electric motor driven systems are considered to be the largest consumers of electric
energy, often accounting for up to one-third or more of the total electricity sold in
industrialized countries [1]. In the U.S., electric motors account for 38% of the total
electrical energy consumption [2, 6], see Figure 1.1. The financial and environmental
incentives for energy savings are substantial, through improving the efficiency of the
electric motor driven systems in the U.S., see Table 1.1 [1].
Commercial,
498000, 13%
Transport,
4000, 0%
Figure 1.1: U.S. electricity use by sector, (million kWh/year 2006) [2].
2
Table 1.1: Estimated annual savings resulting from the utilization of high-efficiency
motor systems [1].
Cost saved $3-5 billion
Energy saved 62-104 giga kWh
CO2 emission 15-26 mega tons
The latter measure, which will not be addressed in this dissertation, covers a
broad spectrum of strategies ranging from upgrading the system control technologies,
to matching the type and size of the motor with the load requirements, better
maintenance, etc.
• the use of new materials for laminations, conductors, and permanent magnets
(if applicable),
• the investigation of advanced concepts in design of the rotor, stator, and winding
configurations, and
• perfecting the existing technology by fully exploring the design space for optimal
Owing to the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1992 (EPAct) and the
subsequent NEMA Premium motors standard, which has been made mandatory since
Dec. 2010, the penetration rate of high efficiency motors in the U.S. has been steadily
rising in recent years [2]. Lately, the EV Everywhere Grand Challenge [3], which
was initiated in March 2012 to render plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) as affordable
4X Cost Reduction
35% Size Reduction
40% Weight Reduction
40% Loss Reduction
electric drive systems in EV applications which should be realized by 2022, see Figure
are characterized and measured; amongst them are high efficiency, low torque
ripple, high torque density, high power factor, sinusoidal back-emf waveform with
by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE) [8], the technical
Due to the eliminated rotor copper losses in PMSMs, such machines can be
designed to maintain high efficiency at higher torque densities, and yet with a less
sophisticated cooling system [9]. With proper control, PMSMs can operate at high
field synchronous machines, PMSMs have lower maintenance, better rotor structural
integrity, and faster dynamics due to the absence of rotating field windings and
sinewave drive brushless PMSM technology using computationally efficient and high
on Computational Electromagnetics
static field problems [10] in the works of Trutt [11], Erdelyi [12–15], and Demerdash
[16–18]. From the very beginning, computer aided design optimization of electric
by Demerdash and Hamilton [16, 19], where finite difference models of two- and
angular position of the rotor slots for reducing the eddy current losses in the stator
strands. The model was capable of taking the complex geometry and the saturation
phenomenon in to account.
As the finite element method (FEM) proved to be more effective, more accurate,
the tendency for application of FEM, as opposed to FD, in various types of electric
machines grew rapidly in early works of many investigators such as Chari and Silvester
[22–26], Brauer [27], Anderson [28], Demerdash and Nehl [21, 29–31], and others.
distribution and the magnetic vector potential is determined for given design
In an inverse problem, the flow of the design is reversed whereby a specific performance
iterations. In his work, Nakata [34–36] developed a simplified inverse model for one-
the optimal shape and size required for producing prescribed flux densities at desired
points in the air-gap. As reported later, his developed method failed to produce
meaningful results for relatively more complicated design cases [37]. This was in
part due to the fact that the treatment of the boundary nodes as design variables
spikes and edges in the structure of the optimized shapes [38–40], thus necessitating
formulated the design process as a classic optimization problem with two main
components using 2-D magnetostatic integral field solutions in linear media. The
investigators concluded that several attempts of user intervention in the design process
[43] distinguished the two main segments of a systematic optimization procedure for
reported in their early investigations was the sensitivity analysis, which revealed, by
the machine are affected by changes in the design variables. In [44], Koh et al. studied
similar sensitivity analysis was devised to study the correlation of the design variables
with cogging torque. Park et al. fully elaborated this method of sensitivity analysis
of 2-D magnetostatic problems in [45]. Hoole et al. [46] applied the same concepts to
field.
works of Saldanha et al. [48, 49]. The deterministic algorithms are characterized with
very fast convergence provided that the objective function is convex and differentiable.
However, they face the risk of premature convergence to local minima in a practical
the advent of more powerful computational systems. Stochastic methods are more
because these methods do not rely on gradient calculations [50]. However, they
search algorithms with zero, first, and second order characteristics including the
Monte-Carlo iteration (MC), the steepest descent (SD), conjugate gradient, and
multitude of the factors involved in design of these complex systems precludes the
stability, generality, and convergence to global minimum [52]. Gottvald also stressed
unequivocally conclude that the studied stochastic methods are far superior in terms
of robustness and generality for complex applications, and that their convergence rates
approach has also been suggested by some investigators, e.g. by Drago et al. in [56]
convergence of several optimization algorithms for these two types of problems using
work was also novel in other aspects such as the introduction of the concept of Pareto-
or the employment of global quantities (e.g. power density, torque, and magnet
weight) as opposed to local quantities (e.g. flux distribution) in defining the objective
subject to field discretization errors. This issue was further elaborated by Hoole et
al. in [59]. They found out that the discontinuities in the objective function have
no physical basis, yet they will persist regardless of the mesh accuracy. In a later
work, the same investigators developed a structural mapping method for geometric
parametrization to minimize these discontinuities [60], which was then used in the
field calculations. Preis et al. [62] utilized evolutionary algorithms for the design
optimization of the pole shape of a dipole magnets using two- and three-dimensional
10
FE models. Some investigators, e.g. Schafer Jotter and Muller in [63] or Simkin
algorithms.
of electromagnetic devices using 2-D FE models as the analysis tool and genetic
algorithms (GA) as the search algorithm. The investigators implemented the method
in Fig. 1.3 for design optimization of the pole face of a motor to achieve sinusoidal
magnetic flux density in the air-gap for one particular loading condition, i.e. a
current density of 10A/mm2 . Four design parameters each coded into 16-bit string
population size of 30 members which was carried out over 24 iterations. In subsequent
slot PM servo motor. The FEM was used for performance evaluation of the design
11
Start design
optimization
The optimization was performed over 900 generations each of 1 member to optimize
the structure of the stator slot which was parameterized through 31 design variables.
Also in [68], Chung et al. optimized the slot shape of a PM machine to reduce the
cogging torque using FEM and a similar evolutionary algorithm. Their parametrized
motor using both analytical and FE models for analysis of the motor performance.
The method could take global figures of merit such as torque, efficiency, and the
material cost into account. Using the FE-based model, the investigators pursued
two scenarios of optimization with different objectives, one with the objective of
minimizing the PM mass for a rated torque of 10 Nm, and the other with the objective
of maximizing torque density within confined stator outer diameter and axial stack
12
length. In both cases, the model consisted of five design parameters on the stator
temperature and the minimum air-gap flux density were defined. The optimization
was performed with different population sizes to conclude that the best results are
achieved with a population size of larger than 50 members. The investigators also
performed the optimization using hill-climbing direct search method to observe that
the optimized designs obtained using GA were slightly better than those produced
the search space. In a similar work, Bianchi and Canova [70] used the same GA-
IPM machine for a given peak stator current of 70 A. In this case, the optimal values
performance. In [71], Ohnishi and Takahashi included the rotor motion by taking
into account the relative position of the rotor with respect to the stator through
reduces the computation time required for mesh modification during the rotation.
The investigators then used this technique in optimizing the rotor of an IPM machine
with four design parameters. The optimization which was carried out over a large
under a rated current of 3 A(rms). Many other investigators have aimed to reduce
studied in [76–78] for a broad range of modeling techniques, there is always a trade-off
between accuracy and execution time of the model-based design and analysis.
idea was fully elaborated by Sizov et al. in [82] as the computationally efficient-
finite element analysis (CE-FEA). The CE-FEA approach was subsequently utilized
FEA method does not provide an estimation of the rotor core losses, these losses
are usually smaller than the stator core losses due to the unvarying field in the
pole-slot combinations and power ratings were optimized using CE-FEA and DE.
Each case-study was fully parameterized to allow variations of the rotor and
incorporating multiple magnetostatic solutions to take into account the rotor motion.
The designs were optimized to maximize the torque density, and to minimize the
14
torque ripple and power losses at the rated load operating point. In [85], Zhang
using the CE-FEA and DE design synthesis package. The motor model, which was
losses and active material cost, subject to several performance constraints on torque
ripple, induced voltage THD, and degree of PM demagnetization, all at the rated
was employed by Brown et al. [86], for optimization, comparison, and prototyping of
two IPM topologies for use in a commercial heat pump. The investigators concluded
that the CE-FEA optimization methodology was successfully tested in designing the
high-efficiency prototypes. Duan et al. in [87], Zhang et al. in [85, 88], and Wang et
al. in [89, 90] reported several other successful implementations of the CE-FEA design
PM or SyR machines.
One of the major merits of salient pole synchronous machines is their efficient
operation in the extended speed range. This is due to the contribution of the
reluctance torque in this mode of operation, which can be overlooked if not directly
(SyRM) which was equipped with additional sheets of PM in between the rotor
flux barriers resulting in a PM-assisted SyRM. The goal of the optimization was
to minimize the volume of the rotor PMs while realizing the performance constraints
on minimum required torque and maximum allowed supply voltage under rated and
maximum speeds. The design parameters were limited to the thickness of the magnet
sheets in the rotor flux barriers, leaving the stator and the rotor structures unchanged.
An optimal design was achieved and was shown to outperfom the original SyRM
in terms of torque and terminal voltage characteristics. The efficiency during the
simultaneously minimizing the rotor volume and maximizing the power capability
in the flux weakening regime in [92] based on the idea of equality of the rated
current and the characteristic current [93], i.e. the ratio of magnet flux linkage to
for maximizing the characteristic current and minimizing the active volume of the
was imposed on the back emf to limit it to 400 V at maximum 6 000 r/min speed.
the number of the magnet layers, and a relatively large number of design candidates,
8 000 and 10 000 designs, were evaluated. Although a minimum efficiency of 0.8 was
pioneering model-based design optimization study for improving the field weakening
performance of IPM machines was developed by Quyang et al. [94], where Monte
Carlo and DE algorithms were coupled to FE-based models to optimize two IPM
motors with modular and regular stator structures. In the optimization of the
conventional stator design, similar to Zarko’s work in [92], the motor was optimized
Similarly, the idea of equality of the characteristic current, ICH , with the rated
for enhanced field weakening performance. In [95], Pellegrino and Cupertino adopted
this criterion to optimize the rotor structure of an IPM motor with three PM layers
that there is a trade-off between the constant power range and torque production
FEA coupled to a DE optimizer to minimize the difference between the values of ICH
material cost and stator losses at the rated load point were simultaneously pursued.
Based on these objectives, it was concluded that for the two studied IPM motors with
single-layer and double-layer PMs, when extended speed operation is considered, high
efficiency, high power factor, and saliency increase the material cost.
The equality of ICH , and IR improves the torque production capability of the
machine [93]. However, from the efficiency standpoint, congruity of ICH , and IR
17
cannot be the ideal criterion for constant power operation. By definition, maximizing
ICH results in either stronger magnets or lower d-axis inductance. Accordingly, when
the non-linear and lossy nature of the machine is considered, for machines with larger
magnet flux and maintain controllability in the extended speed range. This results
in higher copper losses and diminishes the energy efficiency of the field weakening
investigated by evaluating two critical load points: maximum torque at base and
random search optimizer to realize three objectives: maximize the torque at base
speed, maximize the torque at maximum speed, and minimize the weight of the motor.
Although the equality of ICH , and IR is not directly introduced in the optimization
an optimized design in which the two currents are equal. Alternatively, in [100] in
lieu of minimizing the weight, maximizing the torque and efficiency at the base and
maximum speeds were considered as the objectives by Lee and Kwon. In this reference
method were used to simultaneously improve the efficiency and operation range of
a concentrated flux IPM motor. One limitation of the proposed method in [100], is
the estimation of the stator winding excitation current using inductance-based motor
models. Also in [101], Yamazaki et al. optimized the rotor design of an IPM motor
through FE-based models to minimize the iron losses for maximum torque operation
18
at base and maximum speeds. However, the rotor geometry was only subjected to
limited variations with some additional assumptions regarding the current advance
angle which were not fully substantiated. The same investigators carried out another
fine-tuning optimization of the rotor shape of IPM motors for reducing the iron losses
optimization with genetic algorithm optimizer, for achieving desirable field weakening
performance in a PM assisted SyR motor. In the first stage, the SyR motor with
three flux barriers is optimized for maximum torque, and minimum torque ripple at
the rated load point. Upon finding an optimal solution, a second optimization is
carried out with constrained design parameters close to those obtained in the first
stage plus or minus 15%. In the final stage of the design, PMs are introduced in the
rotor structure. The grades of the PMs are so chosen to achieve the required flux
[104] analyzed the influence of the PM volume on the field weakening performance
using FEM. Subsequently, the relationships between PM remnant flux density and
efficiency at two load points residing at base and corner speeds were investigated.
performance over the entire driving cycle. In [105, 106], Wang et al. proposed a
method known as the cyclic representative points to efficiently model a target driving
cycle, specifically the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) and the Artemis Urban
Driving Cycle, by a finite number of torque versus speed points. These points were
derived based on the energy distribution function specifically calculated for the vehicle
19
model and the target driving cycle. The investigators subsequently performed the
optimization over these cyclic representative points. However, these studies do not
design variables.
assisted SyR motor using a FE-based model with genetic algorithm optimizer by
Carraro et al. However, only two representative points, which were selected in a
relatively subjective manner, were considered. This limited number of points cannot
effectively represent the driving cycle. In the case study, both of the two representative
points resided in the constant torque range. Therefore, the objectives which were
defined as minimization of the torque ripple and motor losses over these points do
1.4. When an initial design is obtained, further improvements are possible through
numerical optimization.
20
In the light of the literature review, the common practice in large-scale design
under the rated operating conditions. This is most suitable for applications in which
the load profile is constant over the majority of the operation period, e.g. classes
However, in many applications, the motor torque and speed profiles experience wide
variations, e.g. electric motors in traction applications, or classes S4, S5, and S7-S10
taking the entire range of operation into account, of which the most notable is the
In view of the problem background and the literature search, Chapter 2 discusses
scale design optimization of electric machines under rated operating conditions. This
automated design package, which serves as the starting point of the topics investigated
for one particular operating condition. The necessity of including the entire range
operating cycle, the variations of optimal design rules of PM machines with respect
purpose, two IPM motors with different cooling systems and winding configurations
are studied. As the first step for increasing the computational efficiency of the
the computational burden of the searching process, the developed algorithm enables
adopting more complicated models with larger number of load operating points. In
a sensitivity analysis of active material cost with respect to commodity price changes,
22
a computationally efficient method for calculation of strand eddy current losses, and
a method for estimation of tangential mechanical stresses on the rotor bridges. The
So far the topics discussed in this dissertation are published, or are in press in various
Access)
Accepted for 2016 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE),
23
Motors,” Accepted for 2016 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition
2016.
Rules for Interior PM Motors with Different Cooling Systems,” 2015 IEEE
Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), 2015 IEEE, Dearborn, MI, 2015,
pp. 1-8.
25
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN OPTIMIZATION FOR RATED
OPERATING CONDITIONS
previously developed by Dr. Gennadi Sizov [117] and Dr. Peng Zhang [118] at the
Electric Machines and Drives Laboratory at Marquette University over the past few
years. This design package, which on par with the common practice was developed
for improving the machine rated performance, serves as the starting point of the
research conducted in this dissertation. First, the essence of this design optimization
approach including its two main segments, one for computationally efficient FE-based
performance evaluation of the design members, and another for fast convergence to
Gen 2 interior PMSM design will be optimized for its peak operating condition.
Through this case study, the principles of the automated design package developed
performance metrics such as torque, losses and efficiency, terminal conditions, and
material cost, or local quantities such as air-gap flux distribution, and PM local
demagnetization can constitute the set of objectives. The constraints can also be
demagnetization.
a reduced time, is composed of two main parts, see Fig. 2.1. The first part is a
performance evaluation of the design members with high fidelity. The second part is
a stochastic differential evolution (DE) [120] search algorithm which is employed for
finding the globally optimal solutions. In this section, the principles of CE-FEA and
DE are reviewed.
Analysis
The CE-FEA approach fully exploits the existing electric symmetry and magnetic
● Parameterized 2D model
Params. F and Cr
● Magnetostatic analysis settings
time-stepping FEA, analyzing the motor performance using the CE-FEA approach
can lead to significant savings in the modeling time, up to two orders of magnitude
as stated in [119]. The principles of this modeling approach are briefly explained as
given next.
where ν is the material reluctivity, A is the magnetic vector potential (mvp), J is the
excitation current density, and JP M is the equivalent current density for modeling
28
e'2
e''2 e2
e'2
e''1
e''2 e2
c1- a2-
c2- a1-
e1
c2+ a1+
Figure 2.2: Mapping the field values between typical sister elements in the CE-FEA
method.
the permanent magnets. Equation (2.1.1) is solved at successive rotor positions for
instantaneous values of J are determined from the rotor position, θm , and loading
symmetry in the stator geometry can be used to map the tangential, fT , and radial,
fR , field values between sister elements throughout the stator periodicity span, as
29
2
Reconstructed Btooth
Mid−tooth B (T)
1 Samples tooth−a
Samples tooth−b
0 Samples tooth−c
−1
−2
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor position (deg. el.)
1.5
Reconstructed Btooth
1
Mid−tooth B (T)
Samples tooth−a
0.5 Samples tooth−b
0 Samples tooth−c
−0.5
−1
−1.5
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor position (deg. el.)
Figure 2.3: Reconstruction of mid-tooth flux densities using the CE-FEA method.
given below:
kαs P
fR,T (t + , r, θ) = fR,T (t, r, θ + kαs ) (2.1.2)
2ω
where, k is the index that depends on the slot-pole combination and winding layout,
P is the number of poles, ω is angular frequency, and αs is the slot pitch in mechanical
measure.
Typical sister elements for two different pole-slot combinations, i.e. a 48-slot 8-
pole, and a 12-slot 10-pole configuration are graphically illustrated in Fig. 2.2 (a)
and (b). As shown Fig. 2.2, in the CE-FEA method, the field values are mapped
30
1.5
Reconstructed Byoke
1
Mid−yoke B (T)
Samples yoke−a
0.5 Samples yoke−b
0 Samples yoke−c
−0.5
−1
−1.5
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor position (deg. el.)
1.5
Reconstructed Byoke
1
Mid−yoke B (T)
Samples yoke−a
0.5 Samples yoke−b
0 Samples yoke−c
−0.5
−1
−1.5
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor position (deg. el.)
Figure 2.4: Reconstruction of mid-yoke flux densities using the CE-FEA method.
between typical sister elements such as e1 , e01 , and e001 or e2 , e02 , and e002 . It should
be pointed out that the relative location of the sister elements is independent of the
excited PMSMs is fully utilized in the CE-FEA method to reconstruct the entire
In Fig. 2.3, the reconstruction of the mid-tooth flux densities using CE-FEA
31
2
Reconstructed λ
a
1 Samples phase−a
Samples phase−b
λ (Wb)
0 Samples phase−c
a −1
−2
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor position (deg. el.)
1
Reconstructed λ
a
0.5 Samples phase−a
Samples phase−b
λa (Wb)
0 Samples phase−c
−0.5
−1
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor position (deg. el.)
Figure 2.5: Reconstruction of stator winding flux linkages using the CE-FEA method.
approach are illustrated for the two example machines previously shown in Fig. 2.2,
respectively using 10 and 7 static solutions for the 48-slot 8-pole, and 12-slot 10-pole
machine configurations.
As shown in Fig. 2.4 for the same machine configurations, a similar procedure
can be employed for reconstruction of the mid-yoke flux density waveforms. It should
be pointed out that for illustration purposes in Figs. 2.3 and 2.4, the “virtual search
coils” [118] for collecting the flux density values are located perpendicular to the main
flux path. Otherwise, the tangential and radial components of elemental flux densities
32
40
Reconstructed torque
35 Samples
Torque (Nm)
30
25
20
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor position (deg. el.)
32
Reconstructed torque
31 Samples
Torque (Nm)
30
29
28
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor position (deg. el.)
Figure 2.6: Reconstruction of the torque profile using the CE-FEA method.
In addition to the elemental flux density values in the stator core, the same
symmetry rules can be found in the waveforms of the stator winding flux linkages.
This is illustrated in Fig. 2.5(a) and (b) for the two previously discussed example
machines. The waveforms of the induced voltages can be subsequently obtained from
In the CE-FEA method, the torque values, which can be calculated using the virtual
work method [121] or the Maxwell stress tensor, are obtained at the sample points
within the first 60 electrical degrees of the fundamental cycle. Subsequently, these
sample points are replicated over the entire cycle to reconstruct the torque profile.
A Fourier analysis on the resultant torque profile is then conducted to extract the
average torque in Eq. (2.1.3) and the torque ripple in Eq. (2.1.4) [118]:
X
Tem = Tavg + Tn cos (nωt + φn ) (2.1.3)
n=6,12
illustrated in Fig. 2.6 for the two previously discussed 48-slot 8-pole, and 12-slot
10-pole machines.
Upon deriving the waveform profiles of the field quantities, a subsequent Fourier
expressions:
nX
max
where Fn and φn are the magnitude and the phase angle of the nth harmonic,
respectively.
The Fourier series of the stator core flux densities is of special interest for
the total core losses, PF e , of the stator laminations. Throughout this work, the CAL2
loss model introduced by Ionel et al. in [122], which features accurate estimation of
According to the loss model in Eq. (2.1.6), the hysteresis, kh , and eddy-current,
ke , core loss coefficients, are expressed as functions of the peak flux density, B, and
angular frequency, ω, i.e. kh (B, ω), and ke (B, ω). It has been previously demonstrated
multiple non-overlapping frequency ranges, thus simplifying the expressions for core
Accordingly, the hysteresis and eddy current loss components can be separately
expressed based on Fourier series derivations of the stator core flux densities using
nX
max
ω
Ph = kh (Bn )(n )B 2 , (W/kg) (2.1.8)
n=1
2π n
nX
max
ω 2 2
Pe = kc (Bn )(n ) Bn , (W/kg) (2.1.9)
n=1
2π
The CE-FEA method does not provide an indication of the rotor losses, i.e. core
and magnet losses. Nonetheless, these losses are expected to be smaller, as opposed
to the stator core losses, due to the non-varying (non-pulsating) fundamental field in
the rotor laminations. Whenever high frequency fluctuations (pulsations) of the rotor
35
field are significant, which is more likely to occur in PM machines with fractional
slot concentrated winding configurations [126], the rotor losses can be taken into
[80, 119].
