Strain Engineering For 2D Ferroelectricity in Lead Chalcogenides

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BT@@ _N_D[ 
Strnhm Dmjhmddrhmj bfr ;A Bdrrfd`dctrhchty hm @dna Cln`cfjdmhads
Qnf \u,* \hnfyunm Znmj, Ghnwdh Inh, Ghmjtfmj Wlnmj, Ghd Znmj, nma Qfmj-Xh Wlnmj*
AFH7 >?.>??;/nd`i.;?>8??83;
rnmafi-nccdss idifry (Bd[NI), nma d`dctrfidclnmhcn` advhcds.
U;,3Y
 Nclhdvhmj bdrrfd`dctrhc prfpdrthds hm `fw-ahidmshfmn` intdrhn`s hs fb jrdnt hipfrtnmcd bfr tld advd`fpidmt fb ihmhnturhzda, hmtdjrntda d`dctrfmhc advhcds ns wd`` ns bfr tld bum-anidmtn` schdmcd nttrhkutda tf tld dxfthc plyshcn` prfpdrthds nma tld didrjdmcd fb umusun` bdrrfhc pnttdrms.
U1–:Y
 Lfwdvdr, tld bdrrfd`dctrhc fradr hs hmdvhtnk`y adstrfyda kd`fw tld crhthcn` tlhcemdss hm cfmvdm-thfmn` bdrrfd`dctrhcs, bfr dxnip`d, 3–4 mi bfr KnQhF
3
 mnmfstructurds,
U<,8Y
 aud tf tld shjmh﬎cnmt`y dmlnmcda adpf`nrhznthfm ﬎d`a nma ﬎mhtd shzd dbbdcts nt mnmfscn`d ahidmshfms.Qld rhsd fb ;A intdrhn`s fpdms n mdw nvdmud bfr tld ahscfvdry fb ntfihc-scn`d bdrrfd`dctrhcs.
U>?,>>Y
 Brfi tldfrdthcn` cn`cu-`nthfms, sdvdrn` ;A bdrrfd`dctrhc intdrhn`s, hmc`uahmj cfipfumas
U>;–>1Y
 nma d`didmtn` intdrhn`s,
U>4,>2Y
 lnvd kddm rdcdmt`y prf-pfsda. Hm dxpdrhidmts, ;A bdrrfd`dctrhcs wdrd ﬎rst dstnk`hslda hm twf ntfihc `nydr (N@)-tlhce SmQd,
U>:Y
 wlhcl suksdqudmt`y sthiu`ntda rdsdnrcl fm tld bdrrfd`dctrhchty (fr bdrrfd`nsthchty) fb ftldr ;A SmQd nmn`fjuds I\s (I
9
 Sh, Jd, Sm5 \
9
 S, Sd, Qd).
U>;,>3,><,>8Y
 Mdvdrtld`dss, tld `dna cln`cfjdmhad _k\ (\
9
 S, Sd, nma Qd) ntfihc `nydrs nrd hmtrhmshcn``y mfm bdrrfd`dctrhc intd-rhn`s, n`tlfujl tldhr cfrrdspfmahmj ku`e intdrhn`s slnrd tld snid spncd jrfup (Bi
3
i) ns ku`e SmQd nt rffi tdipdrnturd. Qld ahscfvdry fb mdw ;A bdrrfd`dctrhc intdrhn`s nma tld umadr-`yhmj idclnmhsi wh`` mft fm`y prfvhad n kdttdr umadrstnmahmj fb tld plyshcn` idclnmhsi kdlhma tld `fw-ahidmshfmn` bdrrf-d`dctrhchty kut n`sf iny bnch`htntd tld npp`hcnthfm fb mnmfscn`d bdrrfd`dctrhc advhcds.Fm tld ftldr lnma, ;A intdrhn`s nrd mfrin``y bnkrhcntda fm n sukstrntd hm prncthcd, hm wlhcl `ntthcd ihsintcl nma rdsu`thmj ihs﬎t strnhm nrd hmdvhtnk`y prdsdmt. Strnhm dmjhmddrhmj lns kddm prfvdm tf kd n pfwdrbu` tff` hm tld cfmtrf` nma ifau`nthfm fb tld structurn`, d`dctrfmhc, fpthcn`, nma injmdthc prfpdrthds fb ;A intdrhn`s.
U;?–;3Y
 Hm pdrfvsehtd fxhads, d`nsthc strnhm lns kddm rdc-fjmhzda ns n vhnk`d idnms tf ifahby tld structurn` hmstnkh`hthds nma hmaucd bdrrfd`dctrhchty.
U;1Y
 Hm tlhs pnpdr, wd adifmstrntd, ky ushmj ﬎rst-prhmchp`ds cn`cu`nthfms, tlnt npprfprhntd idclnmhcn` strnhm cnm ncthvntd n pnrnd`dctrhc tf bdrrfd`dctrhc plnsd trnmsh-thfm hm ; N@-tlhce _k\ ﬎`is nma ifau`ntd tld rdsu`thmj bdr-rfd`dctrhc prfpdrthds. Qld prdsdmt rdsu`ts prfvhad n prfspdcthvd idnms fb nclhdvhmj ;A bdrrfd`dctrhc intdrhn`s hm ftldrwhsd mfm-bdrrfd`dctrhc intdrhn`s nma adshjmhmj mnmfscn`d advhcds.
Qld qudst bfr mdw ;A bdrrfd`dctrhc intdrhn`s cfmthmuds tf nrfusd hmtdrdst. Knsda fm ﬎rst-prhmchp`ds cn`cu`nthfms, ldrd, ;A bdrrfd`dctrhc prfpdrthds hm `dna cln`cfjdmhads _k\s (\
9
 S, Sd, nma Qd) whtl n tlhcemdss fb twf ntfihc `nydrs vhn strnhm dmjhmddrhmj hs adifmstrntda. N`tlfujl tldsd intdrhn`s nrd stnk`d hm n rfcesn`t-typd cukhc structurd nma nrd hmtrhmshcn``y mfm-bdrrfd`dctrhc intdrhn`s, nm npprfprhntd idclnmhcn` strnhm cnm rdnah`y ncthvntd n pnrnd`dctrhc tf bdrrfd`dctrhc plnsd trnmshthfm nma hmaucd hm-p`nmd d`dctrhc pf`nrhznthfm hm tldsd ntfihc `nydrs. Qld hmaucda pf`nrhznthfm injmhtuad cnm kd ns `nrjd ns >.8?
Ú
 >?
>?
 C i
>
 nt n khnxhn` strnhm fb
δ 
 
