Unit-VIII (Electrical Wiring)

Different Types of Conductors used for electrical wiring

Many materials are used to transmit electrical energy, but those most frequently specified are
copper, copper-covered steel, high strength copper alloys, and aluminum. For more unusual
applications, conductors are fabricated from pure nickel, pure silver, copper-covered
aluminum, and a host of metals, metal alloys, and metal combinations.

These metals may be coated with rubber, polyethylene, asbestos, thermoplastic, or varnished
cambric material, which are called insulators as they have very low electron mobility (few or
no free electrons), all of which depend on the voltage of the circuit, the temperature, and
whether the circuit is exposed to water or chemicals.

Not all conductive metals have the same level of conductivity--some obviously being better
than others—and not all insulators are equally resistant to electron motion. Additionally, it’s
also useful to know that some materials experience changes in their electrical properties
under different conditions. The following section will go over some of these differences. Be
sure to also check the Wire and Cable products we manufacture for a wide range of different
industries.

Metals Used

Copper

Copper is by far the most widely used conductor material. Among its physical properties are
high electrical and thermal conductivity, ductility, malleability and solderability, high melting
point, and high resistance to corrosion, wear and fatigue.

Copper-covered steel

Copper-covered steel combines the conductivity and corrosion resistance of copper with the
strength of steel. Three types are presently available, differing primarily in method of
producing the composite metal. In one type, molten welding permanently bonds the two
components; in another, a copper layer is electroplated over a steel rod; and in the third, the
copper and steel are metallurgically bonded.

High Strength Alloys

Though more expensive than copper-covered steel wires, copper alloy conductors are
specified because they permit significant size and/or weight reductions especially important
in computer and aerospace cable and wire applications. They offer high breaking strength and
greater flex life with only a small increase in DC resistance. Cadmium-chromium copper,
cadmium copper, chromium copper, and zirconium copper are most frequently used.

Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is used for medical lead wires and cables. Stainless steel has poor conductivity
compared to copper and may have to be gold plated to improve the conductivity.

Conductor Coatings

Bare Copper

Bare copper slowly combines with oxygen at room temperatures to form copper oxide.
Raising the temperature accelerates this reaction, and at about 180°C and higher bright
copper wire turns black in just a few minutes. Oxide film is a poor conductor of electricity
and must be either removed or prevented from forming in order to assure reliability of
connections. This is usually accomplished coating the copper wire with another metal which
oxidizes more slowly at operating and processing temperatures. Thus, a coating is sometimes
used to facilitate termination (soldering); sometimes as a processing aid (preventing oxidation
of the copper at Teflon® TFE extrusion temperatures); and sometimes to offer a lower-
resistance connection (“Wire-Wrap” termination). Bare copper is satisfactory at temperatures
up to about 100°C.

Tinned Copper

Tinned copper conductors are a soldering aid and are usually specified where this terminating
method is to be used. Suitable for conductors continually exposed to temperatures not
exceeding 150°C, tinned copper conductors are slightly more expensive than bare copper
wires. However, the labor savings gained by using tinned copper more than offset the
additional expense, especially when manual twisting and solder dipping of the stripped lead is
required.

Silver Coated Copper

Silver plated copper is made by electro-plating pure silver on 18 AWG wire which then is
cold drawn to size and finally annealed. Minimum silver thickness is 40 micro-inches.
Though higher in cost than tinned copper, silver-coated conductors are recommended for
wires operating from above 150°C to about 200°C and in high frequency applications where,
because of skin effect, higher conductivity of silver is desirable. They are readily wet by
solder, permitting rapid soldering with hand irons. Care must be taken, however, to prevent
solder wicking under the insulation, which may reduce conductor flex life. Silver coated
copper will oxidize after a few hundred hours at 250°C.

Nickel Coated Copper

Nickel plated conductor (50 micro-inches minimum nickel thickness) is recommended for
Teflon TFE hook-up wire operating for prolonged periods at temperatures of from 200° to
260°C, and where silver coating is objectionable because of possible solder wicking.
Ordinary soft solder does not wet nickel as readily as it does tin or silver. It adheres well
enough to make a good termination, but will not wick into the stranded conductor beyond the
joint, thereby leaving flexibility unimpaired. Connections exposed to temperatures above the
melting point of soft solder require special soldering techniques. The term" nickel clad" refers
to a much thicker coating - 10% to 30% of the radius of the strand.
Electrical Cable:

A cable is two or more wires running side by side and bonded, twisted, or braided together to
form a single assembly. Electrical cables are used to connect two or more devices, enabling
the transfer of electrical signals or power from one device to the other. Cables are used for a
wide range of purposes, and each must be tailored for that purpose. Cables are used
extensively in electronic devices for power and signal circuits. Long-distance communication
takes place over undersea cables. Power cables are used for bulk transmission of alternating
and direct current power, especially using high-voltage cable. Electrical cables are
extensively used in building wiring for lighting, power and control circuits permanently
installed in buildings. Since all the circuit conductors required can be installed in a cable at
one time, installation labor is saved compared to certain other wiring methods.

Types of Electrical Cable

All electrical cables consist of at least two conducting wires and an outer protective jacket.
For medium to high power cables that carry high voltages, the conducting wires within the
outer protective jacket may individually be enclosed in insulating sheaths. Electrical
conductors are commonly made of copper. Synthetic polymers make the outer jacket and
protective, insulating material.
Coaxial Cable

A coaxial electrical cable has a copper-plated core, surrounded by a dielectric insulator. A

woven shield of copper surrounds the insulating layer, which is finally wound by an outmost
plastic sheath. Coaxial cables differ in size, performance, flexibility, power handling
capabilities and cost. They are used to connect home audio and video equipment, television
networks and components of a local area network. Hard line, leaky cable, RG/6, twin-axial,
biaxial and semi-rigid are types of coaxial cables. It is also used for radio frequency signals,
for example in cable television distribution systems.