The dc copper losses, Pdc , are obtained by Eq. (2.1.10) provided below:
where vCu is the volume of the copper including the end-turns, J is the excitation
current density, and ρ is the copper resistivity which is calculated for a given
algorithm, aka optimizer. The optimizer utilized in the design synthesis package
algorithm [120].
optimizer. That is, there is a degree of uncertainty involved in the evolution model
unique method for the generation of trial design members, ~u, which are the designs
36
that compete with the parent population members, ~xg , to determine the offspring
population, ~xg+1 . The DE algorithm with adaptations for electric machinery design
2.1.2.1 Initialization
In a typical 2-D design problem, the cross section of the given machine configuration
the strongest correlations with the machine performance metrics. Accordingly, each
designs which constitute the current population, P~g = [~xg,1 , ~xg,2 , ..., ~xg,Np ]. The first
upper, xi,max , and lower, xi,min , bounds of the design parameters as given below:
Upon identification of the design members of the parent population, and calculation
comparing the performance of the design members in the parent population with
that of a corresponding trial design. Each parameter of the trial design, ~uk , is created
selected design members from the current population, ~xr0 , ~xr1 , and ~xr2 , through the
Cr ∈ [0, 1], i.e. 0 ≤ Cr ≤ 1.0. Although similar to Np , the specific values of F and Cr
are not known, it is recommended that F < 1 for better reliability and convergence
rate [120]. Furthermore, a lower limit of Fmin for enhanced diversity of the population
If the lower or upper bounds of the design parameters are violated in the trial
member, either Eq. (2.1.12) or the “bounce-back” method in Eq. (2.1.15) given
2.1.2.3 Selection
After the performance metrics of the trial designs are identified, in this case through
CE-FEA ...
design problem, the minimization of active material cost and power losses are
recommended for DE algorithms [120], the trial vector ~u wins the competition if:
• it does not violate the constraints whereas the current design does, or
objectives are higher and at least one of its objectives is lower compared to the
2.1.2.4 Termination
Although there is not a specific rule for termination of the optimization iterations, a
few possible stop criteria for the DE algorithm are discussed in [77, 127, 128]. The
general idea is that the optimization needs to be carried out until the changes in the
value of the objective functions between two consecutive generations are small. From
this point on, the optimization can be continued to add to the density or diversity of
the optimal designs in the optimal solution region, which is in the form of a Pareto
Point
In this section, the 48-slot 8-pole IPM machine topology shown in Fig. 2.8 which
was used in the Toyota Prius Gen 2 Hybrid Synergy Drive (HSD), is optimized at
40
the nominal operating point using the design optimization package described in the
previous section. The purpose of this case study design is twofold: (a) to examine the
steps involved in a sample case study using CE-FEA and DE, and (b) to illustrate
the shortcomings of the existing approach in performance improvement for the entire
range of operation.
The details concerning the general nature of a finite element non-linear magnetic
the literature [21–31] and, therefore, will not be discussed here. In addition to
this case is carried out in Ansys Maxwell, another important step in an automated
In this case study design optimization, based on the overall shapes of the stator
The stator geometry of the Prius propulsion motor is composed of common parallel
tooth and rounded slot bottom structures, which can be parametrized using the
Assuming the center of the machine axis to be the origin of the coordinate system,
the equations governing the principal nodes in this stator structure are expressed as
y
wt /2 4 x
1 23 rsb
αs 5
ds osb hy
dt3 rso
wtip/2
dt2 wso
rsi
β
y dq
wq/2
x 5 4
7 wrad
3
6
hpm
8
αpm
1 2
αp αpp dpm
wpm
rri
rro
The rotor structure of the Prius Gen 2 propulsion motor is also a common
machine axis as the origin of the coordinate system, the parametrized structure shown
xq1 = xq2 − 0.75hpm sin (αpm /2)
y = 0
q1
xq2 = rro − dpm
y = 0
q2
xq3 = (rro − wrad ) cos(αpp /2)
y = (r − w ) sin(α /2)
q3 ro rad pp
xq4 = (rro − wrad ) cos αp /2 − arcsin
wq
2(rro −wrad )
yq4 = (rro − wrad ) sin αp /2 − arcsin
wq
2(rro −wrad )
(2.2.2)
xq5 = xq4 − dq cos(αp /2)
y = y − d sin(α /2)
q5 q4 q p
xq6 = xq2 + 2wpm cos(αpm /2)
y = y + 2w sin(α /2)
q6 q2 pm pm
xq7 = xq6 − hpm sin(αpm /2)
y = y + h cos(α /2)
q7 q6 pm pm
xq8 = xq2 − hpm sin(αpm /2)
y = y + h cos(α /2)
q8 q2 pm pm
44
Table 2.1: Boundaries of the design variables defined over the parameterized cross-
section of the Prius motor.
Parameter(xi ) Description xi,min xi,max
ksi rsi /rso 0.6 0.7
hg Fig. 2.11 0.7 mm 2.5 mm
kwt wt /αs 0.35 0.75
kwtt wtip /(wso + wtip ) 0.3 0.8
kdpm dpm /dpm,max 0.25 0.50
kwpm wpm /wpm,max 0.80 0.93
kwq wq /wq,max 0.5 0.9
hpm Fig. 2.11 3.8 mm 9.0 mm
αpm Fig. 2.11 20 deg. 32 deg.
hy Fig. 2.11 13 mm 25 mm
The final parameterized cross-section of the Toyota Prius 48-slot 8-pole IPM motor
is constructed based on the parameterized stator and rotor cross-sections, see Fig.
2.11. Ten independent design variables are defined in its structure, 4 pertaining to
the stator geometry, 5 pertaining to the rotor geometry, in addition to the airgap
height. The geometric parameters are rationalized and confined according to Table
of the motor. As depicted in Fig. 2.12, the wide variations of the geometric design
parameters, from the lower to upper bounds is crucial for full exploration of the design
space.
With reference to the original design, the stator outer and the rotor inner
diameters are fixed to 260mm and 111mm, respectively. The active stack length
of the laminations and rotor PMs of each design candidate are scaled to produce the
hy
rso
Stator
ds
Slot wt
wso hg
rsi
wq dpm
Rotor hpm
PM wpm
αpm
rri
The calculation of the nominal torque is performed under maximum torque per
ampere (MTPA) operation for the given rated current density. The angle of the
current phasor for MTPA operation is determined by sampling the average torque
torque profile versus the advance angle [129] of the current phasor as shown in Fig.
2.13. The MTPA operation is achieved at the angle where the torque reaches its peak.
The optimization was carried out over 60 generations each consisting of 80 members.
Figure 2.12: Range of variation of the design parameters defined over the Prius motor
topology.
47
40
Average T
30 Samples
Torque (Nm)
MTPA
20
10
0
90 112.5 135 157.5 180
Advanced angle (deg. el.)
where the mass, m, is in kg and the steel cost is considered as the one-
that the AMC is an approximate indication of the total cost of each motor
design solutions.
• Minimize the power losses consisting of the stator core and copper losses.
Furthermore, the two following constraints were considered for this optimization case
study to:
retentivity/remnant Br .
48
Table 2.2: Geometric design parameters of the counterpart optimal designs obtained
from the Prius motor design optimization at nominal load point.
Parameter G59M12 G20M62 Prius
ksi 0.66 0.64 0.60
hg (mm) 0.71 0.71 0.73
kwt 0.72 0.69 0.72
kwtt 0.34 0.47 0.36
kdpm 0.43 0.25 0.44
kwpm 0.93 0.93 0.88
kwq 0.66 0.73 0.86
hpm (mm) 4.22 5.55 6.50
αpm 31.67 25.24 30.15
hy (mm) 22.11 21.77 20.10
Stack length 106 95 84
slot fill factor of 0.47 has been reported for the original Prius design at this load point
[130, 131], which were maintained the same for all the design candidates throughout
The optimization results are plotted in terms of objectives, and are color-coded
with respect to three performance metrics, namely torque ripple, minimum flux
density of the PMs, and power factor in Fig. 2.14(a) through (c), respectively. Some
observations could be made regarding the existing trade-offs between the objectives
and constraints in this specific case study. Aside from the conflicting relationship
between the active material cost and power losses, it can be seen that the machines
with higher costs tend to have a lesser PM demagnetization, and higher power factor.
This can be attributed to the larger amount of expensive magnet material used in
their constructions.
49
300 25
10
100
G59M12 5
G20M62 Prius
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Stator power losses (kW)
300 1
Active material cost (pu)
0.8
(T)
200
0.6
PM, min
0.4
100
B
G59M12 0.2
G20M62 Prius
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Stator power losses (kW)
300 1
Active material cost (pu)
200 0.8
100 0.6
G59M12
G20M62 Prius
0 0.4
0 5 10 15 20 25
Stator power losses (kW)
Figure 2.14: Results of the optimization of the Prius motor at the nominal load point
expressed in terms of the designated objectives.
50
In Fig. 2.14, two optimized designs, “G59M12” and “G20M62” are marked, the
number after G indicates the generation and the number after M indicates the member
candidate design. Using the same simulation tools, the performance of the Prius
motor is also computed at this load operating point, and is compared with respect to
of active material cost. However, the efficiency is further improved in the other two
selected design candidates. In fact, design G20M62 exhibits both lower losses and
The three counterpart designs and their performance metrics are thoroughly
compared in Tables 2.2 through 2.5 , and Figs. 2.15 through 2.18. These metrics
are obtained using full-fledge time-stepping 2-D FEA in Motor-CAD for the same
operating point and at a temperature of 100◦ C for all components as was the case
51
Table 2.4: Distribution of power losses in the counterpart designs obtained from the
Prius motor design optimization at nominal load point.
Index G59M12 G20M62 Prius
Copper Loss (W) 5126 6204 7477
Magnet Loss (W) 5 6 6
Stator Back Iron Hysteresis Loss (W) 268 255 249
Stator Back Iron Eddy Loss (W) 24 22 22
Stator Tooth Hysteresis Loss (W) 196 231 252
Stator Tooth Eddy Loss (W) 38 39 42
Rotor Back Iron Hysteresis Loss (W) 18 29 26
Rotor Back Iron Eddy Loss (W) 0 0 0
Rotor Magnet Pole Hysteresis Loss (W) 85 66 70
Rotor Magnet Pole Eddy Loss (W) 5 4 3
Table 2.5: Mass of active components in the counterpart designs obtained from the
Prius motor design optimization at nominal load point.
Index G59M12 G20M62 Prius
Stator Lamination (kg) 21.2 19.3 17.6
Winding (kg) 4.1 5.0 6.0
Rotor Lamination (kg) 10.1 7.8 4.7
Magnet (kg) 1.28 1.13 1.25
According to Table 2.2, the split ratios, i.e. the ratio of stator inner to outer
diameter, of the optimized designs are higher than the original design, which, in
addition to the longer stack lengths of the optimized designs, has resulted in a lower
torque per rotor volume in the optimized designs, as listed in Table 2.3.
If the machine length has to be confined within a predefined value, the maximum
function. Yet, since the volume of the machine is oftentimes directly related to
minimization of power losses will further narrow down the feasible design space.
52
The higher rotor peripheral velocity of the optimized designs in Table 2.3,
necessitates structural analysis of the rotor body to ensure that the bridges can
withstand the centrifugal stresses at the maximum operating speed. This mechanical
aspect of the design will be addressed in the last Chapter of this dissertation where
From Table 2.4 whereby the distributions of the losses are indicated for the
counterpart designs, it can be seen that the contribution of the rotor core losses
and PM losses to the overall core losses is marginal compared to that of the stator
core losses.
The masses of the main active components in the counterpart designs are listed
and compared in Table 2.5. It is interesting to note that the proportion of the mass
of the lamination steel to the masses of copper and PM is higher in the optimized
designs, whereas the copper masses and the PM masses are comparable to those
The cross-sections of the three counterpart designs as well as the field plots under
the rated operating conditions are provided in Fig. 2.15, according to which a higher
The waveforms of the line to line back EMF of the three counterpart designs are
shown in Fig. 2.16. Also the harmonic distribution of the back EMF waveforms
and the induced voltages are provided in Fig. 2.17(a) and (b), respectively. It is
interesting to note that the three designs have comparable distortions in their no-
load back EMF waveforms. However, the high order harmonics, namely 7th , 11th ,
53
(c) Prius
Figure 2.15: Cross-sections and rated field plots of the three counterpart designs
obtained from the Prius motor design optimization at nominal load point.
54
1 Line a−b
Line b−c
−0.5
−1
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor position (deg. el.)
(a)
1 Line a−b
Line b−c
Line EMF (pu)
−0.5
−1
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor position (deg. el.)
(b)
1 Line a−b
Line b−c
Line EMF (pu)
−0.5
−1
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor position (deg. el.)
(c)
Figure 2.16: Line to line back EMF of the counterpart designs obtained from the
Prius motor design optimization at nominal load point (a) G59M12, (b) G20M62,
and (c) Prius.
55
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Harmonic order
1
Harmonic magnitude (pu)
G59M12
0.8 G20M62
Prius
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Harmonic order
Figure 2.17: Harmonic content of the line to line terminal voltage of the counterpart
designs obtained from the Prius motor design optimization at nominal load point.
and 13th , are introduced to the induced voltage waveform of the Prius design to a
larger extent.
Similar to the back EMF waveforms, according to Fig. 2.18(a) the cogging torque
profiles of the two optimized designs are inferior to that of the Prius design. However,
as can be seen in Fig. 2.18(b), the optimized designs demonstrate a lower value of
peak torque ripple under rated operating conditions when compared to Prius design.
56
3
G59M12
(a) Cogging
60
G59M12
Torque ripple (Nm)
40
G20M62
20 Prius
0
−20
−40
−60
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor position (deg. el.)
Figure 2.18: Torque ripple of the counterpart designs obtained from the Prius motor
design optimization at nominal load point.
As can be seen in the metrics shown in Tables 2.2 through 2.5 , and Figs. 2.15
through 2.18, the selected optimized designs outperform the original Prius design at
the nominal load point. However, when the power losses throughout the entire range
of operation are considered, as shown in Fig. 2.19, the Prius design features higher
The procedure for calculation of the efficiency maps provided in Fig. 2.19,
which are obtained through 1 600 performance evaluations over sample load points
57
300
95
250
Efficiency (%)
Torque (Nm) 200
90
150
100 85
50
80
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(a) G59M12
300
95
250
Efficiency (%)
Torque (Nm)
200
90
150
100 85
50
80
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(b) G20M62
300
95
250
Efficiency (%)
Torque (Nm)
200
90
150
100 85
50
80
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(c) Prius
Figure 2.19: Efficiency maps of the counterpart designs obtained from the Prius motor
design optimization at nominal load point.
58
150 25
20
Torque (Nm)
Energy (kJ)
100 15
10
50
5
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Speed (rad/s)
(a) UDDS
80
Torque (Nm)
100
Energy (kJ)
60
40
50
20
0 0
0 100 200 300
Speed (rad/s)
(b) HWFET
Figure 2.20: Load operating points of Toyota Prius propulsion PM motor obtained
from ADVISOR.
Here, the purpose of this comparison is to recognize the fact that although the nominal
efficiencies of the optimized designs are higher than that of the Prius design, the high
efficiency contours of the optimized designs retract faster as the speed increases.
the example case, the electric machine undergoes a wide range of speed and torque
40 15
Torque (Nm)
Energy (kJ)
30
10
20
5
10
0
0 100 200 300 400
Speed (rad/s)
(a) UDDS
40
10
Torque (Nm)
Energy (kJ)
30
20 5
10
0 0
0 100 200 300
Speed (rad/s)
(b) HWFET
Figure 2.21: Load operating points of Honda Insight propulsion PM motor obtained
from ADVISOR.
propulsion motors, Toyota Prius and Honda Insight are derived by modeling the two
dynamometer driving schedule (UDDS), and highway driving schedule (HWFET) are
It can be seen in Fig. 2.20 and Fig. 2.21 that not only do these motors operate at a
multitude of load points, but depending on the driving cycle, these operating points
60
can be far away from the rated/nominal load point. Even including the efficiency
improvement at the maximum torque of the corner speed in the fitness function, as
reported by some investigators [100], cannot accommodate the swarm of the load
In light of the above discussion, a high fidelity design optimization practice for
motors with wide ranges of operation requires accounting for the performance over
all load points. The realization of this goal is the main objective of the research
2.3 Summary
In this chapter, the fast and high fidelity design synthesis methodology using CE-FEA
and DE for large-scale design optimization of PM machines for rated operation was
reviewed. The principles of CE-FEA and DE were discussed and were implemented in
the design optimization of the Toyota Prius 2004 IPM motor. It was illustrated that
the design optimization at rated operation does not guarantee optimal performance
CHAPTER 3
EFFECTS OF AMPERE LOADING LEVEL ON
OPTIMAL DESIGN OF IPM MOTORS
In the previous chapter, the Toyota Prius Gen 2 interior permanent magnet (IPM)
motor was optimized for nominal (or peak) load point operation. It was shown
that although the losses of the selected optimized designs were reduced for the
targeted load point, the efficiency during the extended speed operation was degraded.
The question still remains as to whether and how the optimal design rules vary
for different loading conditions. Provided that the machine operating condition is
characterized by the magnitudes and rate of change of flux and ampere loading in the
core and in the windings, further clarifications concerning this matter can be made
by investigating the optimal design rules at various ampere loading levels. Indeed,
the design optimization of PM motors for a specific loading condition, which leads to
has been widely investigated in the literature [87]. This chapter demonstrates how
these derivations vary with respect to the machine ampere loading and ferrous core
saturation level. For this purpose, a two-fold approach is adopted. First, a parallel
sensitivity analysis is carried out on three machines with three levels of ampere
the design parameters and performance metrics vary under different ampere loading
algorithms (EA), is pursued in order to identify how the optimal ranges of the design
variables are influenced by the Ampere loading and magnetic core saturation levels.
In this respect, ampere loading levels prevalent in three common cooling systems,
that is naturally cooled (NC), fan-cooled (FC), and liquid-cooled (LC) machines are
investigated. To fully account for the complex geometry, magnetic core nonlinearities,
in addition to the Toyota Prius 48-slot 8-pole configuration which was introduced in
the previous chapter, a 12-slot 10-pole configuration is also analyzed in this chapter.
3.1 Introduction
The design and modeling of PM motors has consistently been a subject of special
interest in the literature due to the distinctive features of such machines, including
but not limited to high efficiency, and high power density, which makes them suitable
for high performance applications [132, 133]. Recent design trends rely on large-
(FE) analysis of design candidates for high fidelity calculation of their performance
utilized to accurately model the multi-physics nature of the design problem [89, 134–
136]. In many others, a fixed current density corresponding to the machine’s cooling
of various components are assumed [70, 137–141]. Although the coupled EM/thermal
machines, which can be used either to update the material properties for a subsequent
the maximum current density limit based on the winding temperatures [134], the
can also be as effective, provided that the design problem is well-defined and that the
thermal performances of the optimal designs are examined at the final stages of the
design process. The post-design optimization thermal modeling [142] is usually done
in order to identify the parameters of the cooling system such as the type of surfaces
or the coolant flow rate [143]. Since more efficient designs are achieved through the
of losses than those associated with motors constructed on the basis of traditional
of power losses, and reducing dependency on rare-earth PMs, have been often reported
in the literature for naturally cooled machines [70, 85, 88, 138, 139]. Nevertheless,
increasing the stator winding current density or the machine’s ampere loading elevates
the flux level, and hence the saturation level throughout the machine’s magnetic
circuit. This not only affects the machine performance, but also alters the correlation
64
between them and the geometric design parameters associated with the machine cross-
section. In reference [144], the influence of ampere loading and magnetic saturation
on the cogging torque, back-emf and torque ripple of PM machines was investigated.
metrics was not considered. In reference [87], nonlinear scaling rules for low power
density brushless PM synchronous machines were developed without taking the effects
relations between the geometric design parameters and the performance metrics of
IPM motors for a wide range of ampere-loading levels determined by the machine’s
large scale design optimization. Accordingly, it will be demonstrated that one set of
design rules, such as those derived in [87], cannot be generalized to all three classes
of cooling systems.
and fractional winding IPM machines, two mainstream case-study industrial IPM
(FSCW) are considered. In essence, while FSCW machines offer reduced copper
losses owing to shorter end windings [126, 145], they suffer from higher core losses
as a result of the space harmonics introduced by the more “discrete” nature of the
stator mmf waveform [146]. Furthermore, FSCW machines are less susceptible to
torque ripple due to their intrinsically lower cogging torque. This will lead to different
correlations of the geometric design parameters with these performance metrics as will
65
The parametric cross-sections of the studied machines and their full-fledged 2-D time-
Two generic industrial IPM motor configurations with similar rotor layouts, though
1. The first case-study is the 48-slot, 8-pole motor with a single-layer distributed
winding configuration, see Fig. 3.1(a). This is the same design configuration
as the Toyota Prius introduced and parametrized in the previous chapter. For
2. The second case study is a 12-slot, 10-pole motor with a so-called “double-layer”
stator design of this open-slot configuration is different than the 48-slot stator
The design parameters in Fig. 3.1 are rationalized according to Table 3.1 in order
to avoid geometric conflicts between the structures of various components of the two
hy
rso
Stator
ds
Slot wt
wso hg
rsi
wq dpm
Rotor hpm
PM wpm
αpm
rri
(a) The 48-slot 8-pole machine configuration
rso hy
Stator
Slot
ds wt
rsi hg
dpm
wq
Rotor hpm
PM wpm
αpm
rri
(b) The 12-slot 8-pole machine configuration
Figure 3.1: The parametrized cross section of the case study machines for sensitivity
analysis and optimization at different ampere loading levels.
67
Table 3.1: The independent design variables of the case study machines for sensitivity
analysis and optimization at different ampere loading levels.
48S8P 12S10P
Parameter(xi ) Description
xi,min xi,max xi,min xi,max
ksi rsi /rso 0.60 0.70 0.60 0.70
hg (mm) Fig. 3.1 0.70 2.50 0.70 2.50
kwt wt /αs 0.35 0.75 0.35 0.75
kwtt wtip /(wso + wtip ) 0.30 0.80 NA NA
kdpm dpm /dpm,max 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.50
kwpm wpm /wpm,max 0.80 0.93 0.80 0.93
kwq wq /wq,max 0.50 0.90 0.50 0.90
hpm (mm) Fig. 3.1 3.8 9.0 3.8 9.0
αpm (deg.) Fig. 3.1 20 32 19 26
hy (mm) Fig. 3.1 13 25 13 25
addition to the air-gap height. The 12S10P motor under investigation has one less
independent design variable due to its open slot configuration, thus eliminating the
The design variables are confined by upper and lower bounds, also listed in Table
Nevertheless, wide bounds are designated to allow a full exploration of the design
space during the optimization process. For both machines, the stator outer and the
rotor inner (shaft) diameters are fixed to 260mm and 111mm, respectively.
The 2-D TSFE models of the two machines were developed in ANSYS Maxwell. The
The remenance and coercivity of the NdFeB PMs, and the resistivity of the copper
150 ◦ C, respectively. This is in order to account for the lowest magnet field and
The TSFE analysis with sinusoidal current excitation is utilized to compute the
1. Active material cost: The normalized active material cost (AMC) is calculated
2. Power losses: The power losses consist of copper losses in the stator windings
with approximations of the end winding copper losses, core losses including
hysteresis and eddy current losses in the stator and rotor laminated cores,
and the eddy current losses in the rotor PMs for the 12S10P machine with
the assumption that these eddy currents are resistance limited. For accurate
calculation of the core losses, the frequency domain core loss model introduced
in [122] is utilized. The core losses have been obtained on an element by element
1800r/min.