9
 1.?%, wlhcl hs cfipnrnk`d hm injmhtuad tf tlnt fb u`trntlhm bdrrfd`dctrhc SmQd. Qld Curhd tdipdrnturd
c
 fb tld intdrhn`s hs n`sf dsthintda ushmj dbbdcthvd Lnih`tf-mhnm shiu`nthfms. Qld frhjhm fb tld didrjda bdrrfd`dctrhc plnsd hs nttrhkutda tf sfbtdmhmj fb tld pf`nr ifad whtl npp`hda strnhm. Hm naahthfm, tld knma jnps fb tld crystn`s nrd bfuma tf kd tumnk`d whtl npp`hda strnhm, wlhcl cnm kd nagustda tf tld hadn` vn`ud fb >.3 dR bfr plftfvf`tnhc npp`hcnthfms. Qld rdsu`ts mft fm`y prfvhad n mdw rfutd tf dxp`frd bdrrfd`dctrhchty hm ;A intd-rhn`s kut n`sf sujjdst prfihshmj sdihcfmaucthmj bdrrfd`dctrhcs bfr sf`nr npp`hcnthfms.
Ar. Q. \u, G. Inh, _rfb. Q.-X. WlnmjIntdrhn`s Jdmfid HmsthtutdSlnmjlnh TmhvdrshtySlnmjlnh ;??111, ClhmnD-inh`7 xutnf23>3Oslu.dau.cm5 zlnmjtyOslu.dau.cmAr. \. ZnmjEdy @nkfrntfry fb _rdssurd Systdis nma SnbdtyIhmhstry fb Daucnthfm, Dnst Clhmn Tmhvdrshty fb Schdmcd nma Qdclmf`fjySlnmjlnh ;??;3:, ClhmnG. Wlnmj, _rfb. G. ZnmjAdpnrtidmt fb Dmjhmddrhmj IdclnmhcsSclff` fb Ndrfmnuthcs nma NstrfmnuthcsWldghnmj TmhvdrshtyLnmjzlfu 3>??;:, ClhmnQld F[CHA hadmth﬎cnthfm muikdr(s) bfr tld nutlfr(s) fb tlhs nrthc`d cnm kd bfuma umadr lttps7//afh.frj/>?.>??;/nd`i.;?>8??83;.
>. Hmtrfaucthfm
Bdrrfd`dctrhcs, sucl ns tld pdrfvsehtd _kQhF
3
 nma hts sf`ha sf`u-thfms, nrd n typhcn` c`nss fb bumcthfmn` intdrhn`s tlnt pfssdss mft fm`y swhtclnk`d d`dctrhc pf`nrhznthfm kut n`sf supdrhfr bumc-thfmn`hthds, hmc`uahmj n `nrjd phdzfd`dctrhc rdspfmsd nma n lhjl ahd`dctrhc pdrihtthvhty.
U>Y
 Qldsd bnschmnthmj bumcthfmn`hthds nrd whad`y dxp`fhtda bfr npp`hcnthfms, hmc`uahmj sdmsfrs, mfmvf`nth`d
 Nav. D`dctrfm.
 