Ribbon Cable
A ribbon electrical cable (also called multi-wire planar electrical cable or flat twin cables) is
made up of multiple insulated wires running parallel to each other. These parallel wires allow
the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals of data. According to “Optical
Communications Essentials,” a typical ribbon cable consists of four to 12 wires. It is
commonly used to interconnect network devices. Ribbon cables also connect the motherboard
with other core CPU (central processing unit) components. It is useful when many wires are
required. This type of cable can easily flex, and It is designed to handle low-level voltages.
Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair electrical cable consists of pairs of insulated copper wires (that are color
coded), which are twisted around each other. The diameter of each wire ranges from 0.4 to
0.8 mm, and the number of pairs vary in different types of twisted pair cables. The greater the
number of pairs, the higher the resistance of the cable will be to external noise and cross-talk.
Twisted pair cables are easy to install, flexible and inexpensive. They are used for telephone
cabling and to wire local area networks. It consists of two inter-wound insulated wires. It
resembles a paired cable, except that the paired wires are twisted.

Shielded Cable

• A shielded electrical cable is made of one or more insulated wires that are collectively
enclosed by an aluminum Mylar foil or woven braid shielding. The shielding prevents
the cable from external radio and power frequency interference, allowing the signal
transmission to proceed smoothly. High-voltage power cables are commonly shielded.
It is used for sensitive electronic circuits or to provide protection in high-voltage
applications.
Other Electrical cable:

• Communications cable
• Direct-buried cable
• Flexible cables
• Heliax cable
• Non-metallic sheathed cable (or nonmetallic building wire, NM, NM-B)
• Metallic sheathed cable (or armored cable, AC, or BX)
• Multicore cable (consist of more than one wire and is covered by cable jacket)
• Paired cable – Composed of two individually insulated conductors that are usually
used in DC or low-frequency AC applications
• Portable cord – Flexible cable for AC power in portable applications
• Single cable (from time to time this name is used for wire)
• Submersible cable
• Twinax cable
• Twin-lead – This type of cable is a flat two-wire line. It is commonly called a 300 Ω
line because the line has an impedance of 300 Ω. It is often used as a transmission line
between an antenna and a receiver (e.g., TV and radio). These cables are stranded to
lower skin effects.

Three Phase system & Star-delta connection: Three-phase electric power is a common
method of alternating-current electric power generation, transmission, and distribution. It is a
type of polyphase system and is the most common method used by electrical grids worldwide
to transfer power. It is also used to power large motors and other heavy loads.
Comparison between Star and Delta Connections

Comparison between Star (Y) and Delta (Δ) Connections

Star (Y) Connection Delta (Δ) Connection

In STAR connection, the starting or finishing In DELTA connection, the opposite ends of three
ends (Similar ends) of three coils are connected coils are connected together. In other words, the
together to form the neutral point. A common end of each coil is connected with the start of
wire is taken out from the neutral point which is another coil, and three wires are taken out from
called Neutral. the coil joints

There is a Neutral or Star Point No Neutral Point in Delta Connection

Three phase four wire system is derived from Star

Connections (3-Phase, 4 Wires System) We may Three phase three wire system is derived from
Also derived 3 Phase 3 Wire System from Star Delta Connections (3-Phase, 3 Wires System)
Connection

Line Current is Equal to Phase Current. i.e. Line Voltage is Equal to Phase Voltage. i.e.

Line Current = Phase Current Line Voltage = Phase Voltage

IL = IPH VL = VPH

Line Voltage is √3 times of Phase Voltage. i.e. Line Current is √3 times of Phase Current. i.e.

VL = √3 VPH IL = √3 IPH

The Total Power of three phases could be found The Total Power of three phases could be found
by by

P = √3 x VL x IL x CosФ …. Or P = √3 x VL x IL x CosФ … or

P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ

The speeds of Star connected motors are slow as The speeds of Delta connected motors are high
they receive 1/√3 voltage. because each phase gets the total of line voltage

In Star Connection, the phase voltage is low as In Delta connection, The phase voltage is equal to
1/√3 of the line voltage, so, it needs low number the line voltage, hence, it needs more number of
of turns, hence, saving in copper. turns.

Heavy insulation required as Phase voltage =

Low insulation required as phase voltage is low
Line Voltage.

In Power Transmission, Star Connection system In Power Distribution and industries, Delta
is general and typical to be used. Connection is general and typical to be used.

Voltage drop and losses across cable and conductors

Voltage drop describes how energy is supplied of a voltage source that is reduced as electric
current moves through the passive elements (elements that do not supply voltage) of an
electrical circuit. Voltage drops across internal resistances of the source, across conductors,
across contacts, and across connectors are undesired as the supplied energy is lost
(dissipated). Voltage drops across loads and across other active circuit elements are desired as
the supplied energy performs useful work.

For example, an electric space heater may have a resistance of ten ohms, and the wires which
supply it may have a resistance of 0.2 ohms, about 2% of the total circuit resistance. This
means that approximately 2% of the supplied voltage is lost in the wire itself. Excessive
voltage drop may result in unsatisfactory operation of, and damage to, electrical and
electronic equipment.