3. Torque ripple: Following the calculation of the average torque per unit length,
Tave , using TSFE analysis, the stack-lengths of the designs are adjusted to
produce the desired average torque of 300 Nm for a stator current density
Table 3.2: Typical current density ranges found in electric machines with different
cooling systems.
Cooling Natural Fan Liquid
2
Current density (A/mm ) 1.5 − 5 5 − 10 10 − 30
the minimum flux density in the rotor PMs over a complete ac cycle.
PMs with reduced heavy earth dysprosium (Dy) content [147] can offer
introducing air pockets around vulnerable areas [148], are adopted at the final
The excitation current densities considered for the TSFE analysis accounts for
the type of the cooling system. Typical ranges of current densities are given in Table
3.2, [9]. Here, the fixed current densities of 4A/mm2 , 8A/mm2 , and 16A/mm2 are
assumed for naturally cooled (NC), fan-cooled (FC), and liquid-cooled (LC) machines,
respectively.
The phase angle of the current vector is chosen so as to ensure Maximum Torque
per Ampere (MTPA) operation. Since the design candidates can be saturated,
particularly in FC and LC classes, the torque angle at MTPA for each individual
at multiple phase angles of the stator current phasor [70, 149], in a similar manner
70
The variation of the relationships between the geometric design parameters and the
the three levels of stator winding current density. In the following subsections, the
3.3.1 Methodology
For each cooling system, five second order response surfaces were defined
corresponding to the cost, copper losses, core losses, torque ripple, and degree of
PM demagnetization. The core losses and copper losses were treated separately since
the design variables have distinctive effects on these two loss components.
the variation of the design parameters within their permissible ranges influences
the machine performance metrics. The class of Central Composite Designs (CCD)
[150] was used for design of experiments (DOE) in order to calculate the regression
coefficients associated with each second order response surfaces, y, given in Eq.
(3.3.1),
n
X n
X n X
X n
y = βo + βi ci + βii c2i + βij ci cj (3.3.1)
i=1 i=1 i=1 j=i+1
where βo , βi , βii , and βij are the regression coefficients for the n design variables, xi ,
71
In Figs. 3.2 and 3.3, the regression coefficients of the sensitivity analysis are shown
for the five examined performance metrics at the three different levels of current
densities accounting for the three classes of cooling systems. Since the purpose of the
with respect to other design variables, the regression coefficients are normalized to
the variable with the maximum influence in each group of metrics. Furthermore,
aliased with any other main effect or two-factor interaction of the design variables,
i.e. so-called resolution V designs [150]. Therefore, the regression coefficients can be
Each coefficient is associated with a design variable, i.e. input, to indicate how
its variation within the permissible range denoted in Table 3.1 would influence the
increase in input will raise the output whereas a negative coefficient, (−), constitutes
the opposite trend between the input and output. Accordingly, a close examination
of Figs. 3.2 and 3.3 leads to the observation that some trends vary drastically, or even
change direction, with respect to the ampere loading for the two 48S8P and 12S10P
machines.
The sensitivity analysis for each performance metric is summarized in this section.
72
NC FC LC
1
Cost 0
−1
(a)
1
Copper loss
−1
(b)
1
Core loss
−1
(c)
1
Ripple
−1
(d)
1
BPM,min
−1
tt
ksi
pm
αpm
hg
pm
pm
hy
q
kw
w
kw
k
kd
kw
(e)
Figure 3.2: Normalized regression coefficients from the sensitivity study indicating
the effect of the design variables on, (a) active material cost, (b) copper loss, (c) core
loss, (d) minimum PM flux density, and (e) torque ripple for the 48S8P machine.
73
NC FC LC
1
Cost 0
−1
(a)
1
Copper loss
−1
(b)
1
Core loss
−1
(c)
1
Ripple
−1
(d)
1
BPM,min
−1
ksi
pm
pm
hg
pm
pm
hy
q
w
kw
k
kw
α
h
k
(e)
Figure 3.3: Normalized regression coefficients from the sensitivity study indicating
the effect of the design variables on, (a) active material cost, (b) copper loss, (c) core
loss, (d) minimum PM flux density, and (e) torque ripple for the 12S10P machine.
74
the yoke height, which is opposite to the slot depth for a given stator bore.
• The yoke height correlation with AMC is superseded by that of the air-gap
• The positive correlation of the tooth stem width with AMC monotonically
copper losses as the ampere loading level increases should be noted for both
machine configurations.
• For the 48S8P machine, the air-gap height constitutes the strongest correlation
with copper losses in the NC class. In the FC and LC classes, the split ratio,
ksi , the tooth-stem width, and the yoke height become more influential.
• Similar trends exist for the 12S10P machine, except for the diminished influence
• The influences of the design parameters on the core losses are sensitive to the
ampere loading to such an extent that some of these relationships, i.e. those
associated with the stator inner diameter and yoke height, are reversed as the
ampere-loading increases.
associated with the stator constitute the strongest correlation with the core
losses.
• As the ampere loading increases, the design parameters associated with the
• The strong influence of the rotor q-axis bridge on the core losses, especially in
• Except for the air-gap height which maintains a strong negative correlation
with torque ripple under any ampere loading conditions, the two machine
• For the 48S8P machine, the width of the q-axis bridge becomes more influential
than the air-gap height as the level of ampere-loading increases. Meanwhile, the
76
negative correlation of the widths of the tooth stem and tooth tips with torque
• It is interesting to note the reversal of the correlation between the torque ripple
and the tooth stem width under heavy magnetic core saturation in the 12S10P
motor.
3.3.2.5 PM Demagnetization
• For both machine configurations and under all loading conditions, the PM
• The correlation factors of the split ratio, ksi , and the yoke height monotonically
The sensitivity analysis merely reveals the independent effects of the design variables
variables influence the final optimal design which is subject to a unique set of
and results is in order. Nevertheless, the sensitivity study suggests that the optimal
designs for each class should have distinctive features which will be examined in this
section.
optimize the two motor configurations for each level of the current densities. The
find the range of change, i.e. the statistical distribution of the design variables in the
optimized designs residing in the design space for each class of the cooling systems.
Six runs of a large-scale design optimization, each composed of 6600 candidate designs,
were carried out to optimize the machine model at the three aforementioned levels of
current densities.
The optimization algorithm relies on the TSFE model developed in Section 3.2.
The fitness function of the optimization problem has been defined based on the
1000
NC
400
200
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Power losses (W)
1000
NC
AMC (per unit steel)
800 FC
LC
600
400
200
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Power losses (W)
Figure 3.4: Optimization results for the three case-study cooling systems.
Due to the opposite correlations of the design parameters, except the air-gap
height, hg , with AMC and power losses in Figs. 3.2(a), and 3.3(a), the two objectives
are conflicting.
Furthermore, the two following constraints are introduced for reliable operation:
Each run of the optimization was started with an initial generation of 200 members
and was carried out over 800 generations of 8 members each [110]. Figures. 3.4(a)-
(b) show the optimization results in terms of the conflicting objectives for the 48S8P
and 12S10P machines, respectively. The design candidates indicated in Fig. 3.4 are
compared in terms of AMC and power losses at the same rated load operating point.
It is evident that increasing the stator winding current density, and thus the
ampere loading of the machine, complicates the design of the cooling system by
torque density can translate into reduced system cost, size, and weight, thus
Furthermore, the extremes of the power losses and AMC of the three classes of
cooling systems are non-overlapping. That is, the same efficiency characteristics of NC
It is interesting to notice that due to higher core losses and larger masses of PM in
their construction, the Pareto-optimal designs of the 12S10P configuration are located
further apart from the origin as compared to the 48S8P configuration, see Tables 3.4
and 3.5.
To differentiate the distinctive optimal design values between the three cooling classes,
should be investigated. For this purpose, from each run of optimization, 500 superior
80
xi,max
LC
FC
NC
x
i,mid
x
i,min
tt
ksi
hpm
αpm
g
pm
pm
hy
q
kw
w
kw
h
kd
kw
(a) 48S8P design
xi,max
LC
FC
NC
xi,mid
xi,min
ksi
hpm
αpm
g
pm
pm
hy
q
kw
kw
h
kd
kw
Figure 3.5: The distribution of the design variables in the optimized designs for the
three case study cooling systems.
designs were selected based on a three-step process. First, the designs which do
not violate the constraints on the torque ripple and on the PM demagnetization are
where ”#” is the cardinality of the set [151], and k is the number of the designs in P .
The designs in P are thereafter ranked in a descending order based on their strength
The distribution of the design parameters in the selected designs with respect to
their bounds can be described by “box plots” shown in Fig. 3.5. The rectangular
boxes in Fig. 3.5 represent the first, the second and the third quartiles of the
distribution of design values with respect to the upper and lower bounds designated
for each design parameter in Table 3.1. The distances between the different parts
of these boxes indicate the degree of dispersion and skewness in the value of the
optimal designs. The circles in the middle, and the whiskers represent the average,
the maximum and the minimum of the optimal design value for each parameter.
The representative cross-sections which were generated based on the means of the
design variables in Table 3.3 are provided in Fig. 3.6 which allows one to visualize
the distinctive design features of each machine. These features will be subsequently
According to Fig. 3.5, the optimal ranges of the design variables are broader in
the 48S8P machine. This stems from the imposed criterion on the torque ripple of
the selected designs, which leads to the dispersion of the chosen design candidates in
Three different trends can be recognized in the variation of the design parameters
82
Figure 3.6: Optimized cross sections derived based on the mean of the design variables
in the 500 Pareto-optimal designs listed in Table 3.3, for the three current density
levels.
Table 3.3: Average design parameters of the optimized designs at different ampere
loading levels.
48S8P 12S10P
Parameter(xi )
NC FC LC NC FC LC
ksi 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.63 0.67 0.69
hg (mm) 0.83 0.75 0.72 0.74 0.71 0.71
kwt 0.52 0.61 0.66 0.41 0.57 0.67
kwtt 0.63 0.67 0.57 NA NA NA
kdpm 0.41 0.42 0.43 0.48 0.49 0.48
kwpm 0.91 0.92 0.92 0.47 0.46 0.46
kwq 0.53 0.56 0.57 0.53 0.53 0.52
hpm (mm) 6.71 5.06 4.22 8.38 7.40 5.55
αpm (deg.) 31.73 31.21 31.21 25.50 25.74 25.73
hy (mm) 16.52 17.72 20.12 14.63 14.51 17.40
Table 3.4: Mean of the ratio of copper losses to core losses in the Pareto-optimal
designs at different ampere loading levels.
Machine NC FC LC
48S8P 2.16 5.57 15.24
12S10P 0.74 1.52 3.47
83
Table 3.5: Mean of the masses of the optimized designs normalized with respect to
the values obtained for NC class.
48S8P 12S10P
Mass (m)
NC FC LC NC FC LC
mP M % 100 47.47 26.22 100 56.53 32.60
mcopper % 100 52.14 30.22 100 45.10 23.31
msteel % 100 59.88 38.34 100 58.14 42.32
tions
As can be seen in Fig. 3.5, the split ratio, ksi , the ratio kwt , and the yoke height,
hy , relatively grow with the increase of the ampere loading. This is in line with
the sensitivity analysis and the fact that decreasing copper losses, as the major loss
component in the case study PM machines according to Table 3.4, takes precedence
over decreasing core losses. The kdpm ratio varies widely in the 48S8P machine due to
the insignificant correlation of this design variable with the optimization objectives
according to the sensitivity analysis in Fig. 3.2. The stronger negative correlation of
kdpm ratio with AMC and copper and core losses in 12S10P machine, has resulted in
its maximization in the selected 12S10P designs, as shown in Fig. 3.5(b). Similarly,
the kwpm ratio and αpm are concentrated towards their higher bounds due to their
negative correlations with the two objectives as shown in Figs. 3.2 and 3.3.
84
tions
The PM height, hpm , in Fig. 3.5 monotonically decreases as the ampere loading
increases in both 48S8P and 12S10P machines. This can be explained by considering
the results of the sensitivity analysis in Figs. 3.2 and 3.3, and the change of the masses
of various components in the selected designs for the three cooling systems, as listed
in Table 3.5. Accordingly, the PM mass has been reduced in the selected designs
associated with the PM mass which constitutes a positive correlation with AMC, i.e.
has been prevented by introducing a constraint on the minimum flux density of the
PMs. The air-gap height, hg , in the optimum designs is minimized due to its positive
correlation with AMC and major component of the losses, i.e. copper losses.
Configurations
For the 48S8P machine, while the kwq ratio monotonically increases in Fig. 3.5(a)
as the torque ripple becomes less of an issue, it decreases constantly in the 12S10P
machine, Fig. 3.5(b), in order to reduce the core losses. On the one hand, according
to the sensitivity analysis, the core loss has a stronger correlation with this design
variable, and on the other hand, the core losses constitute a considerable portion of
The tooth-tip width of the 48S8P machine widely varies at higher ampere loading
85
due to saturation. The tooth-tips are larger at low ampere loading to alleviate
the torque ripple, see Fig. 3.2(d). Their variation is ineffective when the machine
saturates. Meanwhile, the mean of the tooth-tip width in Fig. 3.5(a) is reduced to
mitigate the core losses, although this reduction in width is not significant since the
3.5 Summary
A parallel sensitivity analysis was carried out on two case-study IPM machines with
concentrated and distributed stator winding configurations and with different cooling
systems. It was demonstrated that the correlation between the main design variables
and various performance metrics, particularly core losses, copper losses, and torque
ripple can be significantly affected by the machine’s ampere loading and magnetic
The distribution of the optimal design values were investigated for each case-
metrics and design variables occur. Noticeable difference in the optimal design values
were observed and the trends were classified for the naturally cooled, fan-cooled, and
liquid-cooled machines.
The results of this chapter accentuate the challenges in the design of electric motors
CHAPTER 4
MULTIOBJECTIVE CMODE-TYPE
OPTIMIZATION OF ELECTRIC MACHINES
In the two previous chapters, it was demonstrated that the optimal design rules of
PM machines vary with respect to the ampere loading conditions. As a result, for
design synthesis of PM machines with a wide range of operation, these ampere loading
(EAs) used in the design optimization of electric machines including DE, which has
methods that need additional mechanisms to handle COPs. In this chapter, a new
87
differential evolution (CMODE) has been developed and implemented in the design
CMODE’s superiority in terms of convergence rate, diversity and high definition of the
resulting Pareto fronts, and its more effective constraint handling. More importantly,
CMODE requires a lesser number of simultaneous processing units which makes its
implementation best suited for state-of-the-art desktop computers reducing the need
for high performance computing (HPC) systems and associated software licenses.
4.1 Introduction
for designing high performance electric machines [73, 84, 85, 96, 119, 129, 152, 153].
Cost, power loss, torque density, torque ripple, power factor, and degrees of
which constitute the set of objectives and constraints in any optimization problem.
and the optimizer for finding the globally optimal design solutions. Regarding
the machine model, both analytical [73, 129, 152, 153] and Finite Element (FE)
88
[84, 85, 96, 119] methods are commonly used in a large-scale design optimization
process, with the latter receiving more attention during recent years owing to the
in the case of the FE models. Two areas of opportunity exist under each segment of
the optimization process that can serve this purpose. On the performance evaluation
side, CE-FEA has been recently introduced [79–81, 84] for fast and high fidelity
received extensive attention as a reliable and fast stochastic search algorithm [77, 155].
optimizers in electric machinery design problems [77, 120]. It has been coupled to
the CE-FEA for optimization of several types of PM motors with various sets of
[94, 156], similar to other EAs, it has not been developed for handling COPs [151, 157],
which is the case in design of electric machines [94, 156, 158]. Popular constraint
additional objective.
89
In this Chapter, a recently developed CMODE algorithm [110, 151] is adapted for
the design optimization of electric machines with application to three IPM motors
with distributed and concentrated stator windings. The same design problem is
performed using the standard DE to compare the outcomes with those obtained
processors, thus reducing the need for high performance computing (HPC) facilities
and associated software licenses. First, the essence of the two optimization algorithms
with a focus on their similarities and differences are discussed. Subsequently, following
the description of the benchmark studies, the optimization results and the comparison
The flowcharts of steps of the two counterpart search algorithms, DE and CMODE,
applied to the design optimization of electric machines are shown in Fig. 4.1 and Fig.
the application requirements and specifications [9]. This initial design is subsequently
parametrized and the geometric design variables and constants are specified in the
90
Start large-scale DE
optimization algorithm
No
FEs > FEsMAX
Yes
Stop
one hand is flexible for the exploration of the entire design space, and on the other
candidates. For this purpose, the CE-FEA approach [80, 84] described in Chapter
No
Reminder (g, k) = 0
Yes
● Randomly choose one of the following infeasible
solution replacement methods: deterministic or random.
● In deterministic replacement, the individuals in P are
ranked based on their quality and feasibility. The
individuals with the lowest rank are then replaced with the
individuals in A.
● In random replacement, the individuals in P are
randomly selected/replaced with the individuals in A. The
replacement does not apply to the best individuals of P.
No
FEs > FEsMAX
Yes
Stop
Apart from using the same parameterized model and the same technique for
performance evaluation of the design candidates, here the CE-FEA method, the
optimization procedure differs for the CMODE and the DE algorithms in the following
manner:
total individuals, denoted by η, are chosen for this purpose. This renders
place in DE. Here, performing FEs means applying the CE-FEA approach in
[151]. Lesser number of simultaneous FEs, here 8 versus 80, makes CMODE’s
population, set C, and having them replace the dominated individuals in the
round of competition in CMODE. The first round is between all the individuals
in the trial population, and the second round is between the winners of the
first round, set R, and the individuals in the parent population. Nevertheless,
CMODE still benefits from the mutation and crossover operations of DE [151],
which produces the trial and ultimately the offspring populations of consecutive
generations.
Let ~x be the design vector, and f (~x) be the initial objective of the optimization
constraints, hj (~x). The final objective of the optimization process would be the
m
X
G(~x) = Gj (~x) (4.2.1)
j=1
max{0, gj (~x)}, 1 ≤ j ≤ q
where Gj (~x) = {
max{0, | hj (~x) | −δ}, q + 1 ≤ j ≤ m
tors
To compare the merits of the two counterpart stochastic search algorithms, three IPM
motor configurations with distinctive rotor and stator features, and under different
48S8P-b design.
The current density of the stator winding can be adjusted to account for the
ampere-loading of the machine. Typical current density ranges are provided in Table
3.2 [9]. Here, 22 A/mm2 , 8 A/mm2 , and 4 A/mm2 are assumed for liquid-, fan-,
and naturally cooled machines, respectively. The variety introduced to the selected
machine configurations and their electrical loadings provides the basis for a rigorous
95
and rotor structures, respectively shown in Figs. 4.3 and 4.4 are utilized. The
independent design variables defined based on theses parametrized models are listed
in Table 4.1. Some of these design variables are rationalized according to Table 4.1 so
in addition to the air-gap height. The 48S8P-b motor has 2 additional independent
Meanwhile, the open-slot 12S10P motor has one less independent design variable
because of its open slot structure. The design variables are confined by upper and
lower bounds, also listed in Table 4.1 and depicted in Figs. 4.3 and 4.4 for some of the
minimum air-gap height or the yield stress for the rotor bridges [159]. For all the three
machines, the stator outer diameter is fixed to 260mm. The shaft diameter is equal to
111mm, and 74mm for the single-layer and double-layer rotor magnet configurations,
respectively. The parameterized geometry together with the introduced bounds allow
the model to be flexible in exploring the entire design space to find the globally
The CE-FEA method is utilized for fast and high fidelity calculation of the
machine performance metrics [80, 84]. This method was explained in Chapter
96
rso
rsi
rro
αwt
y
hy
αs ds
o x
wtip/2
wso wt
hg
rso
rsi
rro
αwt
y
αs
o x ds hy
wt
hg
Figure 4.3: The parameterized stator structures used for constructing the example
IPM motors for comparison between DE and CMODE.
97
hpm
wq,max
wq
rri
y
d'pm dpm
αpm
o x
wpm,max
wpm
rro
wq,max
wq
rri
hpm1
y hpm2
d'pm dpm
αpm1 αpm2
o x
wpm2
wpm1
wpm1,max hpm2,max
rro
Figure 4.4: The parameterized rotor structures used for constructing the example
IPM motors for comparison between DE and CMODE.
98
Table 4.1: Independent design variables of the parametric stator and rotor structures
shown in Figs. 4.3 and 4.4.
48S8P-a 48S8P-b 12S10P
Parameter(xi ) Description
xi,min xi,max xi,min xi,max xi,min xi,max
ksi rsi /rso 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.7
hg (mm) Fig. 4.3 0.7 2.5 0.7 2.5 0.7 2.5
kwt αwt /αs 0.35 0.75 0.35 0.75 0.35 0.75
kwtt wtip /(wso + wtip ) 0.3 0.8 0.3 0.8 NA NA
0
kdpm dpm /(dpm + dpm ) 0.25 0.50 0.25 0.50 0.15 0.65
kwpm wpm /wpm,max 0.80 0.93 0.80 0.93 0.76 0.94
kwq wq /wq,max 0.5 0.9 0.65 0.90 0.3 0.8
hpm (mm) Fig. 4.4 3.8 9.0 3.8 9.0 2.5 8.0
αpm (deg.) Fig. 4.4 20 32 20 32 19 26
hy (mm) Fig. 4.4 13 25 13 25 13 25
kαpm αpm1 /αpm2 NA NA 0.3 0.8 NA NA
khpm hpm2 /hpm2,max NA NA 0.4 0.8 NA NA
2. Using the CE-FEA allows reconstruction of the entire field waveforms through
with various rotor layouts and stator winding configurations, including experimental
Since the purpose of the optimization is a comparative study between the search
algorithms, the fitness function of the optimization problem can be chosen arbitrarily.
In a practical case, the performance metrics of interest can be the machine’s active
99
material cost, power losses, torque ripple, and the degree of demagnetization of the
PMs.
2. The power losses consist of the loss components introduced in 2.1.1, namely
copper losses in windings, and the stator core losses including hysteresis and
3. As mentioned previously, the stator outer diameter and the rotor inner diameter
are held constant. Following the calculation of the average torque per unit
length, using CE-FEA for the rated current density, the stack-length of the
designs are adjusted accordingly to produce the desired average 300 Nm torque
at 1500 rev/min. The torque ripple is subsequently determined from the torque
The fitness functions of the optimization problem can now be built upon the
are pursued for a rigorous comparison between the CMODE and the DE algorithms.