Intdr.
 
;?;?
,
, >8??83;
 
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 ;?>8 ZH@DX-RCL Rdr`nj JikL & Cf. EJnN, Zdhmldhi
>8??83; (; fb :)
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;. [dsu`ts nma Ahscusshfm
Qld hmhthn` cfm﬎jurnthfms fb tld ; N@ _k\s wdrd c`dnvda n`fmj tld (??>) p`nmd brfi tld ku`e _k\s. Aud tf tld krdnehmj fb tld ihrrfr syiidtry n`fmj tld U??>Y ahrdcthfm, tld ; N@ _k\s nrd rdaucda tf
_1/mii 
 spncd jrfup brfi tld Bi
3
i spncd jrfup fb ku`e intdrhn`s. Ns h``ustrntda hm
Bhjurd
 
>
n, tld crystn`s cfm-shst fb twf ﬋nt ntfihc `nydrs whtl twf _k ntfis nma twf \ ntfis hm n prhihthvd umht cd`` hm n squnrd `ntthcd. Qld prhihthvd cd``s fb ; N@ _k\s wdrd nafptda tf hmvdsthjntd tldhr structurn` prfpdrthds. Qld fpthihzda `ntthcd cfmstnmts, ns h``ustrntda ky tld anslda k`nce `hmd, nrd
n
?
 
9
 
k
?
 
9
 1.;3 Ä,
n
?
 
9
 
k
?
 
9
 1.1? Ä, nma
n
?
 
9
 
k
?
 
9
 1.21 Ä bfr _kS, _kSd, nma _kQd, hm jffa njrddidmt whtl prdvhfus rdpfrts.
U;4,;2Y
 Burtldrifrd, tld _k
\ kfma `dmjtl hmcrdnsds brfi _kS tlrfujl _kSd tf _kQd, cfmshstdmt whtl tld jrfwhmj ntfihc rnahus. Qldsd structurds nrd ahbbdrdmt brfi tld c`fsd`y rd`ntda kh-`nydr SmQd (spncd jrfup _im;
>
), wlhcl cfmtnhms n rd`nthvd hm-p`nmd ahsp`ncdidmt kdtwddm Sm nma Qd ntfis.
U><Y
Zd tldm hmvdsthjntda tld stnkh`hty fb tld ; N@ _k\ ﬎`is. Qld cfldshvd dmdrjhds fb tld crystn`s, ad﬎mda ns
c
 
9
 
_k\
 
_k
 
\
, wdrd cn`cu`ntda, wldrd
_k\
 hs tld tftn` dmdrjy fb ; N@ _k\s, nma
_k
 nma
\
 nrd tld dmdrjhds fb brdd _k nma \ ntfis, rdspdc-thvd`y. Qld cn`cu`ntda cfldshvd dmdrjhds nrd cf``dctda hm
Qnk`d
 
>
. Mdjnthvd vn`uds hmahcntd tlnt bfrinthfm fb tld ntfihc `nydrs hs dmdrjdthcn``y bnvfrnk`d. Qld hmadpdmadmt d`nsthc cfmstnmts fb tld stuahda intdrhn`s nrd n`sf suiinrhzda hm Qnk`d >, hm wlhcl n`` tlrdd crystn`s iddt tld Kfrm crhtdrhn bfr ;A intdrhn`s7 C
>>
C
;;
 –C
>;;
 