National and local electrical codes may set guidelines for the maximum voltage drop allowed
in electrical wiring, to ensure efficiency of distribution and proper operation of electrical
equipment. The maximum permitted voltage drop varies from one country to another. The
simplest way to reduce voltage drop is to increase the diameter of the conductor between the
source and the load, which lowers the overall resistance. In power distribution systems, a
given amount of power can be transmitted with less voltage drop if a higher voltage is used.
More sophisticated techniques use active elements to compensate for the undesired voltage
drop.

Voltage drop in direct-current circuits: resistance

Consider a direct-current circuit with a nine-volt DC source; three resistors of 67 ohms, 100
ohms, and 470 ohms; and a light bulb—all connected in series. The DC source, the
conductors (wires), the resistors, and the light bulb (the load) all have resistance; all use and
dissipate supplied energy to some degree. Their physical characteristics determine how much
energy. For example, the DC resistance of a conductor depends upon the conductor's length,
cross-sectional area, type of material, and temperature.

If the voltage between the DC source and the first resistor (67 ohms) is measured, the voltage
potential at the first resistor will be slightly less than nine volts. The current passes through
the conductor (wire) from the DC source to the first resistor; as this occurs, some of the
supplied energy is "lost" (unavailable to the load), due to the resistance of the conductor.
Voltage drop exists in both the supply and return wires of a circuit. If the voltage across each
resistor is measured, the measurement will be a significant number. That represents the
energy used by the resistor. The larger the resistor, the more energy used by that resistor, and
the bigger the voltage drop across that resistor.

Ohm's Law can be used to verify voltage drop. In a DC circuit, voltage equals current
multiplied by resistance. V=IR Also, Kirchhoff's circuit laws state that in any DC circuit, the
sum of the voltage drops across each component of the circuit is equal to the supply voltage.

Voltage drop in alternating-current circuits: impedance

In alternating-current circuits, opposition to current flow occurs because of resistance, just as

in direct-current circuits. However, alternating current circuits also include a second kind of
opposition to current flow: reactance. The sum of oppositions to current flow from both
resistance and reactance is called impedance.

Electrical impedance is commonly represented by the variable Z and measured in ohms at a

specific frequency. Electrical impedance is computed as the vector sum of electrical
resistance, capacitive reactance, and inductive reactance.

The amount of impedance in an alternating-current circuit depends on the frequency of the

alternating current and the magnetic permeability of electrical conductors and electrically
isolated elements (including surrounding elements), which varies with their size and spacing.

Analogous to Ohm's law for direct-current circuits, electrical impedance may be expressed by
the formula E=IZ. So, the voltage drop in an AC circuit is the product of the current and the
impedance of the circuit.

Voltage drop is a fixed condition however voltage loss is nearly always a deteriorating one.

Power Losses:

Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the fraction of energy lost to resistance,
which varies depending on the specific conductors, the current flowing, and the length of the
transmission line. For example, a 100-mile (160 km) 765 kV line carrying 1000 MW of
power can have losses of 1.1% to 0.5%.

If P = power generated at power station V = voltage at which power is transmitted R =

Resistance of transmission cable then Current in the transmission cables = P/V *Power loss is
not equal to V2/R because this V does not represent potential drop across the cables. If the
cables are connected to your home then Power = V 2 / (Resistance of cables + Resistance of
your house) Hence Power loss at the cables = I2 R or (P/V)2 R.

To reduce energy loss, electricity generated in power stations is raised to a very high voltage
for transmission. A high transmission voltage means only a relatively small current flows
through the transmission cables. As you know, current produces heating effect when flowing
through the cables with resistance.
Instruments to measure current, voltage, power in DC and AC Circuit:

(i) Ammeter (DC/AC): An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the

current in a DC or AC circuit.

(ii) Voltmeter (AC/DC): A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical

potential difference between two points in an electric circuit.

(iii) Wattmeter : The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power (or
the supply rate of electrical energy) in watts of any given circuit.

(iv) Multimeter: A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm-

Milliammeter), is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several
measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter can measure voltage,
current, and resistance. Analog multimeters use a microammeter with a moving
pointer to display readings. Digital multimeters (DMM, DVOM) have a numeric
display, and may also show a graphical bar representing the measured value.
Digital multimeters are now far more common due to their cost and precision, but
analog multimeters are still preferable in some cases, for example when
monitoring a rapidly varying value.
 Electric Insulation

Insulation is a non-conductive material, or a material resistant to the flow of electric current.

It is often called a dielectric in radio frequency cables. Insulation resists electrical leakage,
prevents the wire’s current from coming into contact with other conductors, and preserves the
material integrity of the wire by protecting against environmental threats such as water and
heat. Both the safety and effectiveness of the wire depend on its insulation.