In both scenarios, two objectives subjected to two constraints are considered. The
• Constraints: (a) Torque ripple less than 15% , and (b) PM demagnetization less
losses
• Constraints: (a) Axial stack length less than 200 mm, 70 mm, and 400 mm
for the 48S8P-a, 48S8P-b, and 12S10P machines, respectively, and (b) PM
solvers. The machines were optimized for the two aforementioned fitness functions,
using either the DE or the CMODE as the stochastic optimizer. The DE consists of 40
generations, each of 80 members. The CMODE starts with an initial generation of 180
members and proceeds with 378 eight-member generations. The number of members
in each generation are recommended by references [77, 96] for DE and reference [151]
for CMODE. The overall number of design evaluations are approximately equal, 3200
In Figs. 4.5 through 4.8, the progress of the optimization process in terms of the
conflicting objectives, which are normalized independently for each example machine,
is illustrated for the two sets of fitness functions. The number of the function
101
evaluations, i.e. the sequence of the candidate designs are color coded to provide
an indication of the convergence of the design space to the Pareto front vicinity.
algorithms. It can be seen in these figures that both DE and CMODE successfully
converge to the same optimal neighborhood in the design space. However, the
concentration of the feasible design candidates in the Pareto front vicinity is larger
for CMODE, resulting in a better-defined Pareto front with a lesser number of design
evaluations as opposed to DE, also see Figs. 4.9, and 4.10. In addition, the color code
in Figs. 4.5 through 4.8 suggests that the convergence to the Pareto front solutions
A comparison between Figs. 4.5 and 4.6, and Figs. 4.7 and 4.8 reveals that the
realization of the objectives and constraints is more difficult in the second scenario of
To further discern the difference between the convergence rates of the two search
objectives in the feasible design candidates. The decay of this quantity over simulation
time can serve as an indication of the optimization progress. The mean of this
quantity per each generation of optimization is shown in Figs. 4.11, and 4.12. The
two previous observations regarding the faster convergence rate of CMODE, and the
denser concentration of the feasible design solutions in the vicinity of the Pareto
front, are distinctly verified in these figures. As can be seen in Figs. 4.11, and 4.12
102
4
3000
o feasible
3 × infeasible
FE evaluations
Norm. AMC
2000
2
1000
1
48S8P−a
0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Norm. power loss
2.5
3000
o feasible
2 × infeasible
FE evaluations
Norm. AMC
2000
1.5
1000
1
48S8P−b
0.5 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Norm. power loss
5
3000
o feasible
4
× infeasible
FE evaluations
Norm. AMC
3 2000
2
1000
1
12S10P
0 0
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Norm. power loss
Figure 4.5: The evolution of the optimization process using DE for the three case-
study motors under the first scenario.
103
4
3000
o feasible
3 × infeasible
FE evaluations
Norm. AMC
2000
2
1000
1
48S8P−a
0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Norm. power loss
2.5
3000
o feasible
2 × infeasible
FE evaluations
Norm. AMC
2000
1.5
1000
1
48S8P−b
0.5 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Norm. power loss
5
3000
o feasible
4
× infeasible
FE evaluations
Norm. AMC
3 2000
2
1000
1
12S10P
0 0
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Norm. power loss
Figure 4.6: The evolution of the optimization process using CMODE for the three
case-study motors under the first scenario.
104
40
3000
o feasible
30 × infeasible
FE evaluations
Ripple (%)
2000
20
1000
10
48S8P−a
0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Norm. power loss
40
3000
o feasible
30 × infeasible
FE evaluations
Ripple (%)
2000
20
1000
10
48S8P−b
0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Norm. power loss
15
3000
o feasible
× infeasible
FE evaluations
10
Ripple (%)
2000
5 1000
12S10P
0 0
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Norm. power loss
Figure 4.7: The evolution of the optimization process using DE for the three case-
study motors under the second scenario.
105
40
3000
o feasible
30 × infeasible
FE evaluations
Ripple (%)
2000
20
1000
10
48S8P−a
0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Norm. power loss
40
3000
o feasible
30 × infeasible
FE evaluations
Ripple (%)
2000
20
1000
10
48S8P−b
0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Norm. power loss
15
3000
o feasible
× infeasible
FE evaluations
10
Ripple (%)
2000
5 1000
12S10P
0 0
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Norm. power loss
Figure 4.8: The evolution of the optimization process using CMODE for the three
case-study motors under the second scenario.
106
1.4 DE
CMODE
Norm. AMC
1.2
1
48S8P−a
0.8
0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3
Norm. power loss
1.6
DE
1.4 CMODE
Norm. AMC
1.2
1
48S8P−b
0.8
0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Norm. power loss
3
DE
2.5 CMODE
Norm. AMC
1.5
1
12S10P
0.5
0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
Norm. power loss
Figure 4.9: Feasible Pareto optimal designs of the two optimization algorithms for
scenario 1 of the fitness functions.
107
25
DE
Ripple (%) 20 CMODE
15
10
5
48S8P−a
0
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Norm. power loss
15
DE
CMODE
10
Ripple (%)
48S8P−b
0
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Norm. power loss
5
DE
4 CMODE
Ripple (%)
1
12S10P
0
0.9 0.95 1 1.05 1.1 1.15 1.2 1.25 1.3
Norm. power loss
Figure 4.10: Feasible Pareto optimal designs of the two optimization algorithms for
scenario 2 of the fitness functions.
108
the duration and the convergence rate of the two optimization algorithms is very
much dependent on the problem definitions. Yet, compared to DE, CMODE reaches
steady-state at least twice as fast in all the twelve different case studies.
The optimizations can be continued in steady-state until the Pareto front acquires
a well-defined profile. Since the majority of the simulation time is spent to solve the
search algorithms, the total duration of the optimization procedure is equal for the
two algorithms, given that the number of FEs are the same. However, the CMODE
As shown in Figs. 4.9 and 4.10, and according to Table 4.2, CMODE also provides
a larger number of optimal solutions in the immediate vicinity of the Pareto front,
resulting in CMODE’s higher definition and better diversity of Pareto front solutions.
dominance of the Pareto front solutions with respect to a reference point in the
design space [161]. Here, it is calculated with respect to the maximum objective
values for each set of Pareto front solutions. The normalized hypervolumes of the
two optimization algorithms in Fig. 4.13 clearly indicates the persistent superiority
The two search algorithms are also compared in terms of their constraint handling
capability in Table 4.3. It can be seen that the overall number of the feasible
design candidates, which pass the two constraints imposed either on the torque ripple
109
2.5
Mean Norm. loss × AMC
DE
CMODE
2
1.5
1 48S8P−a
2.5
Mean Norm. loss × AMC
DE
CMODE
2
1.5
1 48S8P−b
3
Mean Norm. loss × AMC
DE
2.5 CMODE
1.5
1 12S10P
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Total time (h)
Figure 4.11: Convergence of the feasible design candidates for the three case-study
motors in terms of loss × AM C for scenario 1.
110
30
20
10
DE
CMODE
0
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4
Total time (h)
40
Mean Norm. loss × ripple
DE
30 CMODE
20
10
48S8P−b
0
0 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4.5
Total time (h)
10
Mean Norm. loss × ripple
DE
8 CMODE
6
2
12S10P
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Total time (h)
Figure 4.12: Convergence of the feasible design candidates for the three case-study
motors in terms of loss × ripple for scenario 2.
111
DE
1.2
CMODE
Hypervolume (−)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
48S8P−a 48S8P−b 12S10P
(a) Scenario 1
DE
1.2
CMODE
Hypervolume (−)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
48S8P−a 48S8P−b 12S10P
(b) Scenario 2
Figure 4.13: The normalized hypervolumes of the Pareto fronts generated by DE and
CMODE for the two scenarios of fitness functions.
demagnetization in the second scenario are higher in CMODE. The effective constraint
handling of the CMODE algorithm, in addition to the denser designs in its Pareto
front vicinity, translates into its superior computational efficiency when compared to
DE.
Typical cross-sections of the optimal design solutions and their field plots for each
Table 4.2: Comparison of the number of the feasible Pareto optimal designs between
DE and CMODE.
Scenario 1 Scenario 2
Machine
DE CMODE DE CMODE
48S8P-a 17 42 12 28
48S8P-b 24 52 4 10
12S10P 34 41 13 30
Table 4.3: Comparison of the number of total feasible design candidates between DE
and CMODE.
Scenario 1 Scenario 2
Machine
DE CMODE DE CMODE
48S8P-a 1136 1189 1780 2306
48S8P-b 1500 2256 1438 1731
12S10P 3162 3199 1387 1849
that in the foregoing comparison between DE and CMODE, eight distributed solvers
computer with limited processing power and with a minimum number of software
licenses, e.g. eight processing cores/threads and licenses in this investigation. The
if a lesser number of distributed solvers were to be used, which is usually the case
(a) Scenario 1
(b) Scenario 2
Figure 4.14: Typical optimized cross-sections and the field plots of the studied motors
for the two scenarios of fitness functions.
in the CMODE algorithm as a steady state EA, although CMODE still benefits from
a faster convergence rate per generation and a more effective constraint handling
been the focus of this chapter by introducing CMODE for implementation on desktop
other standard population-based multi-objective EAs which have been compared with
DE in the literature.
114
4.5 Summary
with distinctive stator winding configurations, rotor layouts, and electrical loadings,
as the convergence rate of DE, a higher definition of Pareto front, and a better
constraint handling in comparison with DE. These can be attributed to the distinctive
population evolution model of CMODE, and its effective constraint handling method,
In design problems with more than one constraint, such as the case-study examples
operation given in the definition of the degree of constraint violation. These weights
are designated so as to make the violations comparable between all the constraints.
This can be accomplished, for example by normalizing such violations with respect
to their expected range of variations. The assignment of the weights requires expert
CHAPTER 5
DRIVE-CYCLE PERFORMANCE
OPTIMIZATION
In Chapters 2 and 3, the need for including the entire range of operation in the
those used in traction propulsion motors. The load operating cycle is efficiently
machine performance can be evaluated over these cyclic representative points using
constant torque and extended speed regions in the evaluation of the machine
the rated performance, the entire range of operation is considered in the present
torque ripple are accounted for during the optimization process. The convergence to
the optimal design solutions is expedited by utilizing the new stochastic optimizer
5.1 Introduction
the CE-FEA based design optimization techniques aim at realizing a set of objectives
function [84, 85, 88, 96, 119, 162]. In line with common practice, the CE-FEA based
methods evaluate the associated fitness function at the rated load point, i.e. base
speed and rated torque without directly incorporating the efficiency requirements of
the extended speed range operation into the optimization fitness function.
One of the pioneering FE-based design optimization efforts for improving the field
weakening performance was introduced in [92] where an IPM motor was optimized
current. Similarly, the idea of equality of characteristic current, ICH , with rated
for enhanced field weakening performance [95, 96]. In [99], the following objectives
speeds, and minimization of the weight. Although the equality of ICH and IR was not
directly introduced in the fitness function, excluding efficiency from the objectives
resulted in an optimized design in which the two currents were equal [99].
The equality of ICH and IR improves the torque production capability. However,
117
when the non-linear and lossy nature of the machine is considered, from the efficiency
standpoint, congruity of ICH and IR cannot be the ideal criterion for constant power
operation [97, 98]. This will be described in more detail later in this chapter. In [100],
maximizing the torque and efficiency at the base and maximum speeds were pursued
IPM motor.
performance for a specific drive cycle [105, 106, 163, 164]. In [105, 106], a method
target driving cycle by a finite number of torque versus speed points. These points
were derived based on the energy distribution function specifically calculated for a
given vehicle model and driving cycle. Those investigators subsequently performed
the optimization over these cyclic representative points. However, the selection
when more demanding operating cycles are desired. Furthermore, since a large-scale
optimization was not pursued, the design space was not fully explored.
motor was optimized using the relatively subjective drive cycle modeling method
nature of the adopted approach, a limited number of design variables were treated,
i.e. tooth width and slot height. Furthermore, the torque ripple was not included in
load profile is investigated. The CE-FEA approach is upgraded to enable fast and
high fidelity performance evaluation of the design candidates at any load operating
point residing either in the constant torque or extended speed regions. To further
increase the computational efficiency of the design optimization, the new stochastic
mounted PM motors with various slot-pole combinations and rotor magnet layouts,
SyR motors, and in essence any PM motor which, through proper drive controls, is
performed over any conceivable motor operating cycle, while taking into account the
practical operational constraints imposed by the supply voltage and/or the motor
Accordingly, in this chapter, the efficient modeling of the motor load profile is
explained first. The control algorithm for derivation of the forcing function for FE
analysis at any load point is described next, followed by the optimization algorithm,
[105, 106], is presented for efficient modeling of a given operating cycle using a limited
The first step of the optimization process is the identification of the motor torque
and speed profiles for the specific application, which by itself is a demanding task
and might require extensive data collections, field studies, and system modeling. In
system, energy management unit, driving habits, terrain, and the vehicle operating
To address the above mentioned complexities in obtaining the motor torque and
speed profiles, here, the Advanced Vehicle Simulator (ADVISOR) developed by the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) is used. Two hybrid vehicles, which
were previously discussed in Chapter 2 with regards to the distribution of the load
operating points in their torque-speed plane, are modeled using ADVISOR, namely,
are illustrated by modeling these vehicles over two US driving cycles, namely, the
Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS), and the Highway Fuel Economy
120
350 200
300 150
Torque (Nm)
Speed (rad/s)
250 100
200 50
150 0
100 −50
50 −100
0 −150
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
time (s)
(a) UDDS
400 200
300 100
Torque (Nm)
Speed (rad/s)
200 0
100 −100
0 −200
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
time (s)
(b) HWFET
Test Driving Schedule (HWFET). The resulting load profiles of the example traction
motors under the aforementioned two studied driving cycles are shown in Figs. 5.1
and 5.2.
For each vehicle, the wide variations of the motor torque and speed profiles based
on the driving cycles shown in Figs. 5.1 and 5.2 reveal the challenges involved
in designing a motor for efficient and reliable operation at all torque and speed
levels. Furthermore, by comparing the motor load profiles between the two vehicles
in these figures, it becomes obvious that even for this specific traction propulsion
motor application, the preferred motor design and specifications, such as slot-pole
121
500 50
450 40
400 30
Torque (Nm)
Speed (rad/s)
350 20
300 10
250 0
200 −10
150 −20
100 −30
50 −40
0 −50
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
time (s)
(a) UDDS
400 20
300 0
Torque (Nm)
Speed (rad/s)
200 −20
100 −40
0 −60
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
time (s)
(b) HWFET
combination, rotor and stator layouts, rated operating conditions, etc. are vehicle-
This observation further underscores the need for a systematic design optimization
methodology such as the one developed in this dissertation which can accommodate
the aforementioned factors, and can also provide a simulation platform for evidence-
The motor continuous torque and base speed should be characterized with
reference to the load profiles. The continuous torque from the thermal limit
122
(a) UDDS
(b) HWFET
Figure 5.3: Toyota Prius Gen. 2 motor output energy over torque-speed plane.
standpoint can be determined based on the root mean square of the torque profiles:
s Z t2
1
Trms = T (t)2 dt (5.2.1)
(t2 − t1 ) t1
The determination of the base speed, ωbase , and optimum speed ratio, which
is the ratio of maximum speed, ωmax , to ωbase , depends on many figures of merit
including the system power specifications, total weight, losses, etc. Previous studies
have indicated that this optimum speed ratio falls within a range of 3 to 4 for PM
Using the motor output torque and speed profiles, the absolute value of the
123
(a) UDDS
(b) HWFET
Figure 5.4: Honda Insight Gen. 1 motor output energy over torque-speed plane.
energy distribution over the torque-speed plane, obtained from the torque times speed
product and the corresponding time spent at this condition, can be calculated as
The motor operating regions, constant torque and constant power, can be
recognized in the distribution of the load points in Figs. 5.3 and 5.4. Once again, the
considerable variations of the load energy distribution functions based on the driving
Ideally, the motor performance over each individual load point shown in Figs. 5.3
for obvious computational reasons, the swarm of the operating points in the load
representative load points which should convey the main features of the driving cycle
indicate (a) the speed and torque at the high-energy-throughput operating zones of
the torque-speed plane, and (b) the energy weights associated with these zones which
is the measure of significance of these zones in the evaluation of the motor drive-cycle
efficiency.
an example pure electric vehicle operated over New European (NEDC) and Artemis
the investigators first partitioned the torque-speed plane according to the locations of
in these regions were calculated according to Eq. (5.2.3) through Eq. (5.2.4):
Ni
X
Ei = Eij (5.2.2)
j=1
Ni
1 X
ωi = Eij ωij (5.2.3)
Ei j=1
Ni
1 X
Ti = Eij Tij (5.2.4)
Ei j=1
125
where Eij , ωij , and Tij are respectively the energy, angular speed, and torque
associated with each load point in region i, Ni is the number of load points in region
i, and ωi and Ti indicate the center of gravity of the region, which are identified as the
cyclic representative points. The main disadvantage of this approach for identification
questions the optimality of the discretization process, and also poses an impediment
in data mining known as the k-means clustering algorithm [168] is introduced for
modeling the load operating cycle. Using this method, all the n observations in the
which each observation belongs to the cluster with the nearest mean (m1 , . . . , mk ),
serving as the prototype of the cluster. The standard algorithm used here has two
In the first step, each observation, xp , is assigned to the cluster, si , with the
where t is the iteration count number. The means for the initial iteration, m0i , can
be chosen randomly.
In the update step, the centroids of the observations in the new clusters, mt+1
i ,
given in Eq. (5.2.6) are designated as the new means. These assignment and update
126
0.5
0
1
1
0.5 0.5
0 0
Norm. torque (pu) Norm. speed (pu)
(a) UDDS
Norm. energy (pu)
0.5
0
1
1
0.5 0.5
0 0
Norm. torque (pu) Norm. speed (pu)
(b) HWFET
Figure 5.5: Cyclic representative points of Toyota Prius Gen. 2 motor output energy
over torque-speed plane.
steps are iteratively repeated until convergence is reached, i.e. until the assignments
1 X
mt+1
i = (t)
xj (5.2.6)
| Si | xj ∈S t
i
Using the k-means algorithm, first the normalized energy distribution function
is partitioned into a limited number of clusters, the means of which yield the
of each representative point are computed based on the ratio of the average energy
127
0.5
0
1
1
0.5 0.5
0 0
Norm. torque (pu) Norm. speed (pu)
(a) UDDS
Norm. energy (pu)
0.5
0
1
1
0.5 0.8
0.6
0 0.4
0.2
Norm. torque (pu) Norm. speed (pu)
(b) HWFET
Figure 5.6: Cyclic representative points of Honda Insight Gen. 1 motor output energy
over torque-speed plane.
consumed in the corresponding cluster to the total energy associated with the drive-
cycle.
The cyclic representative points and their associated energy weights for the
previously discussed motors and operating cycles are shown in Figs. 5.5 and 5.6.
It can be seen in these figures that the distribution of the representative load points
and their energy weights vastly vary with respect to the vehicle model and motor
operating cycle, suggesting once again that an optimal design which suits one case
128
solution, it is only run once at the initialization stage of the drive-cycle optimization
to yield the representative load points. The number of clusters can be determined
based on the sum of the distances of the load points to their corresponding cluster
k X
X
Sumof distances = ||xj − mi ||2 (5.2.7)
i=1 xj ∈Sit
This quantity is calculated for the previously discussed vehicles and driving cycles
over a wide range of cluster numbers as shown in Fig. 5.7. For these example
load points corresponding to the seven clusters shown in Figs. 5.5 and 5.6. A larger
the performance evaluation is carried out over every individual cyclic point.
Points
After the determination of the cyclic representative points, the motor performance
should be evaluated over them since most of the power is consumed or generated at
30
Toyota Prius Gen. 2 over HWFET
Best total sum
of distances
20
10
0
2 4 (b) 6 8 10
40
Honda Insight Gen. 1 over UDDS
Best total sum
of distances
20
0
2 4 (c) 6 8 10
20
Honda Insight Gen. 1 over HWFET
Best total sum
of distances
10
0
2 4 (d) 6 8 10
Number of clusters
Figure 5.7: The best sum of the distances of the load points to their corresponding
cluster means versus the number of clusters.
130
(a) Torque
1
Norm. vR (pu)
Unsaturated
0.5
Saturated
1 0
0.5 −0.5
0 −1
iq (pu) id (pu)
points, which can be located anywhere in the torque-speed plane, requires careful
control of the machine excitation current for production of maximum torque per
ampere (MTPA) under performance constraints imposed either by the motor rated
current in the constant torque region, or by the maximum output voltage of the
simulations, the magnitude and phase angle of the stator winding excitation current
131
load point. Accurate estimation of the optimum current density and its angle of
comparison between the design candidates. Here, it should be pointed out that
the linear inductance-based models for IPM machines fail to accurately predict the
steady state torque, Tavg , and the fundamental value of the total induced phase
voltage in the stator windings at steady state and under a constant speed, vR , of
the Toyota Prius IPM motor are computed and compared, over the full range of
excitation current for motoring operation, between the linear parameter model given
in Eq. (5.3.1) and Eq. (5.3.2), and the actual values obtained from FEA using Eq.
The contributions of the stator winding resistance to the terminal voltage, and the
reduction of torque due to core losses are similar in both cases and are not reflected
3P
Tavg = ((Ld id + λP M )iq − Lq iq id ) (5.3.1)
22
q
vR = ωe ((Ld id + λP M )2 + (Lq iq )2 ) (5.3.2)
3P
Tavg = (λd iq − λq id ) (5.3.3)
22
q
vR = ωe (λ2d + λ2q ) (5.3.4)
132
where P is the number of poles, ωe is the motor speed in electrical rad/s., and Ld and
Lq are respectively the d-axis and q-axis inductance values derived based on three
FEA simulations with different current vectors. That is, the PM flux-linkage, λP M
It can be seen in Fig. 5.8, that the torque and induced voltage estimation errors
steadily creep up as the current density increases. These errors are more evident along
the q-axis due to higher permeance of the q-path, and due to the demagnetizing effect
of the d-axis component of the armature current. Hence, a new numerical method
with built-in control to conform to the motor-drive system voltage and current ratings
performed for various stator excitation currents covering the entire range of motoring
operation. The resulting d- and q-axes flux-linkages, λd and λq , are sampled as the
current vector sweeps through the second quadrant of the d-q plane, and are stored
torque, and the fundamental components of the induced voltage in the stator winding
can be calculated using Eq. (5.3.3) and Eq. (5.3.4), respectively. At this point, the
machine stack length, and the torque and induced voltage look-up tables are scaled
proportionally for production of the required torque at the base speed corresponding
to a current density of Jmax , which is assumed to be the same for all the design
candidates and is determined with reference to the cooling system specifications. The
maximum torque per unit stack length corresponding to the maximum current density
133
Start calculating
current excitations
Stop
Figure 5.9: Developed method for derivation of the stator winding currents at every
load point for time-stepping magneto-static FEA. Optimal control is ensured for
constant torque and flux weakening operation.
134
1 1
1 1
Norm. λ (pu)
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
iq (pu)
iq (pu)
t
0.6 T = 0.5 pu 0.6 ω > ωbase
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
0 0 0 0
−1 −0.5 0 −1 −0.5 0
id (pu) id (pu)
(a) Set of currents which meet the torque (b) Set of currents which meet the voltage
requirements requirements
Figure 5.10: Process of derivation of the excitation current for a typical load point.
in the stator winding, Jmax , indicates the torque production capability of the design
candidate.