=
 ? nma C
>>
, C
;;
, C
11
 
=
 ?.
U;:Y
 Qlhs rdsu`t hmahcntds tlnt tldy cnm kd idclnmhcn``y stnk`d. Burtldrifrd, wd n`sf vdrh﬎da tld aymnihc stnkh`hthds fb tldsd structurds ky cn`cu-`nthmj tldhr plfmfm ahspdrshfms, nma tld rdsu`ts nrd prfvhada hm Bhjurd >k nma Bhjurd S>, Suppfrthmj Hmbfrinthfm. Ht hs mfthcd-nk`d tlnt tld stuahda crystn`s nrd brdd fb nmy hinjhmnry plfmfm ifads whtlhm tld Krh``fuhm zfmd, hmahcnthmj tlnt n`` fb tldi nrd ehmdthcn``y stnk`d. Bhmn``y, NHIA shiu`nthfms wdrd pdrbfrida nt 3?? E tf dxnihmd tld tldrin` stnkh`hty fb tld crystn`s. Ns h``ustrntda hm Bhjurd S;, Suppfrthmj Hmbfrinthfm, n smnpslft fb tld dquh`hkrhui structurd hmahcntds tlnt tld _kS ntfihc `nydr rdinhms mdnr`y umclnmjda nbtdr n 4 ps shiu`nthfm, nma tld tftn` dmdrjy fb tld shiu`nthfm systdi fm`y s`hjlt`y ﬋uctuntds nrfuma n cfmstnmt vn`ud. N`` tldsd rdsu`ts dmsurd tld stnkh`hty nma p`nu-shkh`hty fb tld ; N@ _k\ ﬎`is, nma tldsd ﬎`is nrd dxpdctda tf kd dxpdrhidmtn``y bnkrhcntda cfmshadrhmj tlnt bdw-ntfihc-`nydr _k\s lnvd kddm succdssbu``y jrfwm.
U>:,;<,;8Y
Lnvhmj cfm﬎rida tld stnkh`hty fb ntfihc-tlhce _k\s, wd turm tf tld hmvdsthjnthfm fb tld bdrrfd`dctrhchty fb tldsd ;A systdis. [dcdmt dxpdrhidmts lnvd adifmstrntda strfmj hm-p`nmd bdrrfd-`dctrhchty hm ;A SmQd,
U>:Y
 nttrhkutda tf tld rd`nthvd ahsp`ncdidmts kdtwddm Sm nma Qd ntfis whtl ahbbdrdmt d`dctrfmdjnthvhthds. Jdmdrn``y, n `nrjdr rd`nthvd ahsp`ncdidmt hip`hds n `nrjdr vn`ud fb tld bdrrfd`dctrhc spfmtnmdfus pf`nrhznthfm. Tm`hed hm tld ;A SmQd intdrhn`, tld cdmtrds fb tld pfshthvd nma mdjnthvd clnrjds hm tld ; N@ _k\s cfhmchad aud tf tld nksdmcd fb n rd`nthvd ntfihc ahsp`ncdidmt kdtwddm _k nma \ ntfis. Cfmsdqudmt`y, tld _k\s prdsdrvd tld hmvdrshfm cdmtdr nma nrd hmtrhmshcn``y mfmbdrrfd`dctrhc intdrhn`s.Idclnmhcn` strnhm hs nm dbbdcthvd tff` tf ifau`ntd tld struc-turn` prfpdrthds fb ;A intdrhn`s. Zd burtldr hmvdsthjntda tld structurn` prfpdrthds fb ; N@ _k\s whtl rdspdct tf khnxhn` tdm-sh`d strnhm up tf <.?%. Zhtl tldhr structurds nmn`fjfus tf ; N@ SmQd, wd cn`cu`ntda tld strnhm adpdmadmcd fb tld tftn` dmdrjy fb ; N@ _kS hm tld cdmtrfsyiidtrhc
_1/mii 
 structurd (admftda ns plnsd
) nma tld ahstfrtda _im;
>
 structurd (admftda ns plnsd
N
). Qld fktnhmda rdsu`ts nrd adphctda hm
Bhjurd
 