Larger power cables may use compressed inorganic powder, depending on the application.
Flexible insulating materials such as PVC (polyvinyl chloride) are used to insulate the
circuit and prevent human contact with a 'live' wire – one having voltage of 600 volts or less.
Plastics
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
PVC is a relatively inexpensive and easy-to-use material, with the potential to be used in
diverse applications. The maximum temperature range is -55°C to 105°C and is flame,
moisture, and abrasion resistant. It also holds up against gasoline, ozone, acids, and solvents.
It can also be used for medical and food related purposes as it is odorless, tasteless, and non-
toxic. PVC can be used in both heavy and thin wall applications. PVC should not be used
when flexibility and an extended flex life are required at low temperatures. When used in
retractile cord applications, it also shows below average flexibility. PVC displays high
attenuation and capacitance loss, meaning that power is lost when used in an electrical
system.
Semi-Rigid PVC (SR-PVC)
This is mainly used as a primary insulation and is very abrasion resistant. (For 30-16 gauge, a
10 mil. wall meets UL style 1061, 80°C, 300 volts.) Semi-Rigid PVC is also heat, water, acid,
and alkali resistant, as well as flame retardant.
Plenum Polyvinyl Chloride (Plenum PVC)
Plenum PVC is suitable for use in building spaces behind dropped ceilings or raised floors
which are left open to allow for air circulation. Standard PVC is considered a non-plenum
insulation option because it does not exhibit the qualities necessary for safe usage in plenum
areas. To be plenum-rated the insulation must meet more stringent fire safety regulations.
Polyethylene (PE)
This compound is used most in coaxial and low capacitance cables because of its exemplary
electric qualities. Many times it is used in these applications because it is affordable and can
be foamed to reduce the dielectric constant to 1.50, making it an attractive option for cables
requiring high-speed transmission. Polyethylene can also be cross-linked to produce high
resistance to cracking, cut-through, soldering, and solvents. Polyethylene can be used in
temperatures ranging from -65°C to 80°C. All densities of Polyethylene are stiff, hard, and
inflexible. The material is also flammable. Additives can be used to make it flame retardant,
but this will sacrifice the dielectric constant and increase power loss.
Polypropylene (PP)
This material is very similar to Polyethylene, but has a wider temperature range of -30°C to
105°C. It is used primarily for thin wall primary insulations. Polypropylene can be foamed to
improve its electrical properties.
Polyurethane (PUR)
Polyurethane is known for its extreme toughness, flexibility, and flex life, even in low
temperatures. It also has excellent ratings for chemical, water, and abrasion resistance. This
material works well in retractile cord applications and can be a good option for salt-spray and
low-temperature military purposes. Polyurethane is a flammable material. The flame
retardant version sacrifices strength and surface finish. Polyurethane’s main disadvantage
though, is its poor electrical properties, making it suitable for jackets only.
Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE)
CPE displays very good heat, oil, and weather resistance. Many times CPE serves as a lower
cost, more environmentally friendly alternative to CSPE. Its reliable performance when
exposed to fire also makes it a favorable alternative to PVC insulation. Chlorinated
Polyethylene is commonly found in power and control cables and industrial power plant
applications.
Nylon
Nylon is usually extruded over softer insulation compounds. It serves as a tough jacket,
exhibiting strong abrasion, cut-through, and chemical resistance, especially in thin wall
applications. It is also extremely flexible. One disadvantage of Nylon is its absorption of
moisture which degrades some of its electrical properties.
Rubbers
Thermoplastic Rubber (TPR)
In many applications, TPR is used to replace true thermoset rubber. It has improved
colorability, higher processing speeds, and a wider usable temperature range. It also displays
excellent heat, weather, and age resistance without curing. TPR is not cut-through resistant,
but can be used in applications where other properties of rubber are preferred.
Neoprene (Polychloroprene)
This is a synthetic thermoset rubber that must be vulcanized to obtain its desired qualities. It
exhibits supreme abrasion, cut-through, oil, and solvent resistance. Neoprene is also known
for its long service life and wide ranges of temperature and usability. It is remarkably flame
retardant and self-extinguishing. >Military products often incorporate Neoprene. This
material is especially desirable for hand-held cordsets.
Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR)
This is a thermoset compound with qualities similar to Neoprene. It has a temperature range
of -55°C to 90°C. SBR is primarily used in Mil-C-55668 cables.
Silicone
This material is extremely heat resistant and flame retardant and can be used in temperatures
up to 180°C. It is moderately abrasion resistant. Silicone is also extremely flexible. Benefits
include a long storage life and good bonding properties necessary in many electrical
applications.
Fiberglass
Fiberglass is the most widely used glass insulation. It can be used continuously in
temperatures up to 482°C. This material is moisture and chemical resistant, but only fairly
abrasion resistant. Its common applications include heat treating, glass and ceramic kilns,
foundries, and extensive applications in aluminum processing.
Ethylene Propylene Rubber (EPR)
EPR is known for its excellent thermal characteristics and electrical properties, allowing a
smaller cross-sectional area for the same load carrying capacity of other cables. It is
commonly used in high-voltage cables. The flexibility of this material also makes it
appropriate for temporary installations and applications in the mining industry. These rubbers
are also valuable for their heat, oxidation, weathering, water, acid, alcohol, and alkali
resistance. EPR can be used in the temperature range of -50°C to 160°C. EPR is not as tear
resistant as other insulation options. It is also relatively soft and may require more care during
installation to avoid damage.
Rubber
Rubber insulation generally refers to both natural rubber and SBR compounds, each available
in a variety of formulas for use in a wide range of applications. Because formulas vary, so do
temperature ranges and some other basic characteristics. While this type of insulation has
poor oil, and ozone resistance, it exhibits good low-temperature flexibility, good water and
alcohol resistance, good electrical properties, and excellent abrasion resistance.
Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSPE)
CSPE works well as low-voltage insulation. It is known for its ability to perform through a
wide temperature range as well as for its resistance to chemicals and UV rays. This insulation
material can be found in appliance wire, lead wire, coil leads, transformer leads, and motor
lead wire. Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene is sometimes referred to as Hypalon, a registered
trademark of Dupont.
Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM)
This synthetic rubber insulation displays outstanding heat, ozone, weather, and abrasion
resistance. EPDM also exhibits excellent electrical properties. Further benefits include
excellent flexibility at both high and low temperatures, from -55°C to 150°C, as well as good
dielectric strength. EPDM replaces silicone rubber in some applications.