After generating the look-up tables and scaling them to produce the required
torque at the base speed, the process of determination of the excitation current can
be started. Instead of fitting a polynomial equation on the torque and induced voltage
samples and using Bisection and Newton-Raphson methods to determine the d- and
q-axes currents for MTPA or field weakening operation as was proposed in [89], the
optimal excitation current for each load operating point is selected through the simple
algorithm shown in Fig. 5.9. Accordingly, for each load point, first the set of current
vectors, id and iq , producing the required torque are identified, set A. The flux values
associated with these current vectors are also stored in set B. If the rotation speed
of the load point is less than the base speed, the vector with the smallest magnitude
from set A is chosen as the optimal current vector for MTPA operation. Otherwise,
if the rotation speed is greater than the base speed, the set of current vectors that do
135
1 1
1 0.8 1 0.8
0.8 0.8
BPM (T)
(T)
0.6 0.6
iq (pu)
iq (pu)
0.6 0.6
PM
0.4 0.4
B
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
0 0 0 0
−1 −0.5 0 −1 −0.5 0
id (pu) id (pu)
Figure 5.11: PM demagnetization maps of a typical motor for PMs located with
respect to the rotor motion for motoring operation.
not violate the constraint on the maximum drive voltage are identified using set B
and equation Eq. (5.3.4). Once again, for efficient operation, the current vector with
minimum magnitude will be selected. This process is illustrated in Fig. 5.10. Using
this method, both MTPA and field weakening operations are successfully incorporated
Along with sampling the d- and q-axes flux-linkages for calculation of the torque
and induced voltage values, for each individual design candidate, the rotor PM flux
density levels are also obtained by placing “virtual search coils” across the PMs in the
FEA model. The PM flux density levels are used to create the PM demagnetization
maps, such as those shown in Fig. 5.11 for a typical design, in order to characterize
factors which influence the extended speed operation of such machines. Traditionally,
PM motors are categorized into finite and infinite maximum speed classes according
to the ratio of their characteristic current, ICH , with respect to their rated current,
IR [93, 170–172]. A salient pole PM motor that is ideally designed for extended
speed operation is assumed to have ICH equal to IR [93, 96, 170–173]. In [92, 94–96],
this criterion has been introduced as an additional objective for large-scale design
optimization of IPM motors for constant power operation. Yet, such characterization
of an ideal machine for constant power operation falls short to note two factors
regarding realistic operation of such machines. First, in any practical design, the
excessively high speeds [159]. Second, as will be illustrated here, the equality of
ICH and IR adversely affects the machine’s efficiency throughout the extended speed
range. This is despite the fact that in many applications such as electric vehicles,
increasing saliency can enhance the power capability under the rated voltage and
rated current operating constraints. Nevertheless, increased saliency does not always
translate into reduced cost in IPM motors [96] contrary to a commonly held notion
137
[93]. This can be attributed to the fact that the primary component that contributes
to the saliency of the studied machine configurations in [96] are the permanent
magnets with a recoil permeability close to that of air. Consequently, the saliency in
a particular rotor layout has a direct correlation with the area along the d-axis that
torque from the demagnetizing component of the stator current [93, 170, 171, 174],
efficiency of the salient pole machines over their entire operating ranges.
Aside from the equality of characteristic and rated currents, (ICH = IR ), which has
been previously suggested for reliable operation [93], and enhanced power capability
throughout the extended speed region, two other possible scenarios for ICH are:
(ICH > IR ) or (ICH < IR ). Provided that (ICH > IR ) as a result of low d-axis
inductance or strong magnets, the extended speed operation will be limited due to
excessive increase of the internal voltage at high speeds. This, in turn, leads to
rapid loss of the control of the stator current, and accordingly a sharp drop of the
generated torque and power. In case (ICH < IR ) due to weaker magnets or higher
d-axis inductance, the infinite speed operation can be achieved at the expense of
diminished output power. The latter case as well as the case in which these currents
are equal (ICH = IR ) are further investigated for the Prius IPM motor configuration.
In Fig. 5.12 the sampled contours of the magnitude of the fundamental component
of the flux-linkage of a typical phase are shown over the entire range of the excitation
current for three IPM motors with equal torque and current density ratings. The
138
1 1
1 0.8 1 0.8
Norm. λR (pu)
Norm. λR (pu)
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
iq (pu)
iq (pu)
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
0 0 0 0
−1 −0.5 0 −1 −0.5 0
id (pu) id (pu)
1
1 0.8
Norm. λ (pu)
0.8
0.6
iq (pu)
R
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
−1 −0.5 0
id (pu)
(c) Motor 3
Figure 5.12: Sampled flux contours of the three example motors with equal rated
torque and rated current density.
motors are sorted in descending order of their ICH , which can be identified in these
figures as the point on the negative side of the d-axis where the flux-linkage reaches
zero. To understand how the value of the characteristic current influence the behavior
of the three designs for various torque and speed values, their performance maps are
The first series of maps in Fig. 5.13 reveals that Motor 1, which has an ICH closer
to its IR , is superior in terms of power capability in the extended speed range as it can
generate more torque with a limited supply voltage. Nevertheless, according to the
139
same figure, the efficiency drops faster for this motor with the increase of the operating
speed. Meanwhile, the designs with lower ICH indicate diminished power capability
in the extended speed region. Yet, the high efficiency contours are further expanded
to cover more areas of the entire operating range in these designs. Accordingly, by
observing Figs. 5.12 and 5.13, one can notice the direct relationship between ICH and
the field weakening power generation capability and the inverse relationship between
To discern the cause of the differences between the efficiency maps shown in Fig.
5.13, the loss ratio maps over the entire operating range are provided in Fig. 5.14.
The loss ratio is defined here as the ratio of copper loss to the sum of the stator core
loss and the friction and windage loss. The latter is provided by the research team
at Oak Ridge National Laboratories (ORNL) for the 2004 Toyota Prius motor and is
assumed to be equal in all the designs. According to the loss ratio maps, the ratio of
copper loss to core loss is greater in motor 1 in the extended speed range.
The larger high-speed copper losses in motor 1 can be ascribed to the increased
current densities in the extended speed range as shown in Fig. 5.15. Specifically, as
opposed to the comparatively smaller q-axis component of the stator winding current,
Fig. 5.16, a larger negative d-axis component of current, Fig. 5.17, is required to
weaken the magnet flux at high speeds. Accordingly, as ICH increases, canceling
to either demagnetize the stronger magnets, or to compensate for the lower d-axis
Ultimately, it should be pointed out that although motor 3 has better energy
140
300
95
250
Efficiency (%)
Torque (Nm)
200
90
150
100 85
50
80
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(a) Motor 1
300
95
250
Efficiency (%)
Torque (Nm)
200
90
150
100 85
50
80
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(b) Motor 2
300
95
250
Efficiency (%)
Torque (Nm)
200
90
150
100 85
50
80
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(c) Motor 3
Figure 5.13: Efficiency maps of the three example IPMs with infinite maximum
speeds.
141
300 12
250 10
Torque (Nm)
8
Loss ratio
200
150 6
100 4
50 2
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(a) Motor 1
300 12
250 10
Torque (Nm)
Loss ratio
200
150 6
100 4
50 2
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(b) Motor 2
300 12
250 10
Torque (Nm)
8
Loss ratio
200
150 6
100 4
50 2
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(c) Motor 3
Figure 5.14: Loss ratio maps of the three example IPMs with infinite maximum
speeds.
142
300
15
250
Torque (Nm)
J (A/mm2)
200 10
150
100 5
50
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(a) Motor 1
300
15
250
Torque (Nm)
J (A/mm2)
200 10
150
100 5
50
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(b) Motor 2
300
15
250
Torque (Nm)
J (A/mm2)
200 10
150
100 5
50
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(c) Motor 3
Figure 5.15: Current density maps of the three example IPMs with infinite maximum
speeds.
143
300
15
250
Norm. Jq (A/mm2)
Torque (Nm)
200 10
150
100 5
50
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(a) Motor 1
300
15
250
Norm. Jq (A/mm2)
Torque (Nm)
200 10
150
100 5
50
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(b) Motor 2
300
15
250
Norm. Jq (A/mm2)
Torque (Nm)
200 10
150
100 5
50
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(c) Motor 3
Figure 5.16: Q-axis current density maps of the three example IPMs with infinite
maximum speeds.
144
300
15
250
Norm. Jd (A/mm2)
Torque (Nm)
200 10
150
100 5
50
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(a) Motor 1
300
15
250
Norm. Jd (A/mm2)
Torque (Nm)
200 10
150
100 5
50
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(b) Motor 2
300
15
250
Norm. Jd (A/mm2)
Torque (Nm)
200 10
150
100 5
50
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(c) Motor 3
Figure 5.17: Negative d-axis current density maps of the three example IPMs with
infinite maximum speeds.
145
efficiency in the extended speed region, the magnets are excessively demagnetized for
this design, as shown in Fig. 5.18. This reveals the existing trade-offs between the
ICH , efficiency, power capability, and the degree of PM demagnetization which should
compromise among the three motors in terms of power capability, efficiency, and
Toyota Prius IPM motor simulated from the data provided by the team at ORNL. The
following section puts forth a method for designing motors as optimized as the 2004
Toyota Prius IPM motor which takes the aforementioned factors into consideration.
5.5.1 Algorithm
After developing the required tools for drive-cycle design optimization, and discussing
the design factors influencing the extended speed performance of PM machines, the
can be presented through the high-level flowchart of the steps in Fig. 5.19.
The design optimization process has three main stages, namely preprocessing, loop
iterations, and post-processing. In the first stage, the machine model is parametrized
similar to the approach presented in Section 2.2.1, the representative operating points
are identified using the clustering algorithm developed in Section 5.2, the objectives
and constraints of the fitness function are designated considering the discussion in
146
300 1
250 0.8
Min. PM B (T)
Torque (Nm)
200
0.6
150
0.4
100
0.2
50
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(a) Motor 1
300 1
250 0.8
Min. PM B (T)
Torque (Nm)
200
0.6
150
0.4
100
0.2
50
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(b) Motor 2
300 1
250 0.8
Min. PM B (T)
Torque (Nm)
200
0.6
150
0.4
100
0.2
50
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(c) Motor 3
Figure 5.18: Current density maps of the three example IPMs with infinite maximum
speeds.
147
No Stop
criterion
Yes
● Output the Pareto-optimal
design candidates
Stop
Section 5.4, and the large-scale search algorithm is initialized as explained in Chapter
4. Subsequently, in the loop iteration stage, for each design candidate, the excitation
currents at the cyclic representative points are calculated using the numerical method
developed in Section 5.3. A detailed FE analysis is carried out afterwards over each
individual load point using the fast and high fidelity CE-FEA simulations described
and cross-saturation are considered both in determining the excitation current and
The first iteration of the design candidates is generated randomly with respect
are followed by the CMODE-type search algorithm (CMODE). The details of the
PM motors at the rated operating point. Here, this search algorithm is applied to
population according a fitness function, i.e. a set of objectives and a set of constraints.
as illustrated in the previous section, when the non-linear and lossy nature of the
machine is considered, the congruity of ICH , and IR , cannot be the ideal criterion
for constant power operation from the efficiency standpoint. Instead of introducing
such criterion into the optimization fitness function, it is recommended to check the
149
torque production capability of every design candidate at critical load points such as
ωmax , and penalize the designs failing to produce the desired torque under the rated
current and voltage constraints, e.g. by multiplying their associated fitness function
rithm
burden of the loop iteration stage overshadows that of the other two and is divided
between three subroutines: (a) generation of the torque and flux look-up tables for
load points, and (c) determination of the superior design candidates. The first
two subroutines involve FEA, and thus are more computationally demanding. For
generating relatively accurate torque and flux look-up tables, 25 sample current
vectors are recommended, which can be distributed evenly, or can be skewed toward
the negative d-axis to better capture the smaller flux-linkage quantities in this vicinity.
Using CE-FEA, as few as one FE solution can be used for each sample point to extract
the fundamental values of torque and fluxes. Depending on the pole-slot combination,
a larger number of FE solutions are required for calculation of torque ripple and core
losses over each representative load point. Nonetheless, CE-FEA can still be utilized
compared to time-stepping transient FEA [80, 119]. The simulations can be continued
150
until a well defined Pareto front is acquired. Using CMODE-type optimization, this
5.6 Summary
provides a systematic approach for fast and high fidelity design optimization of
the ampere-loading or by the limited drive voltage were fully integrated into the
of magnetic saturation and cross-saturation were thoroughly taken into account both
in determining the current excitation of the stator winding at any load operating
Utilizing the k-means clustering algorithm, a systematic method was devised for
efficient modeling of the motor operating cycle. The resultant cyclic representative
points embody the operation zones of the torque-speed plane through which the
are derived and incorporated in assessing the drive-cycle efficiency of the design
CHAPTER 6
CASE STUDY DRIVE-CYCLE OPTIMIZATION
OF TRACTION MOTORS
for optimizing two case study PM machines. Each case includes multiple steps,
namely, the modeling of the motor operating cycle, development of the parametrized
6.1 Introduction
Two traction propulsion motors are optimized using the techniques presented in the
previous chapters:
• The first motor studied in this chapter is the well-established Toyota Prius
2. This specific motor configuration is chosen here for a twofold purpose: (a)
the particular features of the V-type IPM motors with distributed windings
including saliency and mechanical robustness, which makes them attractive for
high-speed operation; and (b) for performing a detailed comparison between the
152
reports published by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) research team
• The second case study presented in this chapter is the design optimization of
for a formula E racing car propulsion application. The original motor, which
high torque per weight ratio. Here, this motor is optimized to further increase
the power density and, at the same time, the drive-cycle efficiency in order to
design problem. The results of this case study optimization are also utilized to
quantify the performance trade-offs for increasing the power density in spoke-
In this section, the 48-slot 8-pole IPM motor of the Toyota Prius Gen. 2 is optimized
Federal Test Procedure Driving Schedule (US06), Highway Fuel Economy Test
400
Torque (Nm)
200
−200
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
time (s)
(a) Output torque
600
Speed (rad/s)
400
200
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
time (s)
(b) Speed
Figure 6.1: Load profile of the Toyota Prius Gen. 2 IPM over a combined driving
cycle.
UDDS. The motor torque and speed profiles which are obtained using ADVISOR are
shown in Fig. 6.1. This sequence of driving cycles are chosen so as to improve the
From the load profile provided in Fig. 6.1, the energy distribution versus the
distribution function is modeled by seven clusters as can be seen in Fig. 6.3. These
154
400 100
300 80
Torque (Nm)
Energy (kJ)
60
200
40
100
20
0
0 100 200 300 400
Speed (rad/s)
(b) Bird’s-eye view
Figure 6.2: Toyota Prius Gen. 2 motor output energy versus torque and speed for
the combined US driving cycles.
load points which will be used in the evaluation of the motor performance during
the optimization process, along with two critical load points imposed by the design
requirements, i.e. required torque at base and maximum speeds are listed in Table
6.1. The numbers next to the means of the clusters in Fig. 6.3 indicate their ranks
The next step in the drive-cycle design optimization is the definition of the
parametric FE-model, which for this case study has been previously presented in
155
0.5
0 6
1 2 5
4 1 3 1
0.5 7
0.5
0 0
Norm. torque (pu) Norm. speed (pu)
(a) Isometric view
1
Norm. torque (pu)
0.8
6
0.6
0.4
4
0.2
7 1 2 5
3
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Norm. speed (pu)
(b) Bird’s-eye view
Figure 6.3: Cyclic representative points with seven clusters for the combined US
driving cycle.
section 2.2. This model with the same design parameters and boundaries are used
here. Similar to the original Toyota Prius motor design, rated stator winding current
In line with the discussion about proper definition of the optimization fitness
function, which was presented in Section 5.4, the optimization objectives are
designated as follows:
Table 6.1: Cyclic representative points for the combined US driving cycle shown in
Fig. 6.1.
mi ω(rad/sec) T (N m) energyweight
ωbase 157 300
ωmax 628 50
1 140 21 0.2570
2 311 15 0.2273
3 212 19 0.1366
4 74 123 0.1338
5 403 15 0.1265
6 151 288 0.0687
7 44 36 0.0501
Eq. (6.2.1);
X
Pw = (Pdc,i + PF e,i ) · wi /(Ti ωi ) (6.2.1)
i
where wi is the energy weight of the ith representative load point in Table 6.1,
maps.
The thermal aspect of the design is indirectly addressed in the optimization process
by confining the highest current density in the stator winding to that reported for
the Toyota Prius IPM motor. In general, the optimized designs are expected to be
more efficient than the original design, ensuring that the cooling system can properly
157
conduct the power losses to the ambient surroundings. Still, here in this work, the
thermal performance of the most promising design candidates are investigated over a
From the mechanical design standpoint, the thickness of the rotor bridges is
forces based on the material properties and the shape on the rotor pole-pieces. The
7. Minimum thickness is desired for efficient utilization of the magnet flux linkage
analysis is conducted on the selected optimized designs to make sure they pass this
criterion.
The drive-cycle design optimization of the 48-slot 8-pole IPM machine with
the aforementioned fitness function was carried out over 10,000 designs using 8
the design space, and accordingly, optimal design solutions were identified within the
first few hundred design evaluations, in this case in less than 24 hours. However,
the optimization iterations were continued to capture a very detailed Pareto front.
The performance of the design solutions which pass the constraints on the PM
demagnetization and torque ripple are shown in Fig. 6.4(a) and (b).
158
1.3
(T)
0.5
PM, min
1.1
0.4
B
1 P
D1
D2
0.9 0.3
0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Active material cost (pu)
(a) Color-coded for minimum flux density of the rotor PMs
1.3 25
Weighted loss (pu)
Figure 6.4: Optimization results of Toyota Prius Gen .2 IPM motor over the combined
US driving cycles.
Using the same simulation methodology, the Toyota Prius IPM motor drive-cycle
performance, denoted by P, is also evaluated and marked along with other results
in Fig. 6.4. It can be seen that the Prius design is adjacent to the Pareto-optimal
are other alternative designs that, at a slightly higher cost, demonstrate better
159
(a) Cross-sections
D1 P D2
111.9
110.5
106.8
105.0
104.3
104.1
102.6
102.1
101.5
101.3
100.1
99.5
99.2
97.5
96.0
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
93.3
NORM. TO P
89.0
87.4
80.3
76.8
AMC T O T A L LO S S LO S S C U LO S S F E EMF THD T R IP P LE M IN . P M B MASS PM MASS CU MASS FE
specified by D1 and D2 in Fig. 6.4 are selected for further multi-physics investigation.
The cross-sections of the three design candidates, D1, P, and D2, and their
performance metrics, normalized with respect to the Prius motor design, are shown
in Figs. 6.5. In Fig. 6.5 (b), the three loss components, are the sum of the respective
losses over the representative load points weighted by their associated energy weights.
Force (EMF), and the torque ripple are considered at the rated load point.
The efficiency maps of the three designs is computed by FE analysis of 1 600 sample
load points equidistantly distributed throughout the torque-speed plane, see Fig. 6.6.
The excitation current at each sample point is considered under optimal voltage and
160
300
95
250
Efficiency (%)
Torque (Nm) 200
90
150
100 85
50
80
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(a) D1
300
95
250
Efficiency (%)
Torque (Nm)
200
90
150
100 85
50
80
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(b) P
300
95
250
Efficiency (%)
Torque (Nm)
200
90
150
100 85
50
80
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Speed (r/min)
(c) D2
Figure 6.6: Efficiency maps of the selected designs obtained from drive-cycle
optimization.
161
Figure 6.7: Tested efficiency map of the Toyota Prius Gen. 2 IPM motor reported
by the research team at ORNL.
current control using the method developed in Section 5.3(B). The efficiency maps
should be examined in two specific aspects: first, the highest achievable efficiency,
and second, the extended range of high efficiency contours. The latter is of significant
importance for motor designs in traction applications, and, in general, for applications
map of the Prius motor reported by the ORNL research team is presented in
Fig. 6.7. The slight discrepancy between the efficiency maps in Figs. 6.7 and
Fig. 6.6(b) can be attributed to the loss components that were not addressed
in our 2-D FE calculations including rotor core losses, eddy current losses in the
the excitation current was assumed to be sinusoidal over the entire operating region
ignoring the time harmonics introduced by the inverter pulse width modulation
specifically in the field weakening region. Nonetheless, the simulation results show
very close correlation to the experimental results. The correlation of the three designs
162
Figure 6.8: Lumped thermal network model of the motor cooling system developed
in Motor-CAD.
not only indicates the merits of the original Prius motor design but also confirms the
each other, a typical liquid-based cooling system with oil-forced convection through
lumped thermal network model as shown in Fig. 6.8 . The coolant fluid is ethylene
glycol compound with 0.375 W/m.C thermal conductivity, 1045 kg/m3 density, and
140
135
Temperature (oC)
130
125 P-Winding
120 D1-Winding
115 D2-Winding
110
105
100
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
time (s)
(a) Temperature of stator windings
135
130
Temperature (oC)
125 P-Magnet
120 D1-Magnet
115 D2-Magnet
110
105
100
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
time (s)
(b) Temperature of rotor PMs
112
110
Temperature (oC)
108
P-Housing
106 D1-Housing
D2-Housing
104
102
100
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
time (s)
(c) Temperature of active housings
Figure 6.9: The peak temperatures of the counterpart designs evaluated over US06
driving cycle.
164
transient thermal analysis over the rigorous US06 driving cycle which is characterized
by frequent acceleration and deceleration at various torque and speed levels. It can
be seen in Fig. 6.9 that with identical cooling systems, the temperatures of the stator
windings, rotor PMs, housings, and bearings in the P and D1 counterpart designs
closely correspond. These temperatures are slightly lower in the D2 design due to
the higher efficiency of this design over a broader range of operating conditions as
illustrated in Fig. 6.6(c). The lower operating temperatures can extend the life-time
of motor D2, and thus justify the increased material cost of this design.
The mechanical stresses on the rotor bridges are mainly due to the centrifugal forces
resulting from cavities housing the PMs in the rotor structure [159]. A detailed static
structural FE analysis is carried out in ANSYS under steady state maximum speed
dynamic origins are negligible. Furthermore, it is assumed that the rotor PMs are
not bonded to the cavities since the bonding strength is not permanently constant
and diminishes over time. In the analysis, the mass densities of the rotor laminations
and NdFeB magnets are 7850 kg/m3 , and 7500 kg/m3 , respectively. As can be seen in
Fig. 6.10, the results of the structural analysis demonstrate that the von-Mises [176]
stress throughout the rotor structures of the selected optimized D1 and D2 designs
are comparable to that of the original P design, and are less than the yield strength
(a) D1 (b) P
(c) D2
Figure 6.10: Von-Mises stress throughout the rotor structure of the counterpart
designs.