;
 nma Bhjurd S3, Suppfrthmj Hmbfrinthfm. Zd cnm sdd tlnt tld
N
 plnsd hs umstnk`d nma spfmtnmdfus`y rd`nxds tf tld
 plnsd hm n`` tlrdd crystn`s whtlfut strnhm. Lfwdvdr, bfr tdmsh`d strnhms `nrjdr tlnm >.4%, tld mfm-cdmtrfsyiidtrhc
N
 plnsd kdcfids dmdrjdt-hcn``y bnvfrnk`d hm _kS, hmahcnthmj tld trnmsbfrinthfm brfi tld
 plnsd hmtf tld
N
 plnsd. Qld
N
 plnsd fb _kS kdcfids mftnk`y ifrd stnk`d whtl hmcrdnshmj strnhm. Nm nmn`fjfus trdma hs n`sf fksdrvda hm ; N@ _kSd nma _kQd whtl tld npp`hcnthfm fb khnxhn`
 Nav. D`dctrfm.
 
Intdr.
 
;?;?
,
, >8??83;
Bhjurd >.
 n) Qfp vhdw nma shad vhdw fb ; N@ _k\ ﬎`i. Qld anslda squnrd admftds tld prhihthvd cd``. Qld twf knshs vdctfrs nrd admftda ns
n
?
 nma
k
?
. k) _lfmfm ahspdrshfm curvds fb ; N@ _kS ﬎`i.
Qnk`d >.
 Cn`cu`ntda rdsu`ts fb tld `ntthcd pnrnidtdrs, d`nsthc cfmstnmts, nma cfldshvd dmdrjhds fb ; N@ _k\ ﬎`is.
n
?
 
9
 
k
?
 UÄYC>>
9
 C;; UJ_nYC>; UJ_nYC11 UJ_nY
c
 UdRY_kS1.;3;4.<>3.:>:.>
 
:.>:_kSd1.1?>8.32.>8.<
 
2.4<_kQd1.21><.<>?.<>:.>
 
4.<<
5
 
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 ;?>8 ZH@DX-RCL Rdr`nj JikL & Cf. EJnN, Zdhmldhi
>8??83; (3 fb :)
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strnhm, ns adifmstrntda hm Bhjurd S3, Suppfrthmj Hmbfrin-thfm, n`tlfujl tld crhthcn` strnhms bfr tlhs trnmshthfm nrd `nrjdr (h.d.,
;.?% nma 3.?% bfr _kSd nma _kQd, rdspdcthvd`y). Zd bur-tldr dxp`hcht`y cfiputda tld bu`` plfmfm ahspdrshfm curvds fb tld strnhmda _k\ ntfihc `nydrs. Ns slfwm hm Bhjurd S1, Sup-pfrthmj Hmbfrinthfm, bfr _kS umadr 1.?% strnhm ns nm dxnip`d, mf npprdchnk`d hinjhmnry-brdqudmcy ifads nrd fksdrvda fvdr tld dmthrd Krh``fuhm zfmd hm tld pf`nr plnsd, wlhcl cfm﬎ris tlnt tld ahstfrtda structurd hs hmadda tld jrfuma stntd. Ifrd-fvdr, fur NHIA shiu`nthfms n`sf adifmstrntd tlnt tld strnhmda ﬎`is rdinhm hmtnct nt ﬎mhtd tdipdrnturd, ns h``ustrntda hm Bhjurd S4, Suppfrthmj Hmbfrinthfm. Qldrdbfrd, tld khnxhn` strnhm `dnas tf krdnehmj fb tld structurn` cdmtrfsyiidtry, wlhcl hs tld mdc-dssnry cfmahthfm bfr spfmtnmdfus pf`nrhznthfm.Qld `ntthcd ahstfrthfm fb crystn`s wns qunmth﬎da ky tld vdctfr
a
, ad﬎mda ns tld fbb-cdmtdr ahsp`ncdidmt fb tld _k ntfi, tlnt hs, tld rd`nthvd hm-p`nmd ahsp`ncdidmt kdtwddm mdhjlkfrhmj _k nma S ntfis, ns h``ustrntda hm
Bhjurd
 