Fluoropolymers
PFA
PFA has temperature ratings ranging from 250°C to 65°C. It also has a very low dissipation
factor, making it an electrically efficient option. It does not exhibit thermoset qualities,
limiting it to use only in select applications. PFA is also an expensive material, though it can
be processed in long lengths.
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
PTFE is a thermoplastic material that can be used across a wide temperature range of -73°C
to 204°C. It is extremely flexible, as well as, water, oil, chemical, and heat resistant. The
mechanical properties of PTFE are low compared to other plastics.
Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene (FEP)
This material is widely used due to its processing characteristics and wide range of
applications. It is also highly flame resistant. Improved data transmission can also be
achieved when FEP is foamed. Pricing and processing are also being improved. FEP is
commonly used in plenum cable and military applications.
ETFE Tefzel and ECTFE Halar
These materials are stronger and more flexible than PFA or FEP and can become thermoset
through irradiation. Foaming ECTFE and ETFE improves data transmission and reduces
weight. ETFE and ECTFE lack many of the electrical advantages of FEP.
Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF)
PVDF is flexible, lightweight, and thermally stable, as well as chemical, heat, weather,
abrasion, and fire resistant. It is also a relatively low cost insulation option. This insulation is
used in a wide range of industries and applications. It is often found in cables meeting the UL
Standard 910 Plenum Cable Flame Test, deeming the cables suitable for use in a building’s
space for air circulation, typically behind dropped ceilings or raised floors. PVDF is also
commonly called Kynar, a registered trademark of Arkema Inc.
Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPE)
Thermoplastic elastomers consist of a mix of polymers, typically a plastic and a rubber, to
combine the benefits of each material into one insulating product. TPE can be molded,
extruded, and reused, similar to a plastic, while maintaining the flexibility and stretch of
rubber. TPE is commonly used in applications where conventional elastomers are unable to
provide the necessary range of physical properties. They are found increasingly in automotive
applications and household appliances. Disadvantages of TPE include poor chemical and heat
resistance, low thermal stability, and higher cost than other types of insulation.
Solid Conductor Cable
Solid conductor cables are made up of a single, solid conducting wire. Solid conductors
usually consist of bare copper wires with diameter between 22 and 24 AWG (American Wire
Gauge units). For example, the diameter of Cat 5e UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) cables is
24AWG. The benefit of large wires is that they can provide superior electrical characteristics
to keep stable over a wide range of frequencies. Therefore, solid cables are well suitable for
high speed Ethernet applications.

Because of the large wire diameters, solid conductor cables have a lower DC resistance (The
resistance is not good for signal transmission) and lower susceptibility to high frequency
effects. This kind of cables can support longer distance transmission and higher data rates
compared with stranded cables. But the large wire diameters also lead to disadvantages. The
larger the core, the less inflexible the cable. If the cables were bent, they are very likely to be
broken or affect the network performance.
Stranded Conductor Cable
Stranded conductor cables are very commonly used today. Inside the twisted pairs of stranded
cables, each individual conductor is made up of a bundle of smaller-gauge wire strands.
Generally six or seven strands are used to surround a single wire in the center. The outer
strands are wrapped helically around the central wires. The stranded wires form a conductor
with the similar diameter to a solid cable. But the conducting area is smaller than that of a
solid cable due to the smaller diameters of each individual conducting wire strand.

The stranding structure makes stranded cables flexible. Even though the cables are bent,
cables can’t be easily harmed since each strand is independent of the entire strand. Let’s see
how this works. When cables are bent, all individual strands are pulled towards the center.
The total stresses are distributed to all the strands to minimize the stresses on the center
conductor. As a result, cable conductors can get more supports if there are more twists to the
wire strands.
The conductors of stranded cables used for networking and Ethernet applications are made of
bare or tin-coated copper wires. Tin-coated conductors can protect the conducting surfaces
from oxidation and keep individual wire strands from fraying. That’s because of production
process of tin-coated conductors. All the individual wire strands have to be dipped in a bath
of molten tin before they are assembled into a single conductor.
But stranded conductor cables can cause higher insertion loss for their smaller conducting
diameters especially for long distance transmission (of course the distance has limits for both
solid and stranded conductor cables). Stranded conductor cables have high DC resistance
which causes signals dissipation as increased heat during long distance transmission. So
stranded conductor cables are not as good as solid cables for long distance runs. Another
shortage of stranded cables is that they are more expensive than solid conductor cables for the
equivalent length since they are expensive to manufacture.
Applications of Two Cables
Solid conductor cables are designed for backbone and horizontal cable runs. That attributes to
the superior electrical performance and stable high frequency. The cables can support longer
distances than that of stranded conductor cable. Long cables can be installed in the walls, up
through ceilings, or between work areas on the same floor. But attention should be paid on
that solid cables shouldn’t be bent, flexed, or twisted repeatedly as they are not very flexible.
While stranded conductor cables are used for short runs between network interface cards and
wallplates or between concentrators and patch panels, hubs, and other rack mounted
equipment, as they will be constantly plugged, removed or bent. Stranded conductor cable is
much more flexible than solid conductor cable. However, it has high attenuation. When you
use stranded category cables, remember to restrict its length to reduce insertion loss.

Summary

Solid Core Cable

This type of cable uses one solid copper wire per conductor and is used for permanent
infrastructure links between two wiring centres or between a wiring centre and a wall box. It
has a lower attenuation and is less costly than stranded cable, however it is designed for
horizontal and vertical structured cabling and it should not be flexed once installed.
Stranded Cable
Stranded cable consists of multiple strands of wires wrapped around each other in each
conductor. Stranded cable is much more flexible and consequently suited to applications
which demand flexibility and reshaping. Due to higher attenuation, stranded cable is better
used over shorter distances.

Note: stranded cable has a higher attenuation and is not suitable for long runs, although with
a high specification cables.