166
In this section, the design optimization of an IPM motor with very high power
type permanent magnet (PM) motor is in order. These motors can be designed for
increased power density using high-cost high-energy PM materials [177, 178], or can
magnets [179–181]. This is due to the higher air-gap flux density, Bg , of spoke-type
PM motors as given in Eq. (6.3.1) which by itself is in part because of the lower
−1
h0g
Bg π 2dr
= + 2µmr (6.3.1)
Br 4kσ P hpm wpm
where Br is the PM remnant flux density (retentivity), dr is the rotor outer diameter,
P is the number of poles, hpm is the PM height along the radius of the motor, kσ is
the rotor leakage coefficient, µmr is the PM relative permeability, h0g is the air-gap
height adjusted to account for saturation and slotting effects, and wpm is the PM
There are two aspects in the study of high power density motors which require
special treatment, namely, the nonlinearity of the ferrous core, and the thermal
behavior of the machine. Equation (6.3.1) has been used for assessment and rough
[179, 180]. However, as reported in [179], the effects of saturation and slotting cannot
be accurately modeled in such machines using Eq. (6.3.1), due to the excessive
167
saturation levels of the ferrous core. This fact leaves numerical methods as the
only means for accurate investigation of the design traits in such high power density
machines. Meanwhile, the power density cannot be the sole objective of any realistic
design practice without simultaneously considering the generated power losses, which
directly impact the thermal performance of the machine as the ultimate limiting
in order to achieve high drive-cycle energy efficiency, and high torque density for
a direct drive racing car application. Several initial design measures are assumed
in order to realize these objectives, including: (a) the use of special materials
for lamination steels and PMs, i.e. non-oriented thin-gage laminated steel, and
thermally robust SmCo magnets, (b) the adoption of special construction methods
for minimizing PM and winding eddy current losses, i.e. PM segmentation and
twisted wires, and (c) the utilization of a highly efficient cooling system with forced
oil convection through the slot and forced air convection in the air-gap.
developed in the previous chapters, increase of torque ratio per weight (TRW), and at
the same time decrease of power losses over the entire motor load profile are pursued.
The optimization results lay the ground for an FE-based study of high power density
spoke-type motor design in a practical approach, as has been the goal of many previous
100
Torque (Nm)
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
time (s)
1500
Speed (rad/s)
1000
500
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
time (s)
(b) Speed
Figure 6.11: Formula E motor load profile for the Le Mans driving cycle.
ripple for achieving high power density are quantified, and the relationships between
optimal design parameters for high drive cycle efficiency and maximum torque density
6.3.1 Initialization
The motor load profiles over the Le Mans driving cycle are shown in Fig. 6.11. The
frequent and oftentimes large fluctuations of the torque profile in Fig. 6.11(a), and
the high speed of operation in Fig. 6.11(b) are characteristics of an electric propulsion
169
100 8
80
Torque (Nm)
Energy (kJ)
60
4
40
2
20
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Speed (rad/s)
(b) Bird’s-eye view
motor in such a racing car application, which underscore the challenges involved in
Using the motor load profile, the distribution of the motor output energy consumed
over the entire driving cycle can be obtained from the torque times speed product
and the corresponding time spent at this condition, as shown in Fig. 6.12. In Fig.
6.12(b), the concentration of the load operating points along the maximum torque
line reveals the importance of efficient and reliable field weakening operation of this
motor.
170
0.5
0
1
1
0.5 0.5
0 0
Norm. torque (pu) Norm. speed (pu)
1
Norm. torque (pu)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Norm. speed (pu)
Figure 6.13: Le Mans driving cycle representative points obtained from k-means
algorithm with seven clusters.
the k-means clustering algorithm with seven clusters. The number of the clusters is
chosen in order to, on the one hand, provide a reasonable estimation of the energy
distribution function, and on the other hand, efficiently model the multitude of the
The centroids of these clusters are listed in Table 6.2 and are marked in Fig. 6.13.
The centroids of the top five clusters, over which most of the energy is consumed, are
171
Table 6.2: Cyclic representative points of Le Mans driving cycle shown in Fig. 6.13.
i ω (rad/sec) T (N m) energy weight w
ωbase 628 105 NA
ωmax 1257 40 NA
1 814 61 0.2245
2 1184 42 0.2213
3 995 49 0.2161
4 631 77 0.1675
5 458 97 0.1343
6 348 63 0.0298
7 409 16 0.0065
used for drive-cycle performance evaluation of the design members throughout the
optimization process.
points, the majority of the cyclic representative points are located on the envelope of
the torque-speed plane in the extended speed range in this racing drive cycle.
Maxwell for the 18-slot, 16-pole spoke-type IPM motor. The parametrization of the
stator open slot structure and the rotor spoke-type layout is described in Appendix I.
As can be seen in Fig. 6.14, the SmCo PMs are segmented radially as well as axially
to minimize eddy current losses in the magnets. The designated design variables and
their bounds are listed in Table 6.3. They are so defined to allow full exploration of the
design space without causing any interference between surfaces of various components.
The main geometric design constraints are the stator outer diameter and the rotor
inner/shaft diameter which are equal to 80mm, and 30mm, respectively. Accordingly,
the stack length of each design candidate is adjusted to produce a torque of 110 N m
at 6,000 r/min. Furthermore, for all the design members throughout the optimization
172
hy
rso
Stator
Slot
ds wt
rsi hg
dbr wbr
Rotor
hpm
wpm
PM
rri
Figure 6.14: The parameterized FE model of the spoke-type PM motor, see Table
6.3.
Table 6.3: Independent design variables and their upper and lower bounds of the
18-slot 16-pole spoke-type machine.
Parameter(xi ) Description xi,min xi,max
ksi rsi /rso 0.60 0.75
hg Fig. 6.14 0.7 mm 2.5 mm
kwt wt /αs 0.45 0.75
khpm hpm /hpm,max 0.55 0.95
kwpm wpm /wpm,max 0.2 0.6
kwbr wbr /wpm 0.35 0.65
dbr Fig. 6.14 1.5 mm 3.0 mm
hy Fig. 6.14 7 mm 15 mm
173
process, the slot fill factor is assumed to be 0.4, and the temperatures of the stator
Due to heavy saturation and cross-saturation of the high power density motor,
linear parameter models cannot be used to characterize the performance of the design
for this purpose. In the first place, FE simulations with a minimum number of
magnetostatic solutions are used to generate look-up tables of samples of the stator
winding d-axis and q-axis flux linkages over the second quadrant of the current dq-
plane for motoring operation. Using the flux linkage look-up tables, the developed
torque and the induced voltages are computed, and are subsequently incorporated for
determination of the current excitation required for producing the torque and speed
into account the current and voltage limits of the motor-drive system in the constant
each representative load point to calculate: (a) power losses including the core losses,
copper losses, and the PM eddy current losses, (b) torque ripple, and (c) minimum
flux density in the PMs. As for the latter, the PM demagnetization is also evaluated
under short circuit conditions when the rated current is fully imposed on the negative
d-axis direction. These performance metrics, in addition to the machine total mass,
are subsequently used to compare the merits of the different design solutions in the
optimization algorithm.
After obtaining the machine performance metrics over each operating point, the
174
60 0.5
0.4
(T)
40
Mass (kg)
0.3
PM, min
0.2
20
B
D1
O 0.1
D2
0 0
0 50 100 150
Weighted loss (pu)
60 10
4
20
D1
O 2
D2
0 0
0 50 100 150
Weighted loss (pu)
Figure 6.15: The results of optimization of the spoke-type IPM over 3,400 design
solutions.
CMODE-type search algorithm is utilized for converging toward the optimal design
are considered:
1. Minimization of the machine weight for the given peak torque of 105 N m at
6 000r/min.
(6.2.1).
175
60
Pareto−front designs
40
Mass (kg)
20
0
0 50 100 150
Weighted loss (pu)
1
Mass
Correlation factors
0.5 Loss
−0.5
−1
m P T B m m
total loss ripple PM,min PM Cu
Figure 6.16: Correlation of performance metrics with mass and power losses in the
designs optimized for efficiency and high power density.
2. Prevent the excessive demagnetization of the rotor PMs over the entire range
The drive-cycle design optimization of the spoke-type IPM motor over the Le Mans
cycle under the aforementioned objectives and constraints was carried out for 3 400
design candidates. The results of this large-scale design optimization shown in Fig.
6.15 suggest that motor mass is strongly related to other design characteristics which
were calculated for the 100 Pareto-optimal designs marked in red in Fig. 6.16(a).
Cov(X, Y )
ρX,Y = (6.3.2)
σX σY
where X and Y are the statistic population of the respective design characteristics
in the 100 Pareto optimal members, Cov is the covariance, and σ is the standard
deviation.
Accordingly, as can be seen in Fig. 6.16(b), the total masses of the selected designs
are inversely proportional to power losses, torque ripple, and mass of PM and copper.
In other words, to increase the power density, larger amounts of PM and copper are
losses constitute a strong positive correlation with the copper mass, suggesting the
x
i,max
xi,mid
x
i,min
ksi hg kw kh kw kw dbr hy
t pm pm br
1
Mass
Loss
Correlation factors
0.5
−0.5
−1
ksi hg kw kh kw kw dbr hy
t pm pm br
Figure 6.17: Distribution of the design parameters in the Pareto-optimal designs, and
their correlation with total mass and power losses.
indicates that the designs with greater power losses are expected to utilize less PM
material.
To unscramble the relationships between the design parameters listed in Table 6.3
and the power density and power losses, the distribution of the design parameters
within their predefined bounds in the Pareto-optimal designs, Fig. 6.17(a), and their
correlations with the two objectives, i.e. power density and drive-cycle efficiency, Fig.
rso
Stator
rsi μFe =∞
hg
Rotor
μFe =∞ PM
hpm wpm
τpm
Figure 6.18: Equivalent machine model used for analytical investigation of the optimal
design of spoke-type FSCWs.
both mass and losses, and thus are relatively confined within narrower upper bands are
the split ratio, ksi , and the tooth-stem width ratio, kwt . In essence, to simultaneously
achieve high power density and high efficiency, these two parameters are expected to
Fig. 6.18, it was reported in [179] that the optimal values for the two critical
design parameters, namely, the split ratio, ksi = rsi /rso , and PM thickness ratio,
kwpm = wpm /τp , are respectively in the range of 0.5-0.55, and 0.4-0.5, respectively, for
a high power density 18-slot 16-pole machine, similar to the configuration studied in
this paper. However, according to the results of the large-scale design optimization,
179
Histogram of ksi
4
0
0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8
Split ratio
(a)
8
pm
6
Histogram of kw
0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
PM thickness ratio
(b)
Figure 6.19: Histogram of the distributions of (a) ksi , and (b) kwpm in the 100 Pareto-
optimal designs.
in a practical case, when non-linearity of the ferrous core, various loss components,
and complex geometry of the machine is fully taken into account, optimal ranges
other than those derived by analytical models are obtained, see Fig. 6.19 for the
histogram of the ksi , and kwpm parameters in the Pareto-optimal designs. These results
design rules in such high power density and highly saturated machines.
180
From the Pareto-optimal design solutions, two feasible design candidates, which do
not violate the performance constraints imposed on the torque ripple and degree of
PM demagnetization, denoted by “D1”, and “D2” in Fig. 6.15, are selected. The
designs “D1”, and “D2” feature minimum gross power losses, and maximum power
The cross-sections and the flux line distributions under rated load conditions of
these three machines are shown in Fig. 6.20. Their main design features are compared
in Table 6.4. As can be seen in Fig. 6.20, the saturation becomes more prevalent
The efficiency maps of the three counterpart designs are provided in Figs. 6.21(a)
through (c). The high efficiency contours of the optimized design “D1” are expanded
towards the representative load points with the highest energy weights, see Table 6.2,
which are distributed along the high torque, and high speed vicinity. The design
“D2” has diminished efficiency, mainly due to the elevated copper losses, as opposed
to the core losses which are confined by the saturation phenomena and by the lower
181
(a) D1 (b) O
(c) D2
Figure 6.20: Flux lines distributions of the optimized designs at 6 000 r/min under
rated load.
182
Table 6.5: The design characteristics of the optimized high power density “D3” motor.
mtotal (kg) Ploss (pu) Tripple (%) BP M,min (T ) mP M (kg) mCu (kg)
Original Formula E (AIM) 9.1 71.7 4.5 0.29 1.0 0.7
Optimized Design 7.7 70.6 3.3 0.34 1.0 0.7
volume of the magnetic core in this design. This can be seen in the copper loss and
The results of the optimization suggest that although the original design is a very well
conceived one, its mass and gross losses can be further decreased simultaneously. From
the Pareto-optimal design solutions, a design candidate denoted by “D3” in Fig. 6.24,
which features a higher power density and lower weighted drive-cycle power losses, is
The cross-sections and the flux line distributions under open circuit, and rated
load conditions of the two machines are shown in Fig. 6.25. Their main design
features are compared in Table 6.5, according to which the optimized design has also
a lower torque ripple and lower degree of PM demagnetization. As can be seen in Fig.
6.25, the saturation is more prevalent throughout the ferrous core of the optimized
The efficiency map of the optimized design “D3” is provided in Fig. 6.26. The
efficiency map of the original design is also repeated in Fig. 6.26 for comparison. It
can be seen in Fig. 6.26 that the high efficiency contours of the optimized design
are directed towards the representative load points with the highest energy weights,
see Table 6.2, which are scattered along the high torque, and high speed vicinity.
183
100 95
80
Efficiency (%)
Torque (Nm) 90
60
40 85
20
80
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Speed (r/min)
(a) D1
100 95
80
Efficiency (%)
Torque (Nm)
90
60
40 85
20
80
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Speed (r/min)
(b) O
100 95
80
Efficiency (%)
Torque (Nm)
90
60
40 85
20
80
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Speed (r/min)
(c) D2
8
100
8
100
60
4
40
2
20
0
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Speed (r/min)
(b) O
8
100
Copper losses (kW)
80 6
Torque (Nm)
60
4
40
2
20
0
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Speed (r/min)
(c) D2
2
100
2
100
60
1
40
0.5
20
0
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Speed (r/min)
(b) O
2
100
Core and PM losses (kW)
80 1.5
Torque (Nm)
60
1
40
0.5
20
0
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Speed (r/min)
(c) D2
60
40
Mass (kg)
20
O
D3
0
0 50 100 150
Weighted loss (pu)
Figure 6.24: Identifying a design with higher power density and drive-cycle efficiency
than the original design.
100 95
80
Efficiency (%)
Torque (Nm)
90
60
40 85
20
80
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Speed (r/min)
(a) O
100 95
80
Efficiency (%)
Torque (Nm)
90
60
40 85
20
80
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Speed (r/min)
(b) D3
Figure 6.26: Efficiency maps of the high power density spoke-type designs.
Furthermore, the optimized design has better torque production capability in the
6.4 Summary
In the first case study, the large-scale CMODE-type design optimization approach
was successfully performed on the Toyota Prius Gen. 2 IPM traction motor, and
the results were verified through multi-physics performance analysis of the optimized
designs.
188
alternative designs with higher drive-cycle efficiency, and with minimum additional
The second case study was performed on a high power density spoke-type
PM motor to further increase the power density of the original design. The
performance trade-offs associated with achieving high power density in such motors
were investigated. It was demonstrated that, in general, high power density is directly
correlated with higher losses, higher torque ripple, and larger PM demagnetization.
Furthermore, larger amounts of copper and PM are to be used in high power density
motors. The developed design optimization method was able to increase the power
density of the original design by 15%, and at the same time decrease the drive-cycle
CHAPTER 7
ADDITIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF PM
MACHINES’ DESIGN OPTIMIZATION
investigated.
of active material cost (AMC) in PM motors with distributed and fractional slot
optimal design rules and proportions of IPM motors with sintered NdFeB magnets
vary with respect to the changes in the commodity prices of permanent magnet
material, copper, and steel. The sensitivities of the correlations between the design
parameters and the AMC with respect to the commodity price ranges are investigated
objective minimization of cost and losses is pursued for an overall of 200,000 design
finding is that, despite common expectations, the average mass of steel in the
optimized designs is more sensitive to changes in the commodity prices than the
In the second section, a fast FE-based method for calculation of eddy current losses
in the stator windings of randomly wound electric machines will be presented. The
beneficial for identification of the design solutions which exhibit lowest overall losses
including the ac losses in the stator windings. Unlike the common practice of assuming
a constant slot fill (SF) factor for all the design variations, the maximum SF in the
conductor strands in the initial FE model, which significantly adds to the complexity
mapping technique for determination of the impinging flux on each individual strand
design optimization, where both the electromagnetic and thermal machine behaviors
are accounted for. The analysis is supplemented with an investigation of the influence
of the electrical loading on ac winding loss effects for a particular machine design, a
mechanical design of the rotor bridges in a typical single-layer V-type rotor PM layout,
similar to the one used throughout this dissertation. Particularly, the approximate
calculation of the centrifugal forces on the rotor bridges at high rotational speed
which is required to be estimated for adjustment of the width of the rotor bridges to,
191
300
Nd Cu Fe
21 250
Nd, Cu (USD/LB)
Fe ore (USD/t)
200
16
150
11
100
6
50
1 0
2008 2009 2010 2011
Year
on the one hand, withstand the maximum mechanical stress and, on the other hand,
minimize the leakage PM flux, which is magnetically shorted through these bridges,
due to centrifugal forces is implemented and its accuracy is compared to high fidelity
Concentrated Windings
The price of active material from which PM motors are constructed, especially the
NdFeB- magnets, has experienced steep variations in the last few years. Figure 7.1
shows such variations over three consecutive years prior to the surge of the Nd price
PM materials using optimization procedures as in [88, 185], has been the subject of
numerous studies. As for the latter case, a popular practice is to minimize the cost
associated to the active materials which are utilized in the machine construction.
masses of the active materials which are weighted by price coefficients corresponding
where [ppm , pcu , pf e ] and [mpm , mcu , mf e ] are the commodity price coefficient vector
One of the early investigations which incorporated this cost model is the work
of Lovelace et al. [74, 186], according to which the cost factors of 5 USD per unit
weight (USD/w), 1 USD/w, and 11 USD/w were respectively considered for copper,
steel, and bonded Ferrite for IPM machines. Other investigators have adopted this
method of machine cost modeling with different price coefficients depending on the
their series of works, Zhang et al. assumed price coefficients of 8, 1, and 140 [85], or 8,
1, and 65 [88] for copper, lamination steel, and sintered NdFeB PMs, whereas Duan
and Ionel assumed price coefficients of 10, 1, and 100 [87], and Fatemi et al. assumed
[187], price coefficients of 6, and 140 were assumed for copper and PMs, respectively.
As stated above, based on the material specifications and market values, different
193
price coefficients have been incorporated in the definition of the cost model in Eq.
motors on the changes in the prices of such motors’ construction commodities, to the
optimized for cost minimization, the question still remains as to whether and how the
optimal design of such machines varies with respect to the assumed commodity price
coefficients.
In this regard, two sets of sensitivity analyses on two generic industrial IPM motor
in this chapter. In the first set, the change of the design parameters’ impacts on
the motor active material cost (AMC) due to variations in the price coefficients in a
typical cost function, similar to that expressed in Eq. (7.1.1), will be investigated.
In the second set, the sensitivities of the distribution of the design parameters in
the optimized candidate designs, which were obtained from large-scale optimization
Two IPM machine configurations that were previously introduced in Section 3.2 are
chosen for this analysis. The vectors of the design parameters defined over the cross
sections of the two machines are given in Eq. (7.1.2), and Eq. (7.1.3) for the 48-slot
8-pole, 48S8P, and the 12-slot 10-pole, 12S10P, machines, respectively. These design
parameters and their bounds are identical to those previously described in Section
194
3.2.
The two following performance metrics are evaluated using the FE models:
• Power losses including dc copper losses, PM eddy current losses and core losses
at 100 ◦ C.
Correlations
The correlation between the AMC defined in Eq. (7.1.1) and the design vectors
given in Eq. (7.1.2) and Eq. (7.1.3) is bilateral; that is, on the one hand, for a
given set of commodity price coefficients, the design parameters determine the AMC.
On the other hand, the influences of the design parameters on the AMC are by
bilateral effects of design parameters and commodity price coefficients on the AMC
will be discussed. For this purpose, the information about the range of the changes
of the design parameters and the commodity price coefficients are required. The
range of the design parameters are designated in Table 3.1 whereby wide ranges are
assumed to fully explore the design space. As for the vector of the commodity price
100
Regression coefficients
80
60
40
20
0
−20
ksi hg kwt kwtt kdPM kwPM kwq hPM α hy
PM
100
Regression coefficients
80
60
40
20
0
−20
ksi hg kwt kdPM kwPM kwq hPM α hy
PM
Figure 7.2: Influence of the design parameters on AMC in the two case-study motors.
of the utilized materials, i.e. sintered NdFeB magnets, electrical steel, and copper,
In the first place, a sensitivity analysis is carried out to understand how the
changes in the design parameters influence the AMC for the mid-range of the
coefficients of the second order response surface associated with AMC which are
given in Eq. (3.3.1) are calculated for the two 48S8P, and 12S10P configurations, and
−5
ksi hg kwt kwtt kdPM kwPM kwq hPM α hy
PM
20
Steel
15 Copper
PM
10
−5
ksi hg kwt kdPM kwPM kwq hPM α hy
PM
Figure 7.3: Change of the influences of the design parameters on AMC based on the
value of the commodity price coefficients.
For both motor configurations, the split ratio, ksi , air-gap height, hg , tooth-
stem width, kwt , PM height, hP M , and yoke height, hy , show the strongest positive
correlation with AMC, indicating that an increase in these parameters would add to
AMC. It is interesting to note that despite the fact that the PM has the greatest
price coefficients, the design parameters directly associated with the mass of PM, i.e.
As mentioned previously, the results of the sensitivity analysis shown in Fig. 7.2
197
are derived for the mid-range of the commodity price coefficients. It is not understood
yet whether and how these correlations between the design parameters and AMC
discern the influence of the commodity price variations on the correlations between
the design parameters and AMC, a second set of sensitivity analysis is in order. In this
case, the sensitivities of the correlations between the design parameters and AMC due
to the changes of the commodity price coefficients are investigated. For this purpose,
depending on the motor configuration, ten or nine second order response surfaces are
defined according to Eq. (3.3.1) for the correlations of each design parameter of the
48S8P and 12S10P motors, respectively. The regression coefficients for the correlation
of each design parameter are solved by a DOE study based on CCD method, which
is conceived this time for the coded commodity price coefficients. The results of this
analysis are illustrated in Fig. 7.3(a) and (b), for the 48S8P and 12S10P machines,
respectively.
Accordingly, it can be seen in Fig. 7.3 that the PM price, due to the greater
designated coefficients, followed by the steel price, owing to the larger masses of steel
used in the machine construction, show the strongest influences on the correlations
of the design parameters on AMC. Particularly, the design parameters which were
demonstrated to have the strongest correlations with the AMC for the medium range
of commodity price coefficients in Fig. 7.2 are affected most severely. For example,
according to Fig. 7.2, increasing the split ratio, ksi , translates into higher AMC.