3
n. Qld cdmtrfsyiidtrhc C plnsd cfrrdspfmas tf
a
 
9
 ? whtl bfur dquhvn`dmt hm-p`nmd _k
S kfmas, wlhcl bfrkhas tld bfrinthfm fb bdrrfd`dctrhchty, wlh`d tld
N
 plnsd lns n mfmzdrf vn`ud fb
a
, nma tld twf cfvn-`dmt _k
S kfmas admftda ky wlhtd `hmds nrd strdmjtldmda, `dnahmj tf krdnehmj fb tld hmvdrshfm syiidtry. Tpfm rdvdrshfm, tld
N
 plnsd cnm trnmsbfri tf tld dmdrjy adjdmdrntd jrfuma-stntd
N
 plnsd whtl fppfshtd
a
. Ns n rdsu`t, tld
N
 nma
N
 plnsds nrd dxpdctda tf lnvd fppfshtd pf`nrhznthfms. Qld dvf`uthfm fb tld ntfihc ahstfrthfm fb ; N@ _kS whtl npp`hda strnhm hs slfwm hm Bhjurd 3k. Ht hs dvhadmt tlnt tld ahstfrthfm ahsp`ncdidmt hmcrdnsds ns n bumcthfm fb strnhm. Shih`nr kdlnvhfrs cnm n`sf kd bfuma hm _kSd nma _kQd ﬎`is (sdd Bhjurd S2, Suppfrthmj Hmbfr-inthfm), hm wlhcl tld hmaucda pf`nr ahstfrthfms nrd s`hjlt`y
 Nav. D`dctrfm.
 
Intdr.
 
;?;?
,
, >8??83;
Bhjurd ;.
 Qftn` dmdrjy fb
 nma
 N
 plnsds vdrsus khnxhn` strnhm hm ; N@ _kS ﬎`i. Qld hmsdts slfw tld ntfihc structurds fb tld
 nma
 N
 plnsds.
Bhjurd 3.
 n) Qfp vhdw fb tld ntfihc structurds nma clnrjd admshty ahstrhkuthfms fb twf dmdrjy-adjdmdrntda ahstfrtda plnsds (N nma N±) nma tld cdm-trfsyiidtrhc C plnsd. Qld nrrfws nma wlhtd `hmds hmahcntd tld ahrdcthfms fb d`dctrhc pf`nrhznthfm nma tld cfvn`dmt _k–S kfmas, rdspdcthvd`y. k) _f`nr ahs-tfrthfms fb ; N@ _kS ns n bumcthfm fb khnxhn` strnhm. c) Afuk`d-wd`` pftdmthn` fb 1.?% strnhmda ; N@ _kS ﬎`i n`fmj tld mfrin`hzda ahstfrthfm ahsp`ncdidmt.
5
 
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sin``dr tlnm tld cfrrdspfmahmj vn`uds hm _kS umadr nm dquhvn-`dmt strnhm nip`htuad. Qld vnrhnthfm hm tld dmdrjy fb strnhmda ; N@ _kS (
δ 
 
9
 1.?%) whtl rdspdct tf tld mfrin`hzda ahstfrthfm ahsp`ncdidmt wns n`sf cn`cu`ntda, nma tld rdsu`ts nrd p`fttda hm Bhjurd 3c, wlhcl c`dnr`y slfws afuk`d wd`` pftdmthn` clnrnctdr-hsthcs. Qlhs rdsu`t burtldr sujjdsts tld dxhstdmcd fb bdrrfd`dctrhc pf`nrhznthfm.Qld spfmtnmdfus pf`nrhznthfm fb tld strnhmda ﬎`is wns cfm﬎rida nma dvn`untda ushmj tld ifadrm Kdrry plnsd idtlfa,
U3?,3>Y
 wlhcl tneds hmtf nccfumt tld d`dctrfmhc nma hfmhc cfmtrhkuthfms. Zd ﬎ma tlnt tld ahstfrtda (
N
 nma
N
) plnsds lnvd fppfshtd spfmtnmdfus pf`nrhznthfms n`fmj tld hm-p`nmd (>??) ahrdcthfm. Qld dvf`uthfm fb tld cn`cu`ntda pf`nrhznthfm fb ; N@ _kS whtl khnxhn` strnhm hs adphctda hm
Bhjurd
 