Electrical conduit
An electrical conduit is a tube used to protect and route electrical wiring in a building or
nonbuilding structure. Electrical conduit may be made of metal, plastic, fiber, or fired clay.
Most conduit is rigid, but flexible conduit is used for some purposes.
Conduit is generally installed by electricians at the site of installation of electrical equipment.
Its use, form, and installation details are often specified by wiring regulations, such as the US
National Electrical Code (NEC) and other building codes.
Electrical conduit provides very good protection to enclosed conductors from impact,
moisture, and chemical vapors. Varying numbers, sizes, and types of conductors can be
pulled into a conduit, which simplifies design and construction compared to multiple runs of
cables or the expense of customized composite cable. Wiring systems in buildings may be
subject to frequent alterations. Frequent wiring changes are made simpler and safer through
the use of electrical conduit, as existing conductors can be withdrawn and new conductors
installed, with little disruption along the path of the conduit.
A conduit system can be made waterproof or submersible. Metal conduit can be used to
shield sensitive circuits from electromagnetic interference, and also can prevent emission of
such interference from enclosed power cables.
When installed with proper sealing fittings, a conduit will not permit the flow of flammable
gases and vapors, which provides protection from fire and explosion hazard in areas handling
volatile substances.
Some types of conduit are approved for direct encasement in concrete. This is commonly
used in commercial buildings to allow electrical and communication outlets to be installed in
the middle of large open areas. For example, retail display cases and open-office areas use
floor-mounted conduit boxes to connect power and communications cables.
Both metal and plastic conduit can be bent at the job site to allow a neat installation without
excessive numbers of manufactured fittings. This is particularly advantageous when
following irregular or curved building profiles. Special equipment is used to bend the conduit
without kinking or denting it.
The cost of conduit installation is higher than other wiring methods due to the cost of
materials and labor. In applications such as residential construction, the high degree of
physical damage protection may not be required, so the expense of conduit is not warranted.
Conductors installed within conduit cannot dissipate heat as readily as those installed in open
wiring, so the current capacity of each conductor must be reduced (derated) if many are
installed in one conduit. It is impractical, and prohibited by wiring regulations, to have more
than 360 degrees of total bends in a run of conduit, so special outlet fittings must be provided
to allow conductors to be installed without damage in such runs.
Some types of metal conduit may also serve as a useful bonding conductor for grounding
(earthing), but wiring regulations may also dictate workmanship standards or supplemental
means of grounding for certain types. While metal conduit may sometimes be used as a
grounding conductor, the circuit length is limited. For example, a long run of conduit as
grounding conductor may have too high an electrical resistance, and not allow proper
operation of overcurrent devices on a fault.
Types
Conduit systems are classified by the wall thickness, mechanical stiffness, and material used
to make the tubing. Materials may be chosen for mechanical protection, corrosion resistance,
and overall cost of the installation (labor plus material cost). Wiring regulations for electrical
equipment in hazardous areas may require particular types of conduit to be used to provide an
approved installation.
Metal
Rigid metal conduit (RMC) is a thick-walled threaded tubing, usually made of coated steel,
stainless steel or aluminum.
Galvanized rigid conduit (GRC) is galvanized steel tubing, with a tubing wall that is thick
enough to allow it to be threaded. Its common applications are in commercial and industrial
construction.
Intermediate metal conduit (IMC) is a steel tubing heavier than EMT but lighter than RMC. It
may be threaded.
Electrical metallic tubing (EMT), sometimes called thin-wall, is commonly used instead of
galvanized rigid conduit (GRC), as it is less costly and lighter than GRC. EMT itself is not
threaded, but can be used with threaded fittings that clamp to it. Lengths of conduit are
connected to each other and to equipment with clamp-type fittings. Like GRC, EMT is more
common in commercial and industrial buildings than in residential applications. EMT is
generally made of coated steel, though it may be aluminum.
Aluminum conduit, similar to galvanized steel conduit, is a rigid tube, generally used in
commercial and industrial applications where a higher resistance to corrosion is needed. Such
locations would include food processing plants, where large amounts of water and cleaning
chemicals would make galvanized conduit unsuitable. Aluminum cannot be directly
embedded in concrete, since the metal reacts with the alkalis in cement. The conduit may be
coated to prevent corrosion by incidental contact with concrete. Aluminum conduit is
generally lower cost than steel in addition to having a lower labor cost to install, since a
length of aluminum conduit will have about one-third the weight of an equally-sized rigid
steel conduit.
Non-metal

Plastic tubing for use as electrical conduit.

PVC conduit is the lightest in weight compared to other conduit materials, and usually lower
in cost than other forms of conduit. In North American electrical practice, it is available in
three different wall thicknesses, with the thin-wall variety only suitable for embedded use in
concrete, and heavier grades suitable for direct burial and exposed work. Most of the various
fittings made for metal conduit are also available in PVC form. The plastic material resists
moisture[3] and many corrosive substances, but since the tubing is non-conductive an extra
bonding (grounding) conductor must be pulled into each conduit. PVC conduit may be heated
and bent in the field, by using special heating tools designed for the purpose.
Joints to fittings are made with slip-on solvent-welded connections, which set up rapidly after
assembly and attain full strength in about one day. Since slip-fit sections do not need to be
rotated during assembly, the special union fittings used with threaded conduit (such as
Ericson) are not required. Since PVC conduit has a higher coefficient of thermal expansion
than other types, it must be mounted to allow for expansion and contraction of each run. Care
should be taken when installing PVC underground in multiple or parallel run configurations
due to mutual heating effect of densely packed cables, because the conduit will deform when
heated.
Rigid nonmetallic conduit (RNC) is a non-metallic unthreaded smooth-walled tubing.
Electrical nonmetallic tubing (ENT) is a thin-walled corrugated tubing that is moisture-
resistant and flame retardant. It is pliable such that it can be bent by hand, and is often
flexible although the fittings are not. It is not threaded due to its corrugated shape, although
some fittings might be.
Flexible

Flexible metallic conduit used in an underground parking facility.