Meanwhile, according to Fig. 7.3, the increase of the commodity price coefficients
associated with the PM or steel materials further intensifies the already positive
198
correlation between ksi and AMC. Similar trends exist for air-gap height, hg , tooth-
stem width, kwt , PM height, hP M , and yoke height, hy . That is, on the one hand,
increasing these parameters would increase the AMC according to Fig. 7.2, and on
the other hand, the increase of PM price, and steel price with the exception of hP M ,
Similarly, by comparing the values of the regression coefficients in Fig. 7.3 with
those illustrated in Fig. 7.2, it is evident that the strongest changes of the most
influencing design parameters due to variations of the commodity prices are in the
same direction as the original effects of the design parameters. This fact suggests that
the optimal design parameters for AMC minimization should not differ substantially
It is also interesting to note that although copper has a higher price coefficient
in comparison to ferrous lamination materials, the variation of the copper price does
not affect the influence of the design parameters on the AMC in a meaningful way in
The results of the sensitivity analysis in the previous section demonstrated that
the existing correlations between the design parameters and AMC are dependent
on the commodity price coefficients, particularly on the price of the PM material and
lamination steel. However, it is not clear yet to what extent the optimal ranges of
to the commodity price coefficients, similar to what was performed in the previous
section, should be pursued. For this purpose, the optimal design parameters need
to be derived for a series of price coefficients which are prescribed by DOE. For
the three components of PM, copper, and steel, a second order response surface using
CCD method would require 15 distinct runs of large-scale optimization for each motor
are desired. Here, artificial neural networks (ANN) are utilized [188] for this aim.
The ANN-based modeling has been previously investigated in the literature for
the ANN-based modeling is particularly suitable in the overall procedure for the
price variations shown in Fig. 7.4. This is due to the fact that the same machine
here 15 runs for each example machine. The high fidelity FE-based machine models
which were developed in the previous section can be used during the first run of the
optimization. The resultant design members of this first optimization run can then be
200
Figure 7.4: Developed procedure for sensitivity analysis of the optimal design values.
utilized to train the artificial neural networks for fast modeling of each corresponding
Here, a two-layer feedforward network with one layer of 100 neurons with
neurons was created in MATLAB. The network was trained using the Levenberg-
Marquardt training method using the mean square error performance function [188].
The FE-based models developed in the previous section were used to train the
network for computation of the two performance metrics discussed in the previous
section. However, instead of calculating the AMC directly, the masses of the
in Eq. (7.1.1) with each set of commodity price coefficients, which are determined
by DOE, for each run of the optimization. The values of these performance metrics
calculated by the developed ANN-based method were compared to the values derived
from the FE-based model for a 1000 designs. This is in order to verify that the
estimation error of the ANN-based model is less than 1% for the two machine
1.5
mpm mcu mfe loss
1
0.5
Error (%)
0
−0.5
−1
−1.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Design number
(a) 48S8P motor configuration
1.5
mpm mcu mfe loss
1
0.5
Error (%)
0
−0.5
−1
−1.5
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Design number
(b) 12S10P motor configuration
Figure 7.5: Estimation error of the ANN-based models when compared to FE-based
machine models.
by DOE.
2. Minimization of power losses including core and copper losses which are
was used as the stochastic search engine to identify the Pareto optimal designs.
by DOE were carried out. The optimization results for the mid-range price coefficients
expressed in terms of the objectives and color-coded with respect to the cost of the
utilized active materials are shown in Figs. 7.6 and 7.7 for the 48S8P and 12S10P
machines, respectively.
The correlations between the design objectives and the costs of the individual
constitutive active materials in Figs. 7.6 and 7.7 should be pointed out. The cost
component associated with the PM material has a strong positive correlation with
both high efficiency and AMC. That is, in order increase the efficiency, larger amounts
trends exist between the steel mass and the optimization objectives, although the
these correlations are reversed between the copper mass and the optimization
objectives. That is, as the utilized copper increases, the overall AMC decreases
whereas the total losses increase. It is also interesting to note that lesser amounts
of copper are required in the construction of the 12S10P machines when compared
to the 48S8P machine because of the shorter stack lengths and shorter end windings
of the 12S10P machine. However, the 12S10P machine suffers from slightly higher
Price Coefficients
700 300
600 250
PM cost (pu)
AMC (pu)
500
200
400
150
300
200 100
100 50
250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Power losses (W)
700 60
600
500 50
400
300 40
200
100 30
250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Power losses (W)
700 100
600 Steel cost (pu)
AMC (pu)
500 80
400
300 60
200
100 40
250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Power losses (W)
Figure 7.6: Optimization results of the 48S8P motor configuration for a typical set
of commodity price coefficients.
204
700 300
600 250
PM cost (pu)
AMC (pu)
500
200
400
150
300
200 100
100 50
250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Power losses (W)
700 60
600
500 50
400
300 40
200
100 30
250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Power losses (W)
700 100
600 Steel cost (pu)
AMC (pu)
500 80
400
300 60
200
100 40
250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Power losses (W)
Figure 7.7: Optimization results of the 12S10P motor configuration for a typical set
of commodity price coefficients.
205
is performed in this section. For this purpose, 100 of best design solutions with
minimized AMC and losses are identified from each set of optimization results.
For each set of the selected designs, the averages of the design parameters are
obtained together with the average masses of their active components. Subsequently,
reveal how the changes of the commodity price coefficients influence the optimal range
of the design parameters. Figures 7.8(a) and (b) show the results of this sensitivity
analysis for the the 48S8P, and 12S10P motor configurations, respectively.
According to Fig. 7.8, for both machine configurations, the average values of the
optimal design parameters as well as the average masses of the PM material and
copper in the optimal designs are not sensitive to changes of the commodity price
coefficients. Meanwhile, the average masses of electric steel in the selected optimized
designs show the largest correlations with the price coefficients particularly since the
mass of the utilized steel in the machine construction is affected by all the design
parameters, and thus reflects the aggregate effects of the variations of the commodity
price coefficients. As can be seen in Fig. 7.8, an increase in steel price results in
lower average steel mass in the optimized designs for both motor configurations. The
impacts of changes of copper and magnet prices on the steel mass in the optimal
designs differ between the two motor configurations. Most notably, the steel mass is
expected to increase if the copper price coefficient in the 48S8P machine, or the PM
price coefficient in the 12S10P machine increases. Overall, a comparison between the
magnitudes of the regression coefficients in Fig. 7.8 with those provided in Figs. 7.2
206
0.5
Regression coefficients
0
−0.5
Steel
Copper
PM
−1
ksi hg kwt kwttkdPMkwPM kwq hPM α hy mFe mCumPM
PM
(a) 48S8P motor configuration
1
Regression coefficients
0.5
−0.5
−1
Steel
−1.5 Copper
PM
−2
PM αPM
k h k k k k h h m m m
si g wt dPM wPM wq y Fe Cu PM
Figure 7.8: The sensitivity of the optimal design parameters to variation of the
commodity price coefficients.
and 7.3 suggests that the optimal design values are relatively independent from the
The eddy current effects including the skin, strand-level, and bundle-level proximity
Figure 7.9: Slot leakage and fringing flux in a typical open-slot FSCW PM machine.
losses in the stator windings of high speed permanent magnet (PM) machines.
Even if preventive measures such as stranding and transposition are adopted, the
ac conductor losses in the stator windings of PM motors can still be significant for
machines due to the prevalence of slot leakage flux, and slot opening fringing flux,
e.g. see Fig. 7.9. Common techniques for the estimation of such losses are especially
prohibitive for randomly wound coil configurations and require a significant amount
imperative. In addition to the value of the ac loss, the distribution of the overall
accuracy under magnetic core saturation and are not applicable to complex geometry
without compromising further the accuracy. The numerical models are not suitable
for integration into large-scale design optimization processes due to time consuming
and are best suited for accurate loss analysis between different motor and winding
particular configuration.
estimation of the strand eddy current losses in the stator windings of electric machines,
to include the portion of the ac losses which stems from the presence of slot leakage and
efficient through adopting several measures such as alternative coil modeling which
reduces the computation time required for solving the FE model, exploiting the
with sinusoidal current excitation, and implementing fast analytical techniques for
mapping the flux within the slot area, estimating the fill factor and strand locations,
and finally characterization of the eddy current losses based on the value of the flux
density impinging on each stator winding conductor. The presented loss calculation
Using the developed method, strand eddy current losses under various loading
conditions are computed and the existing trends between the ratio of ac to dc losses,
Pac /Pdc , with respect to the loading level are studied. Through this analysis, it
is by definition incapable of modeling the effects of the loading level on the ratio of
Pac /Pdc .
Analytical models are reported for (a) 1-D single-slot models as in [197], (b) 2-D
single-slot models as in [198], or (c) 2-D machine models as in [199]. These methods
provide an insight into the nature of eddy current losses but do not accurately account
for the non-linearity of the magnetic core, and are difficult to apply to complex
machine geometries.
slots and are therefore time-consuming. In some studies with detailed coil models
distribution of the radial and tangential components of the flux density, BR,T , in each
stator slot is obtained by establishing a fine grid over each slot pitch of the stator from
one tooth axis to the next. These values are used in a numerical harmonic analysis
210
expressed by:
∞
X
BR,T (t) = |B2k−1,(R,T ) | sin (2k − 1)ωt − φ2k−1,(R,T ) (7.2.1)
k=1
Accordingly, the eddy current loss, Pe , in watts per strand per depth of axial
length, for a rectangular copper strand of width a, and height b subject to a uniform
time varying flux density of Eq. (7.2.1) can be obtained using [199]:
∞
X (2k − 1)2 ω 2
|B2k−1,R |2 a2 + |B2k−1,T |2 b2 η2k−1
Pe = ab (7.2.2)
k=1
24ρ
can be used for calculating the magnitude of the impinging flux |B2k−1 | =
p
|B2k−1,R |2 + |B2k−1,T |2 , with the eddy current loss per depth of axial length given
by [192]:
∞
4
X (2k − 1)ω 2 |B2k−1 |2
Pe = πd (7.2.4)
k=1
128ρ
according to Eq. (7.2.5) in order to also include the skin effect [192]:
!
d
r
d I0 ( 2δ (1 + j)) 2ρ
krac = Re (1 + j) d
,δ = (7.2.5)
8δ I1 ( 2δ (1 + j)) ωµ
where I0 and I1 are Bessel functions of zero and first orders, respectively, and δ is the
skin depth. The solution of rac for round conductors is documented through charts
and graphs in [192], and can be readily found for a given conductor diameter and
excitation frequency.
211
For a given machine configuration, the distribution of the leakage/fringing flux within
knowledge of conductor locations can account for all the aforementioned parameters.
extensively and computationally demanding process, not suitable for early design
computationally efficient loss calculation method which can be integrated into a large-
Detailed modeling of the coils in the slots, such as the one shown in Fig. 7.10(a), adds
to the complexity of the FE model, and thus increases the computation time to reach
212
(a) Detailed model (b) Commonly used model (c) Alternative model
Figure 7.10: Alternative coil models for strand eddy current loss analysis.
a solution. As opposed to the crude coil model commonly used for EM-FE analysis,
Fig. 7.10(c), the winding is divided into a number of rectangular areas over its radial
The heights and the widths of the sections can be all equal or skewed to provide
more details at the slot opening. In Fig. 7.10(c), 32 sections with equal heights
and equal widths are defined. The number of sections should be selected so that a
reasonable distribution of B samples are obtained within the slot. The radial and
tangential components of the flux densities at the middle of each rectangular section
can then be extracted. The sampled B profiles are subsequently used to map the flux
The value of B at the middle of each section can be obtained by any time-stepping
method introduced in [81, 119], which exploits the electric symmetry in the stator
213
using CE-FEA, the profile of the flux density waveforms over the full electrical cycle
Here, the CE-FEA method is used to extract the radial and tangential components
of the sampled B profiles for the coil pieces shown in Fig. 7.10(c) for a typical machine
under full-load motoring operation with counterclockwise rotation. The profiles for
selected sections are shown in Figs. 7.11(a) through (d). It is interesting to note
that the major component of the slot leakage flux is tangential. Furthermore, the
decreasing trend of this slot leakage flux from top to bottom of the slot, and from left
Conductor Positions
ACu nC πd2
sf = = (7.2.6)
Aslot 4Aslot
where ACu is the copper area within the slot area, Aslot , and nC is the number of
conductors. In a large-scale design optimization problem, the slot dimensions and area
vary between the design candidates. Accordingly, the maximum slot fill factor, sf,max ,
and the location of the conductors vary between the design candidates and should
be calculated for each individual design. Here, the sf,max is needed for the FEA to
accurately account for the available Ampere Turn flowing through the alternate coil
model described in the previous section. Furthermore, the conductor positions inside
the slot are required for determining the impinging field on each strand in a post-FEA
214
0.1
1
2
0.05
Radial B(T)
3
4
0
5
6
−0.05
7
8
−0.1
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor Position (deg. el.)
(a) Radial component of B moving into the slot
0.1
1
0.05 19
Radial B(T)
17
0 25
−0.05
−0.1
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor Position (deg. el.)
(b) Radial component of B moving along the slot opening
0.3
1
0.2 2
Tangential B(T)
0.1 3
4
0
5
−0.1 6
−0.2 7
8
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Rotor Position (deg. el.)
(c) Tangential component of B moving into the slot
0.3
0.2 1
Tangential B(T)
19
0.1 17
0 25
−0.1
−0.2
Figure 7.11: Radial and tangential components of the field sections in Fig. 7.10(c)
for a typical motor.
30
215
25
20
15
10
−5
process using the B samples from FEA. This mapping process will be described in a
later section.
The method that was implemented here for the calculation of sf,max and the
associated positions of the conductors within the slot, which yields such sf,max ,
geometry [117]. As can be seen in Fig. 7.12, a given slot geometry is randomly moved
with respect to a grid of tightly packed circular conductors. The fill factor is then
compared for various slot perturbations and strand arrangements to determine the
This method is used for the determination of sf,max in the example slot geometries
shown in Figs. 7.13(a) through (c). As can be seen in this illustration, for a given
conductor diameter, the achievable sf,max diminishes as the slot area decreases, which
35 35
216
30
30 30
25
25 25
20
20 20
15
15 15
10
10 10
5 5
5
0 0 0
−5
(a) sf,max = 0.47 −5
(b) sf,max = 0.51 −5
(c) sf,max = 0.53
−10 −10 −10
Figure 7.13: Slot fill factor and strand positions for example slot geometries as the
−15
60 net slot area increases.
65 70 75 80 85 90
−15
95 60 10065 10570 110 75 80 85 90 95
−15
60
100
65
105
70
110
75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
When the B profiles over the full fundamental cycle are obtained for each rectangular
coil section, the radial and tangential components are separately used in a time
scattered over the slot at the points where the center of each strand conductor is
located. This process is illustrated in Fig. 7.14 for the reconstruction surfaces of the
The order of harmonics that should be included is design dependent. When the
field values throughout the slot area are determined, using the prior information of
the strand positions, the impinging field on each strand can be mapped. In Fig. 7.15,
the mapped values of the impinging B over each strand are shown for the fundamental
and the third field harmonics. It can be seen once again that the magnitude of the
slot leakage flux density monotonically increases for the strands that are closer to the
air gap. The same trend exists for strands that are located towards the leading end
of the rotor pole under motoring operation for CCW direction of rotation.
217
Figure 7.14: Reconstruction of the field harmonics from the sample points using
Delaunay triangulation method.
Upon derivation of the impinging |B| on each strand, depending on the conductor
shape, the loss models given in Eq. (7.2.2) through Eq. (7.2.5) can be used for
estimation of strand eddy current losses in the conductors at the strand level. The
resultant loss values using such an analysis on a typical slot is shown in Figs. 7.16(a)
The method developed here was used for the calculation of eddy current losses in a
12-slot 10-pole IPM machine with V-type magnet layouts as shown in Fig. 7.17(a).
The all-teeth-wound stator winding consists of series coils each composed of 53 turns
of AWG 12.5 wires, thus reducing to negligible levels the losses associated with
218
0.25
0.2
Impinging B(T)
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
20 40 60 80 100
Strand identifier
(b) The fundamental component of the impinging B
0.03
Impinging B(T)
0.02
0.01
0
20 40 60 80 100
Strand identifier
(c) The third harmonic component of the impinging B
Figure 7.16: Distribution of strand eddy current losses under various loading levels.
The stator winding losses including the strand eddy current losses are calculated
by the developed method and the results are compared with those obtained from a
The strand eddy current losses are calculated over a wide range of motor loading
conditions under MTPA control for three different speeds at a winding temperature
of 100◦ C. The results obtained from the developed method and those from the time
harmonic FEA with detailed coil modeling are compared in Figs. 7.18(a)-(c). The
required computation time is less than 80 seconds using the proposed method as
The estimation error of the proposed method when compared to the detailed
220
10
TS-FEA with Detailed Coil Modeling
0
0 25 50 75 100 125
LOAD LEVEL (%)
(a) 150 Hz
120
TS-FEA with Detailed Coil Modeling
EDDY LOSSES (W)
STATOR WINDING
100
CE-FEA with Flux Mapping
80
60
40
20
0
0 25 50 75 100 125
LOAD LEVEL (%)
(b) 500 Hz
600
TS-FEA with Detailed Coil Modeling
EDDY LOSSES (W)
STATOR WINDING
Figure 7.18: Comparison of the accuracy of the loss calculation method over a wide
range of frequencies and loading conditions.
222
15
150 Hz. 500 Hz. 1200 Hz.
10
ERROR (%)
5
0
-5
-10
-15
0 25 50 75 100 125
LOAD LEVEL (%)
TS-FE model is shown in Fig. 7.19 for several speeds and over a wide range of
loading. The error is within a reasonable range given the computational efficiency of
The variation of the ac to dc loss ratio, Pac /Pdc , due to the armature reaction
under different loading levels is shown in Fig. 7.21. As can be seen in Figs. 7.21(a)
through (c), strand eddy current losses constitute a larger contribution to the overall
losses, Pac = Pdc + Pe , under light load levels. The rate of increase of eddy current
losses with respect to loading, which is mainly due to the elevated saturation level of
the ferrous core and therefore increased leakage and fringing of flux into the slot area,
is less than the rate of increase of dc copper losses Pdc , which is directly proportional
to the current squared. This is especially true at lower frequencies as can be seen in
Fig. 7.20. However, the eddy current losses are constantly present even at no-load
The ratio of Rac /Rdc , which is commonly used in the literature, is by definition
not exposed to such large variations, and thus does not reflect them. Therefore, if the
223
600
Eddy losses 150 Hz.
500
Figure 7.20: Variation of dc ohmic losses and strand eddy current losses with respect
to loading level.
ratio of Rac /Rdc is to be used as a figure of merit for comparison of ac losses between
different design solutions, it should be derived and formulated under various loading
conditions.
In this section, the analytical method introduced in [211] is used to develop relevant
layer V-type IPM rotor layout. The results are compared to those obtained from
the mechanical finite element analysis of the rotor structure. The comparison is
performed through a sensitivity analysis of the stresses on the bridges of the case-study
rotor using the two analytical and structural FE techniques for stress estimation.
Although the emphasis is placed on the single layer V-type rotor layout which
has been used throughout this dissertation, the methodology is applicable to many
rotor configurations commonly seen in axially laminated rotary IPM machines. The
224
1.25
AC TO DC LOSS RATIO 150 Hz.
1.2
1.15
y = 1.5837x-0.092
1.1
1.05
1
25 50 75 100 125
LOAD LEVEL (%)
(a) 150 Hz
3.5
AC TO DC LOSS RATIO
500 Hz.
3
2.5
2 y = 15.798x-0.527
1.5
1
25 50 75 100 125
LOAD LEVEL (%)
(b) 500 Hz
13
AC TO DC LOSS RATIO
1200 Hz.
11
9
7
y = 177.73x-0.878
5
3
1
25 50 75 100 125
LOAD LEVEL (%)
(c) 1200 Hz
of the rotor bridges of various design candidates with different rotor parameters in a
large-scale design optimization process, and to account for the influence of the PM
leakage flux shorted through the rotor bridges on the electromagnetic performance
of the design solutions. The purpose of this analysis is not to omit the post-design
measures for reducing the magnitude and/or the concentration of mechanical stresses
mechanical stresses in the rotor of the surface mounted permanent magnet machines.
These procedures are used to ensure adequate enclosure contact pressure is maintained
at high rotational speeds [176] in order to keep the magnets from flying off the rotor
concentric cylinders with different boundary equations with respect to the type of
the contact surfaces [212, 213]. Such analytical derivations do not exist for complex
of the maximum stress [214]. Furthermore, analytical techniques are unable to yield
the distribution of the stress over the machine geometry. Still, a few attempts have
been made to estimate the maximum stress values for IPM machines which suit the
According to the method developed in [211], the tangential stress, σt , in the rotor
226
requiv,o
Aequiv
requiv,i
AFe,o
Apm1 Apm2
Figure 7.22: Modeling of the original layout on the left with the equivalent ring on
the right.
sown in Fig. 7.22. In this approach, a hypothetical ring with is assumed. The height
of this equivalent ring is equal to the narrowest height of the rotor iron bridges.
where DF e is the mass density of rotor steel laminations, Dpm is the mass density of
PMs, AF e,o is the area of the iron under each pole piece, and Apm is the area of the
Subsequently, it can be assumed that the tangential stress inside the equivalent
rotating ring, σt,equiv , expressed in Eq. (7.3.2), is an indication of the tangential stress
present in the original layout. Eq. (7.3.2) is obtained based on formulations of the
227
hoop stress in rotating cylinders which are well-developed in the literature [176, 213].
requiv,o + requiv,i 2 2
σt,equiv = · ωmax · Dequiv (7.3.2)
2
where requiv,o and requiv,i are the outer and inner radii of the equivalent ring,
respectively.
To account for the stress concentrations due to the irregular magnet slot shape,
the calculated stress can be multiplied by a form factor, e.g. a factor of 2 as reported
in [211] provided that the sharp corners are rounded. The thickness of the rotor
bridges can be increased to reduce the stress on the rotor bridges to values less than
Estimation Method
the design parameters to the desired performance metrics over the entire design space.
the mechanical stresses in the rotor of IPM machines, do not reveal the concentration
and the distribution of the stresses throughout the rotor geometry. Furthermore,
section in identifying the existing correlations between various design parameters and
228
maximum stress in the rotor bridges of a V-type PM machine, two rounds of sensitivity
analysis are performed. One uses the high fidelity structural FE model, and the other
one uses the aforementioned analytical method as means for stress calculations.
In preparing the FE model, the sharp edges in the rotor geometry are slightly
rounded, as shown in Fig. 7.23 for the two extremes of the rotor design parameters,
to avoid large stress concentration values in the ribs. The radius of filleting is
performance.
The sensitivity analysis methodology described in Section 7.1.2 is used with the
same range of design parameters associated with the rotor geometry indicated in
Table 2.1, i.e. kdpm , kwpm , kwq , hpm , αpm , in addition to rro which is defined by
using both analytical and structural FEA. The stress magnitudes and distributions
of these designs obtained from structural FEA are provided in Appendix II. The
stress found from the analytical method, and the maximum stress from the structural
FEA are used for formulating two second order response surfaces expressed in Eq.