1
n, wlhcl hmcrdnsds whtl hmcrdnshmj npp`hda strnhm. Spdch﬎cn``y, ; N@ _kS lns n `nrjd spfmtnmdfus pf`nrhznthfm fb >.8?
Ú
 >?
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 C i
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 nt n strnhm fb
δ 
 
9
 1.?%. Qlhs vn`ud hs cfipnrnk`d tf tlfsd hm u`trntlhm bdrrfd`dctrhc SmQd (
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 C i
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) nma JdSd (>.2
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 C i
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). _kSd nma _kQd ﬎`is umadr tlhs strnhm n`sf dxlhkht pf`nrhznthfm whtl tld snid fradr fb injmhtuad. Qld ncthvntda bdrrfd`dctrhc pf`nrhznthfm hs dxpdctda tf kd adtdctda hm dxpdrhidmts, ns lns kddm afmd bfr tld ;A bdrrfd`dctrhc SmQd, aud tf tldhr cfipnrnk`d pf`nrhznthfms. Burtldrifrd, tf dvn`untd tld bdnshkh`hty fb pf`nrhznthfm cfmvdrshfm, tld muajda d`nsthc knma (MDK) idtlfa
U33Y
 wns usda tf cfiputd tld ihmhiui dmdrjy pntlwny nma tld ncthvnthfm knrrhdr hm tld bdrrfd`dctrhc trnmshthfm fb _kS ﬎`i, hm wlhcl tld hmhthn` nma ﬎mn` structurds wdrd sdt ns tld
N
 nma
N
 plnsds, rdspdcthvd`y (sdd Bhjurd 1k). Qld cn`cu`ntda dmdrjy knrrhdr hs npprfxhintd`y ;3 idR pdr umht cd``, wlhcl hs c`fsd tf tlnt hm SmQd
U><Y
 nma cfipnrnk`d tf tlnt fb tld cfmvdmthfmn` bdrrfd`dctrhc KnQhF
3
 (>< idR/b.u.).
U31Y
 Shih`nr`y, wd fktnhm dmdrjy knrrhdrs fb ;; nma >2 idR bfr _kSd nma _kQd ﬎`is nt n strnhm fb 1.?%. Qldsd sin`` vn`uds hmah-cntd tlnt pf`nrhznthfm rdvdrsn` cnm kd dnsh`y nclhdvda umadr nm dxtdrmn` d`dctrhc ﬎d`a, wlhcl hs kdmd﬎chn` bfr dmdrjy db﬎chdmt bdrrfd`dctrhc advhcds. Ht hs wfrtl idmthfmhmj tlnt bdrrfd`dctrhc jrnhm kfumanrhds cnm burtldr adcrdnsd tld trnmshthfm knrrhdr nma ined tld pf`nrhznthfm swhtclhmj dnshdr aud tf tld ahscfmth-muhty hm tld pf`nrhznthfm nma tld adpf`nrhzhmj ﬎d`a hmaucda ky tld kfumanrhds.
U34Y
Qf nssdss tld stnkh`hty fb tld didrjhmj bdrrfd`dctrhchty, wd bur-tldr dip`fyda tld Ifmtd Cnr`f (IC) idtlfa tf dsthintd tld Curhd trnmshthfm tdipdrnturd
c
 fb ; N@ _kS, nkfvd wlhcl d`dc-trhc pf`nrhznthfm vnmhslds. Bf``fwhmj tld npprfncl hm prdvhfus stuahds,
U><,>8,32Y
 wd cfmstructda tld brdd dmdrjy fb tld _kS supdr-cd`` dxprdssda hm tld @nmanu–Jhmzkurj dxpnmshfm hm tdris fb tld pf`nrhznthfm7
; 1 ; ;
D Np Kp Cp p G p p
h h hx hh hg h hg 
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9 + + +
 ξλ ξ λ ξλ 
 (>)Ldrd,
 p
h
 hs tld pf`nr ahstfrthfm fb tld `fcn` umht cd``
h
 hmc`uahmj cfipfmdmts fb
 p
hx 
 nma p
hy 
, nma N, K nma
 nrd cfmstnmt pnrni-dtdrs. Qld ﬎rst tlrdd dmdrjy tdris rdprdsdmt tld nmlnrifmhc afuk`d-wd`` pftdmthn`, ns slfwm hm Bhjurd 3c. Qld `nst tdri adscrhkds tld cfup`hmj dbbdct kdtwddm tld mdnrdst-mdhjlkfr `fcn` ifads
h
 nma
 g 
, hm wlhcl hmtdrncthfm pnrnidtdr
 G 
hg 
ξλ 
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h
 nma
 g 
 rdprdsdmt tld `fcn` ifads, nma
ξ 
 nma
λ 
 rdprdsdmt ahrdcthfms) cnm kd adrhvda ky ﬎tthmj tld ABQ rdsu`ts ushmj idnm-﬎d`a tldfry.
U3:Y
 Qnehmj _kS nt strnhms fb 1.?% nma <.?% ns dxnip`ds, wd ﬎ttda n`` tld rd`ntda cfdb﬎chdmts nma `hst tldi hm Qnk`d S>, Suppfrthmj Hmbfrinthfm. Zhtl tld dstnk`hslda dbbdcthvd Lnih`-tfmhnm ifad`, wd tldm pdrbfrida IC shiu`nthfms tf hmvdsth-jntd tld bdrrfd`dctrhc plnsd trnmshthfm. Ns h``ustrntda hm Bhjurd S:, Suppfrthmj Hmbfrinthfm, tld
c
 fb ; N@ _kS whtl 1% strnhm hs dsthintda tf kd
>3? E nma hs hmcrdnsda tf nkfut 3?? E whtl <% strnhm. Qldsd vn`uds nrd `nrjdr tlnm tld rdsu`t prdahctda hm adbdct-brdd ; N@ SmQd ﬎`i (h.d., 3? E),
U3<Y
 wlhcl sujjdsts tld bdr-rfd`dctrhc stntd hs ifrd stnk`d hm tld ;A _k\ structurds.Zd mfw ahscuss tld frhjhm fb tld bdrrfd`dctrhc pf`nrhznthfm hm tld ; N@ _k\s whtl khnxhn` strnhm. Qld bdrrfd`dctrhchty hm cfm-vdmthfmn` pdrfvsehtd bdrrfd`dctrhcs whtl tld ahsp`nchvd trnmshthfm hs usun``y nssfchntda whtl sfbtdmhmj fb tld pf`nr fpthcn` ifads hm tld umahstfrtda pnrnd`dctrhc structurd.
U38Y
 Qld pf`nr fpthcn` ifads kdcfid umstnk`d hm tld lhjl-syiidtry pnrnd`dctrhc plnsd nma nrd cfmadmsda aud tf tldhr hinjhmnry brdqudmchds, wlhcl cnusds bdrrfd`dctrhc ahstfrthfm. Qnehmj tld ; N@ _kS nt n strnhm fb
δ 
 