Flexible conduits are used to connect to motors or other devices where isolation from
vibration is useful, or where an excess number of fittings would be needed to use rigid
connections. Electrical codes may restrict the length of a run of some types of flexible
conduit.
Flexible metallic conduit (FMC, informally called greenfield or flex) is made by the helical
coiling of a self-interlocked ribbed strip of aluminum or steel, forming a hollow tube through
which wires can be pulled. FMC is used primarily in dry areas where it would be impractical
to install EMT or other non-flexible conduit, yet where metallic strength to protect
conductors is still required. The flexible tubing does not maintain any permanent bend, and
can flex freely.
FMC may be used as an equipment grounding conductor if specific provisions are met
regarding the trade size and length of FMC used, depending on the amperage of the circuits
contained in the conduit. In general, an equipment grounding conductor must be pulled
through the FMC with an ampacity suitable to carry the fault current likely imposed on the
largest circuit contained within the FMC.
Liquidtight flexible metal conduit (LFMC) is a metallic flexible conduit covered by a
waterproof plastic coating. The interior is similar to FMC.
Flexible metallic tubing (FMT) is not the same as flexible metallic conduit (FMC) which is
described in National Electrical Code (NEC) Article 348. FMT is a raceway, but not a
conduit and is described in a separate NEC Article 360. It only comes in 1/2" & 3/4" trade
sizes, whereas FMC is sized 1/2" ~ 4" trade sizes. NEC 360.2 describes it as: "A raceway that
is circular in cross section, flexible, metallic and liquidtight without a nonmetallic jacket."
Liquidtight flexible nonmetallic conduit (LFNC) refers to several types of flame-resistant
non-metallic tubing. Interior surfaces may be smooth or corrugated. There may be integral
reinforcement within the conduit wall. It is also known as FNMC.
Underground
Conduit may be installed underground between buildings, structures, or devices to allow
installation of power and communication cables. An assembly of these conduits, often called
a duct bank, may either be directly buried in earth, or encased in concrete (sometimes with
reinforcing rebar to aid against shear forces). Alternatively, a duct bank may be installed in a
utility tunnel. A duct bank will allow replacement of damaged cables between buildings or
additional power and communications circuits to be added, without the expense of re-
excavation of a trench. While metal conduit is occasionally used for burial, usually PVC,
polyethylene or polystyrene plastics are now used due to lower cost, easier installation, and
better resistance to corrosion.
Formerly, compressed asbestos fiber mixed with cement (such as transite) was used for some
underground installations. Telephone and communications circuits were typically installed in
fired-clay conduit.
Cable tray
In the electrical wiring of buildings, a cable tray system is used to support insulated electric
cables used for power distribution and communication. Cable trays are used as an alternative
to open wiring or electrical conduit systems, and are commonly used for cable management
in commercial and industrial construction. They are especially useful in situations where
changes to a wiring system are anticipated, since new cables can be installed by laying them
in the tray, instead of pulling them through a pipe.

Types
Several types of tray are used in different applications. A solid-bottom tray provides the
maximum protection to cables, but requires cutting the tray or using fittings to enter or exit
cables. A deep, solid enclosure for cables is called a cable channel or cable trough. [1]
A ventilated tray has openings in the bottom of the tray, allowing some air circulation around
the cables, water drainage, and allowing some dust to fall through the tray. Small cables may
exit the tray through the ventilation openings, which may be either slots or holes punched in
the bottom. A ladder tray has the cables supported by a traverse bar, similarly to the rungs of
a ladder, at regular intervals on the order of 4 to 12 inches (100 to 300 mm).
Ladder and ventilated trays may have solid covers to protect cables from falling objects, dust,
and water. Tray covers for use outdoors or in dusty locations may have a peaked shape to
shed debris including dust, ice or snow. Lighter cable trays are more appropriate in situations
where a great number of small cables are used, such as for telephone or computer network
cables. These trays may be made of wire mesh, called "cable basket",[1] or be designed in the
form of a single central spine (rail) with ribs to support the cable on either side.
Large power cables laid in the tray may require support blocks to maintain spacing between
conductors, to prevent overheating of the wires. Smaller cables may be laid unsecured in
horizontal trays, or secured with cable ties to the bottom of vertically mounted trays.
To maintain support of cables at changes of elevation or direction of a tray, a large number of
specialized cable tray fittings are made compatible with each style and manufacturer.
Horizontal elbows change direction of a tray in the same plane as the bottom of the tray and
are made in 30, 45 and 90 degree forms; inside and outside elbows are for changes
perpendicular to the tray bottom. These can be in various shapes including tees and crosses.
Some manufacturers and types provide adjustable elbows, useful for field-fitting a tray
around obstacles or around irregular shapes.[2]
Various clamping, supporting and splicing accessories are used with the cable tray to provide
a complete functional tray system. For example, different sizes of cable tray used within one
run can be connected with reducers.
Materials used
Common cable trays are made of galvanized steel, stainless steel, aluminum, or glass-fiber
reinforced plastic. The material for a given application is chosen based on where it will be
used. Galvanized tray may be made of pre-galvanized steel sheet fabricated into tray, or may
be hot-dip galvanized after fabrication. When galvanized tray is cut to length in the field,
usually the cut surface will be painted with a zinc-rich compound to protect the metal from
corrosion.
Fire safety concerns and solutions
Combustible cable jackets may catch on fire and cable fires can thus spread along a cable tray
within a structure. This is easily prevented through the use of fire-retardant cable jackets, or
fireproofing coatings applied to installed cables. Heavy coatings or long fire-stops may
require adjustment of the cable current ratings, since such fireproofing measures may reduce
the heat dissipation of installed cables.
Regular housecleaning is important for safety, as cable trays are often installed in hard to
reach places. Combustible dust and clutter may accumulate if the trays are not routinely
checked and kept clean.
Plastic and fibre-glass reinforced plastic cable trays are combustible; the effect is mitigated
through the use of fire retardants or fireproofing.