(3.3.1). The normalized regression coefficients obtained from the two methods of
A comparison between the regression coefficients in Fig. 7.24 reveals that the
the bridge mechanical stresses except for two cases, namely, the PM depth ratio, kdpm ,
and the web width ratio, kwq . According to the analytical formulations, increasing
229
Regression coefficients
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
−0.2
hpm kd kw kw αpm rro
pm pm q
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
−0.2
hpm kd kw kw αpm rro
pm pm q
Figure 7.24: Comparison of the accuracy of the analytical stress estimation method
through a sensitivity analysis.
the PM depth ratio when other design parameters are constant will increase the mass
under the pole piece, and thus elevates the stresses on the rotor bridges. This would
have held true had it not been for the existing features in the rotor geometry which
are not accounted for in the analytical model. Particularly, as the magnet burial
depth increases, the magnets are better retained from the centrifugal forces because
of the tilted inner edges at the two ends of the rotor slots marked in Fig. 7.25.
The analytical approach is also unable to effectively model the influence of kwq on
231
the bridge stresses according to Fig. 7.24. This is due to the fact that the changes in
the mass of the pole piece due to variations of kwq are marginal as shown in Fig. 7.26.
7.4 Summary
discussed:
In the first part, the sensitivity of the optimal design rules of IPM machines
with sintered NdFeB magnets to the variations of the commodity price coefficients
within a practical range of change was investigated in this section. Two sets of
rigorous sensitivity analysis were performed for this purpose. First, a comprehensive
sensitivity analysis was conducted on the impact of the commodity price variations
on the relationships between design parameters and the AMC. The results of this
sensitivity analysis demonstrated that the strongest changes of the most influential
design parameters due to variations of the commodity prices were in the same
design optimization of over 200,000 design candidates to investigate the change in the
optimal design values due to the commodity price variations. The results indicated
that the average optimal design parameters are not prone to significant changes due
to the variations of the commodity price coefficients within the assumed ranges.
Similar conclusions would be expected for PM machines with Ferrite or bonded NdFeB
magnets, since the use of less expensive magnet materials translates into a lower price
coefficient, and thus reduces the influence of the PM price variations on the overall
In the second part of this chapter, a method was developed for the calculation
of strand eddy current losses in the stator windings of electric machines that (a) is
finite-element based to take into account the complex geometry of the machine and
the effects of saturation, (b) is computationally efficient and suitable for integration
machines with different combinations of stator slots and rotor pole structures, (d)
estimates the maximum SF factor for each design candidate based on winding specs
and slot geometry, (e) estimates the value of eddy current losses due to slot leakage
and fringing flux effects under any loading conditions, i.e. various torque and speed
operating points, and (f) estimates the distribution of copper losses including the
eddy current losses in the slots for rigorous thermal analysis of the stator windings.
The developed loss calculation method was implemented on a FSCW 12-slot 10-
pole IPM machine with relatively large slot openings. The results over a wide range
of loading conditions and operating frequencies were in good agreement with those
obtained from a time harmonic FEA with detailed coil modeling. Meanwhile the
required computation time was significantly reduced using the presented method.
The distribution of the losses in this case study machine can be used for a subsequent
thermal performance analysis due to the importance of including strand eddy losses as
a major loss component in high speed machines, even if the stator winding conductors
Using the developed loss calculation method, it was also shown that the variations
of Pac /Pdc loss ratio with reference to the machine loading levels are not reflected in
the common figure of merit represented by Rac /Rdc resistance ratio. Thus if the
234
Rac /Rdc ratio is to be used, additional treatment will be required to include the
loading effects.
In the third and last part of this chapter, an analytical method was implemented
for the estimation of mechanical stresses in the rotor bridges of V-type IPM machines.
the relationships between the design parameters and the centrifugal stresses on the
rotor bridges were quantified. In the case study analysis, as expected, the analytical
cylinders was not able to account for the effects of two of the design parameters,
namely the burial depth of PMs and the width of the q-axis webs, on the stress
concentrations in the rotor structure. However, the effects of the remaining four
parameters were predicted with reasonable accuracy using the analytical method,
thus rendering this approach one of the best available options for implementation in
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSIONS
and the challenges and opportunities for efficiency improvement in such systems were
was pointed out that there is need for a more comprehensive design optimization
approach which is inclusive of the entire range of possible operating conditions. The
organization of this dissertation vis-a-vis the various investigated topics was also
search algorithm for finding the globally optimal designs, was carried out for large-
scale design optimization of the Toyota Prius Gen 2 48-slot 8-pole V-type IPM
machine at its peak (nominal) operating condition. The optimization was performed
236
over 4 800 design candidates for realizing two objectives of minimization of active
material cost and power losses, in addition to satisfying two performance constraints
It was shown that more efficient and cost effective designs with superior rated
performance indices at the nominal (peak) operating point could be found from the
Pareto front of the optimization results. However, when the efficiency throughout the
entire range of operation is considered, the original Prius design outperformed the
optimization process is one key contribution of this research which was described in
Chapter 3. Through a rigorous sensitivity analysis, it was shown that the correlation
indices between the design parameters and the performance metrics vary with respect
to the machine loading levels. In some instances, e.g. for the core and copper
undergo significant variations, or even change direction. These results put into
second set of analyses in this chapter, six parallel design optimization runs consisting
of an overall of 40 000 design candidates were carried out at three different levels
of current densities, which are typically found in naturally cooled, fan-cooled, and
The statistical distributions of the design parameters in the 500 optimal designs of
each optimization run were subsequently investigated. The results indicated that the
optimal design of PM machines vary with respect to the ampere loading level. This
highlight the challenges in the design of electric motors with wide operating ranges,
Taking into account the entire range of complex operation patterns in the
fast search algorithm was developed in this work for design optimization of electric
standard DE or GA. This CMODE-type algorithm was implemented here and was
thoroughly examined, and its superiorities over the standard DE algorithm in terms of
convergence rate, constraint handling, and quality of the final generated Pareto fronts
in a multiobjective design problem were confirmed and quantified. For this purpose,
were conducted on different machine topologies with various loading levels and fitness
algorithms were able to identify the same global optima for all the optimization cases.
However, in all of the examined cases, CMODE’s convergence to the Pareto optimal
vicinity was faster, at least twice as fast as DE. Furthermore, CMODE’s constraint
handling was more effective in the sense that a larger number of design candidates
passed the designated performance constraints when compared to results from the
design space produced by DE. Thus, a salient finding in this dissertation is that these
design optimization of PM machines over a target operating cycle which was presented
of the motor torque and speed profiles, computationally efficient modeling of the
representative load points residing in the constant torque or extended speed regions,
and finding the optimal design solutions using the CMODE-type stochastic search
algorithm. The original CE-FEA algorithm was upgraded to include any load
operating point residing anywhere in the constant torque or extended speed regions
implemented for efficient modeling of the motor energy distribution function. Proper
was also conceived in this chapter. It was demonstrated that the equality of the
characteristic and rated currents should not be considered as an objective of the design
239
including improving upon the energy efficiency, while simultaneously checking the
the large family of sine-wave driven radial flux synchronous PM and synchronous
that in Chapter 6, this approach was successfully applied to two case study traction
propulsion motors. In the first case study, the Toyota Prius Gen 2 motor was
optimized for reduced active material cost and increased drive-cycle efficiency over
design candidates over seven representative load points, the cost effectiveness of the
original design was confirmed and alternative designs with better energy efficiency
characteristics were identified. The viability of the final counterpart designs were
over the rigorous US06 driving cycle, and mechanical FEA of the rotor structure at the
maximum rotational speed. The second case study presented in Chapter 6 pertains
to the design optimization of a spoke-type IPM machine characterized with very high
power density for propulsion application in a formula E racing car. Two objectives of
increasing the power density, and minimizing the aggregate losses over the Le Mans
driving cycle were pursued. The optimization results were used for establishing the
electric machines. First, it was demonstrated that when the minimization of the active
material cost is considered, the optimal design rules of PM machines barely change due
to the variation of the commodity price coefficients. In this case, a cost function based
on the weighted masses of the main active components, and a realistic commodity
price variation by a factor of two was considered. In the continuation of this chapter,
power losses in the stator windings of PM machines, and including this loss component
in the design evaluation process was introduced. This method was implemented on an
example 12-slot 10-pole machine configuration to characterize the strand eddy current
losses under various speeds and loading conditions. The comparison of the results
with a time harmonic transient FE model confirmed the accuracy and computational
efficiency of the developed method. Finally, in this chapter, an analytical method for
calculation of the centrifugal forces on the rotor bridges of V-type IPM machines was
described, and its ability in capturing the influence of the design parameters on such
forces was investigated. Although the presented method cannot take into account the
stress concentrations due to the structural details introduced by some of the design
parameters, such as the PM burial depth or width of the q-axis web, it can provide a
There are numerous research studies in the literature which perform a comparison
between various motor topologies and configurations with an aim to identify the
proper design decision for a given application. It is not uncommon to find such
not necessarily optimized a priori for the specific application, thus leaving much to be
with 48-slot 8-pole and 12-slot 10-pole configurations in Chapters 3 and 7 can be
same time meet the thermal performance requirements, the three following measures
were adopted in the developed design optimization package. First, the starting point
of the process was based on an already existing design which meets the thermal
performance requirements. Second, the current density was fixed for all the design
candidates in a given optimization problem with reference to the original design. And
third, the minimization of power losses has been always designated as an objective
of the design optimization. Correspondingly, not only are the designs with power
losses lower than the original design expected to meet the thermal performance
requirements, but the ampere loading of such designs can be further increased, with
242
as other performance constraints are not violated. This can translate into further
approach can be pursued by inspecting the peak and continuous power operation of
There are other areas of opportunity for improving the developed design
optimization package. To name a few, the implemented cost model can be improved
to also account for the manufacturing cost associated with the power electronics
drives. The loss model can be upgraded to include the additional losses introduced
by the time harmonics of the PWM drives which might be significant during the
is to be improved, possible methods for taking into account the rotor core and the
magnet losses can be studied and incorporated into the CE-FEA model.
243
BIBLOGRAPHY
devices,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 12, no. 6, pp. 1036–1038, 1976.
[21] ——, “An Evaluation of the Methods of Finite Elements and Finite Differences
in the Solution of Nonlinear Electromagnetic Fields in Electrical Machines,”
IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-98, no. 1, pp.
74–87, 1979.
[26] M. Chari, “Nonlinear finite element solution of electrical machines under no-
load and full-load conditions,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 10, no. 3,
pp. 686–689, 1974.
[30] T. Nehl and N. Demerdash, “Application of finite element eddy current analysis
to nondestructive detection of flaws in metallic structures,” IEEE Transactions
on Magnetics, vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 1080–1082, 1980.
[32] S. Salon and B. Istfan, “Inverse non-linear finite element problems,” IEEE
Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 817–818, 1986.
[33] B. Istfan and S. J. Salon, “Inverse nonlinear finite element problems with local
and global constraints,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 24, no. 6, pp.
2568–2572, 1988.
[34] T. Nakata and N. Takahashi, “Direct finite element analysis of flux and current
distributions under specified conditions,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics,
vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 325–330, 1982.
[35] ——, “Application of the finite element method to the design of permanent
magnets,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 18, no. 6, pp. 1049–1051,
1982.
[36] ——, “New design method of permanent magnets by using the finite element
method,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 2494–2497, 1983.
[38] O. Pironneau, Optimal Shape Design for Elliptic Systems, ser. Springer
series in computational physics. Springer-Verlag, 1984. [Online]. Available:
https://books.google.com/books?id=6JqyAAAAIAAJ
[45] I.-H. Park, B.-T. Lee, and S.-Y. Hahn, “Design sensitivity analysis for nonlinear
magnetostatic problems using finite element method,” IEEE Transactions on
Magnetics, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 1533–1536, 1992.
[52] ——, “Optimal magnet design for NMR,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics,
vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 399–402, 1990.
[62] K. Preis, C. Magele, and O. Biro, “FEM and evolution strategies in the optimal
design of electromagnetic devices,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 26,
no. 5, pp. 2181–2183, 1990.
[67] J.-S. Chun, H.-K. Jung, and J.-S. Yoon, “Shape optimization of closed slot
type permanent magnet motors for cogging torque reduction using evolution
strategy,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 1912–1915,
1997.
[68] T. K. Chung, S. K. Kim, and S.-Y. Hahn, “Optimal pole shape design for the
reduction of cogging torque of brushless DC motor using evolution strategy,”
IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 1908–1911, 1997.
[71] T. Ohnishi and N. Takahashi, “Optimal design of efficient IPM motor using
finite element method,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, vol. 36, no. 5, pp.
3537–3539, 2000.
[75] A. A. Arkadan and Y. Chen, “Artificial neural network for the inverse
electromagnetic problem of system identification,” in Southeastcon ’94. Creative
Technology Transfer - A Global Affair., Proceedings of the 1994 IEEE, 1994, pp.
162–164.
3285–3294, 2014.
[87] Y. Duan and D. Ionel, “Nonlinear Scaling Rules for Brushless PM Synchronous
Machines Based on Optimal Design Studies for a Wide Range of Power
Ratings,” Industry Applications, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 50, no. 2, pp.
1044–1052, March 2014.
[93] R. Schiferl and T. Lipo, “Power capability of salient pole permanent magnet
synchronous motors in variable speed drive applications,” Industry Applications,
IEEE Transactions on, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 115–123, Jan 1990.
[95] G. Pellegrino and F. Cupertino, “IPM motor rotor design by means of FEA-
based multi-objective optimization,” in Industrial Electronics (ISIE), 2010
IEEE International Symposium on, 2010, pp. 1340–1346.
[96] P. Zhang, D. Ionel, and N. Demerdash, “Saliency ratio and power factor of
IPM motors optimally designed for high efficiency and low cost objectives,” in
Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), 2014 IEEE, Sept 2014,
pp. 3541–3547.
[100] J. hee Lee and B.-I. Kwon, “Optimal Rotor Shape Design of a Concentrated
Flux IPM-Type Motor for Improving Efficiency and Operation Range,”
Magnetics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 49, no. 5, pp. 2205–2208, 2013.
[130] M. Olszewski, “Evaluation of 2004 Toyota Prius Hybrid Electric Drive System,”
in Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Sept 2004.
[131] ——, “Evaluation of the 2007 Toyota Camry Hybrid Synergy Drive System,”
in Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Apr 2008.
Profiles,” Industry Applications, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 47, no. 6, pp. 2460–
2468, 2011.
[138] G. Lei, C. Liu, J. Zhu, and Y. Guo, “Techniques for Multilevel Design
Optimization of Permanent Magnet Motors,” Energy Conversion, IEEE
Transactions on, vol. PP, no. 99, pp. 1–11, 2015.
[144] Z. Azar, Z. Zhu, and G. Ombach, “Influence of Electric Loading and Magnetic
Saturation on Cogging Torque, Back-EMF and Torque Ripple of PM Machines,”
Magnetics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 48, no. 10, pp. 2650–2658, 2012.
[153] D.-J. Sim, D.-H. Cho, J.-S. Chun, H.-K. Jung, and T.-K. Chung, “Efficiency
optimization of interior permanent magnet synchronous motor using genetic
algorithms,” Magnetics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 1880–1883,
Mar 1997.
[155] D. Zarko and S. Stipetic, “Criteria for optimal design of interior permanent
magnet motor series,” in Electrical Machines (ICEM), 2012 XXth International
Conference on, Sept 2012, pp. 1242–1249.
[166] E. H. M and J. C. Balda, “Permanent magnet synchronous motor drive for HEV
259
[175] J. Miller, “Oak Ridge National Laboratory Annual Progress Report for the
Power Electronics and Electric Motors Program,” in Oak Ridge National
Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Nov 2013.
260
[177] G.-H. Kang, J. Hur, H.-G. Sung, and J.-P. Hong, “Optimal design of spoke type
BLDC motor considering irreversible demagnetization of permanent magnet,”
in Electrical Machines and Systems, 2003. ICEMS 2003. Sixth International
Conference on, vol. 1, 2003, pp. 234–237 vol.1.
[178] B. kuk Lee, G.-H. Kang, J. Hur, and D.-W. You, “Design of spoke type
BLDC motors with high power density for traction applications,” in Industry
Applications Conference, 2004. 39th IAS Annual Meeting. Conference Record
of the 2004 IEEE, vol. 2, 2004, pp. 1068–1074 vol.2.
[180] H.-W. Kim, K.-T. Kim, Y.-S. Jo, and J. Hur, “Optimization Methods of Torque
Density for Developing the Neodymium Free SPOKE-Type BLDC Motor,”
Magnetics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 49, no. 5, pp. 2173–2176, 2013.
[188] M. Hagan, H. Demuth, M. Beale, and O. de Jesús, Neural Network Design (2nd
Edition). Martin Hagan, 2014.
[195] M. Popescu and D. Dorrell, “Proximity Losses in the Windings of High Speed
Brushless Permanent Magnet AC Motors With Single Tooth Windings and
Parallel Paths,” Magnetics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 49, no. 7, pp. 3913–
3916, 2013.
[197] A. Thomas, Z. Zhu, and G. Jewell, “Proximity Loss Study In High Speed Flux-
Switching Permanent Magnet Machine,” Magnetics, IEEE Transactions on,
262
[198] P. Reddy, Z. Zhu, S.-H. Han, and T. Jahns, “Strand-level proximity losses in
PM machines designed for high-speed operation,” in Electrical Machines, 2008.
ICEM 2008. 18th International Conference on, 2008, pp. 1–6.
[201] P. Reddy, T. Jahns, and T. Bohn, “Modeling and analysis of proximity losses in
high-speed surface permanent magnet machines with concentrated windings,”
in Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), 2010 IEEE, 2010, pp.
996–1003.
[202] W. Zhang and T. Jahns, “Analytical 2-D slot model for predicting AC losses
in bar-wound machine windings due to armature reaction,” in Transportation
Electrification Conference and Expo (ITEC), 2014 IEEE, 2014, pp. 1–6.
[206] R.-J. Wang and M. Kamper, “Calculation of eddy current loss in axial field
permanent-magnet machine with coreless stator,” Energy Conversion, IEEE
Transactions on, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 532–538, 2004.
[210] G. Carter, The electromagnetic field in its engineering aspects, ser. Electrical
engineering series. American Elsevier Pub. Co., 1967.
[212] W. Fei, P. C. K. Luk, and T. S. El-Hasan, “Rotor Integrity Design for a High-
Speed Modular Air-Cored Axial-Flux Permanent-Magnet Generator,” IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 58, no. 9, pp. 3848–3858, 2011.
[213] R. Larsonneur, Design and control of active magnetic bearing systems for high
speed rotation. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, 1990.
APPENDIX I
illustrated below.
3
13
αwt /2 6 5 4
8 7 10
12
rro dw
11
45o 9 2
αs 1 ds hy
xd
tL
rg
ww
rsi wt/2
rso
xp1 = rsi
y = 0
p1
xp2 = rso − hy
y = 0
p2
265
xp3 = rslot cos(AngP 3 ), where AngP 3 = αs /2 − arcsin(wt /2/rslot )
y = r sin(Ang ), wherer = r − h
p3 slot P3 slot so y
xp4 = xp5 + xd , where xd = yp5 (xp5 −OOS )−yp10 (xp5 −OOS )
yp10 +xp5 −OOS
y = y − x , whereOO = w /2/ sin(α /2)
p4 p5 d s t s
xp5 = xp6 + ww
y = y
p5 p6
xp6 = dw + rsi − hg /2
y = (x − OO ) tan(α /2) + t
p6 p6 S s L
xp7 = xp6
y = (x − OO ) tan(α /2)
p7 p6 S s
xp8 = rsi cos(αs /2 − arcsin(wt /2/rsi ))
y = R sin(α /2 − arcsin(w /2/r ))
p8 si s t si
xp15 = xp5 + yp5
y = 0
p15
xp10 = xp5
y = (x − OO ) tan(α /2)
p10 p5 S s
xp11 = xp4 + yp8 sin(αs /2)
y = y − y cos(α /2)
p11 p4 p8 s
xp12 = xp13 + yp8 sin(αs /2)
y = y − y cos(α /2)
p12 p13 p8 s
xp13 = xp2 − (xp2 − OOS ) sin(αs /2) sin(αs /2)
y = (x − OO ) sin(α /2) cos(α /2)
p13 p2 S s s
266
below.
1 2
3 4
hpm
αp αpm wbr
wpm
rpm dbr
rro
xq1 = xq4 − dbr − wpm
y = h /2
q1 pm
xq2 = xq4 − dbr
y = h /2
q2 pm
xq3 = xq4 − dbr
y = w /2
q3 br
p
xq4 = R2 − (wbr /2)2
ro
y = w /2
q4 br
267
APPENDIX II
The following static structural FEA on the V-type rotor layout was carried out
in Section 7.3 for sensitivity analysis of the stress to the variations of the design
parameters. Values of kdpm , kwpm , kwq , hpm , αpm , and rro are listed in coded form in
APPENDIX III
Nd Neodymium
NdFeB Neodymium Iron Boron
NEDC New European Driving Cycle
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association
Np Population size
NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory
ν Reluctivity (meter per Henry)
ω Angular frequency (electrical radians per second)
ωm Angular frequency (mechanical radians per second)
ORNL Oak Ridge National Laboratory
p Number of design parameters
P Number of poles
PC Personal Computer
Pac Ac copper losses (Watts)
Pdc Dc copper losses (Watts)
PEV Plug-in Electric Vehicles
P~g Optimization population vector
Pe Eddy-current loss (Watt per kilogram)
PF e Lamination core losses (Watt)
Ph Hysteresis loss (Watt per kilogram)
PM Permanent Magnet
PMSM Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine
Pw Aggregate weighted loss per unit output power
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
Rac Ac resistance (Ohm)
ρ Resistivity (Ohm meter)
Rdc Dc resistance (Ohm)
rsi Stator inner radius (meter)
rso Stator outer radius (meter)
RSM Response Surface Methodology
SD Steepest Descent
276
SF Slot Fill
σt Tangential stress (Pascal)
SRM Switched Reluctance Motor
SyRM Synchronous Reluctance Motor
Tavg Average torque (Newton meter)
Tem Developed electromagnetic torque profile (Newton meter)
T emp Temperature (degree Celsius)
θ Angle (electrical radians)
θm Angle (mechanical radians)
THD Total Harmonic Distortion
Tr Torque ripple (%)
TRW Torque Ratio per Weight
TSFE Time-stepping FE
~u Trial design members
UDDS Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule
US06 Supplemental Federal Test Procedure Driving Schedule
vCu Volume of copper (cubic meters)
vR Total induced voltage in the stator winding (Volts)
wpm Width of magnet (meter)
wq Width of q-axis web (meter)
wso Width of slot opening (meter)
wt Tooth width (meter)
wtip Width of tooth tip (meter)
xp Coordinate direction in rectangular Cartesian coordinates
xq Coordinate direction in rectangular Cartesian coordinates
~x Design members
xi,max Upper bound of the design parameters
xi,min Lower bound of the design parameters
~xg Population members
yp Coordinate direction in rectangular Cartesian coordinates
yq Coordinate direction in rectangular Cartesian coordinates