9
 3.?% ns nm dxnip`d, wd p`ft tld plfmfm ahspdr-shfm curvd fb hts cdmtrfsyiidtrhc structurd hm
Bhjurd
 
4
n. Fmd cnm sdd tlnt tlhs umahstfrtda structurd dxlhkhts prfmfumcda structurn` hmstnkh`hty nrfuma tld
Γ 
 pfhmt, ns admftda ky tld hinjhmnry (mdjnthvd) brdqudmcy. Qlhs umstnk`d ifad lns n afuk`y adjdmdrntd
u
 syiidtry. Hts rdn`-spncd dhjdmahsp`ncd-idmt inmhbdsts ns n rd`nthvd ahsp`ncdidmt kdtwddm nagncdmt _k nma S ntfis n`fmj tld U>??Y fr U?>?Y ahrdcthfms, tlus cfrrd-spfmahmj tf tld bdrrfd`dctrhc sfbt ifad. Qlhs sfbt ifad tdmas tf krdne tld structurn` cdmtrfsyiidtry nma yhd`as tld bdrrfd`dctrhc
 Nav. D`dctrfm.
 
Intdr.
 
;?;?
,
, >8??83;
Bhjurd 1.
 n) _f`nrhznthfm fb ; N@ _kS ﬎`i vdrsus khnxhn` strnhm. k) Ihmhiui dmdrjy pntlwny nma ncthvnthfm knrrhdr bfr tld trnmsbfrinthfm kdtwddm twf bdrrfd`dctrhc plnsds (N nma N±) hm tld ; N@ _kS ﬎`i whtl 1.?% strnhm.
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