Electrical connections: Electrical Splices/joints

When working with electronic equipment or with electrical wiring, it may from time to time
become necessary to splice or join wires together. Splices and joints are essentially the same
thing. Several different methods of doing this exist. The fundamental necessities of an
effective splice include making sure the wires are securely fastened to each other even
without solder and that they are well-soldered to avoid corrosion. All wire joints must also be
taped with electrical tape after soldering.
Wire nuts:

The small piece of plastic that is used to connect two or more wires is called a twist-on wire
connector as well as trade names such as WIRE-NUT® . Twist-on wire connectors are a
type of electrical connector used to fasten two or more low-voltage (or extra-low-voltage)
electrical conductors. They are widely used in North America.

Twist-on connectors are also known as wire nuts, wire connectors, cone connectors, or
thimble connectors.

Crimp-connectors:
An electrical connector is a device for joining electrical circuits together using a mechanical
assembly. The connection may be temporary or serve as a permanent electrical joint between
two wires.
There are hundreds of types of electrical connectors. Connectors may join two lengths of wire
together or connect a wire to an electrical terminal.
Electrical Terminal Block:

Electrical terminal blocks provide a convenient way to connect individual electrical wires.
Also known as terminal boards or terminal strips, terminal blocks and junction blocks are
available in several electrical terminal configurations. Terminal blocks and junction blocks
prevent shorts, eliminate splicing, tidy up your harness and conserve panel space.

Terminal blocks (also called terminal boards or strips) provide a convenient means of
connecting individual electrical wires without a splice or physically joining the ends. They
are usually used to connect wiring among various items of equipment within an enclosure or
to make connections among individually enclosed items. Since terminal blocks are readily
available for a wide range of wire sizes and terminal quantity, they are one of the most
flexible types of electrical connector available. Some disadvantages are that connecting wires
is more difficult than simply plugging in a cable and the terminals are generally not very well
protected from contact with persons or foreign conducting materials.

One type of terminal block accepts wires that are prepared only by removing (stripping) a
short length of insulation from the end. Another type accepts wires that have ring or spade
terminal lugs crimped onto the wires. Printed circuit board (PCB) mounted terminal blocks
allow individual wires to be connected to the circuit board. PCB mounted terminal blocks are
soldered to the board, but they are available in a pull-apart version that allows the wire-
connecting half of the block to be unplugged from the part that is soldered to the PCB.
Electric Solder:

#bonding metals with a dissimilar alloy of metals

Solder: provides strong electrical and mechanical connection. This is an alloy of tin (Sb) and
lead (Pb) with given proportions. Example: 60/40, 50/50 (tin/lead). It has a melting point of
approximately 400 degF.
Solder is a fusible metal alloy used to create a permanent bond between metal workpieces. In
fact, solder must be melted in order to adhere to and connect the pieces together, so a suitable
alloy for use as solder will have a lower melting point than the pieces it is intended to join.
Whenever possible, the solder should also be resistant to oxidative and corrosive effects that
would degrade the joint over time. Solders intended for use in making electrical connections
between electronic components also usually have favorable electrical characteristics.
Soldering is a process in which two or more items (usually metal) are joined together by
melting and putting a filler metal (solder) into the joint, the filler metal having a lower
melting point than the adjoining metal. Soldering differs from welding in that soldering does
not involve melting the work pieces. In brazing, the filler metal melts at a higher temperature,
but the work piece metal does not melt. In the past, nearly all solders contained lead, but
environmental and health concerns have increasingly dictated use of lead-free alloys for
electronics and plumbing purposes.

Preparation of Extension board

How to make an extension box ?

Here, I am going to discuss about how to make an extension box, containing 3 switchess and
three plug sockets. The circuit lay out is as shown below.

Wiring diagram of extension box

Main requirements
Switch Board
Switch board is a board made up of either wood or plastic (PVC) and is meant for mounting
switches and sockets.

2. Mounting of Switches and Sockets

The procedure of cutting of holes of appropriate size and fixing of switches and sockets on
switch board is known as mounting of switches

3. Wiring of Switch Board

The procedure of making electrical connections to switches and sockets according to the
wiring diagram is known as wiring of switch board.

Apparatus:
Switch board of appropriate size,
Three single pole (SP) switches (250 V, 5 A),
3 three pin socket ( 250 V, 5 A),
1/ 18 SWG wire,
Screw driver set,
Pliers,
Insulation stripper,
Test lamp, etc.
Stepwise Procedure:

1. Mark the positions of switches and socket on the switch board.

2. Cut the holes on the switch board for housing switches and socket, as per marking.
3. Fix the switches and socket on the switch board.
4. Make the wiring of switch board as per wiring diagram.
5. Also, connect proper earthing connection as per wiring diagram.
6. Make sure that all the connections are as per wiring diagram and are tight.
7. Test the switch board